smast05 cambridge ma june 16, 2005 (sub)millimeter astronomy with single- dish telescopes – now...

SMAST05 Cambridge MA June 16, 2005

(Sub)millimeter Astronomy with Single-(Sub)millimeter Astronomy with Single-

Dish Telescopes – Now and in the FutureDish Telescopes – Now and in the Future

Karl M. Menten(Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie)


Submillimeter Astronomy – Major science drivers:

• The cosmological submm background – the star formation history of the universe at high z

• Structure and energetics of molecular clouds

• Star and planetary system formation

• Astrochemistry

• the Solar System


Single dish vs. interferometer?

Basic facts:

• (If you can calibrate your phases) an interferometer is much better to detect faint (point-like) sources

• Single dish observations are necessary to provide short-spacing information

• Bolometer arrays will become very large (thousands of elements)

Many dozen times the collecting area of ALMA and,thus, very much faster if noise not dominated by

systematics (atmosphere) and if the confusion limit is not reached

• Heterodyne arrays will have ~100 elements at 3 and 2 mm and dozens at submm wavelengths


Advantages of array receivers:

• Mapping speed

• Mapping homogeneity (map lage areas with similar weather conditions/elevation) minimize calibration uncertainties.


The Galactic Center Region as seen by SCUBA at 850 m

Pierce-Price et al. 2000

The power of (bolometer) array science:

Bolometer arrays have completely dominated the field of submillimeter continuum observations for ~20 years now

Talks by: Borys, Glenn, Greaves, Johnstone, Kauffmann

Posters by: Aguirre, Carpenter, Dowell, Li, Sutzki, et al.


The sub-mm Extragalactic Background resolved:

Hughes et al. 1998


SCUBA

37 bolometers

SCUBA-2

~5120 bolometers

LABOCA

295 bolometers

Bolometer arrays are getting ever larger:

yesterday very soon 2006?

In addition: MAMBO-II, Bolocam, SHARC-II, …


• 12’ x 12’ (14“ FWHM)

• rms 1 – 4 mJy

• 16 sources > 4

• 15 sources between 3.5 and < 4

• at 450 m: 5 sources > 4

850 m

12'

12'

The HDF-North SCUBA Super-map

SCUBA-2> 300 higher mapping speed

Obviously still far fr

om confusion limit


Cumulative Number Counts [deg-2]

Voss et al. 2005

Confusion limit ist ~0.7 mJy (3) at 850 m. To cover 1 square degree with 5120 bolometers with 100 mJy s-1/2 takes ~40 hours.


ALMA will be crucial to get positions accurate enough for optical spectroscopy ( redshifts), maybe even determine redshifts on its own.

Accurate position determinations via VLA are currently a bottleneck, as each source requires many hours of observing time.

… and no VLA for the southern hemisphere.

Spitzer positions might save the day!


Fundamental innovations in bolometer technology/observing

Superconducting bolometersSuperconducting bolometers• Superconducting TES (Transition Edge Sensors) thermistors• SQUID multiplexer integrated with the bolometers on the wafer• SQUID readout amplifier• Much reduced complexity, greater sensitivity• Much larger bolometers possible


Fundamental innovations in bolometer technology/observing

““Fast scanning” (= no chopping)Fast scanning” (= no chopping)

• Made possible by changes in read-out electronics (DC-biased/AC- coupled AC-biased/DC-coupled)

• DC-coupled electronics allow much faster scanning (scanning speed was limited by 2 Hz chopper frequency)

• No chopper means• faithful imaging of large structures• free choice of scan direction • less complexity• new observing modes

Technique successfully used at SHARC-II/CSO


Bolometer array sizes will ultimately (= soon) be limited by the field of view of the telescope.

SCUBA–II will completely fill its.

Possible solutions:

• Telescopes dedicated to large RX array operation?

• e.g. off-axis antenna/modified Gregorian design (South Pole Telescope; see http://astro.uchicago.edu/cara/research/decadal/decadal-submm.pdf

(p. 33 ff)

• Radically new, different optics designs possible?


The LSST, a telescope designed for a 3° field

8.4 m diameter f/1.25

cryostat

Cryostat window diameter: 1.28 m

Not feasible fo

r radio astro

nomy huge sidelobes

http://www.lsst.org/lsst_home.shtml


APEX Cassegrain optics

N. Halverson/E. Kreysa


HEHERARA = HEHEterodyne RReceiver AArray

Heterodyne arrays are becoming available just now:


Important:

• Uniform beams

• Uniform TRX

and

TRX not “much” worse than TRX of state-of-the-art single pixel RX

Common sense requirements:

Schuster et al. 2004

http://iram.fr/IRAMES/telescope/HERA/


Columbia/CfA 1m CO J = 1 0 (115 GHz)

FWHM = 8.7 arcmin FWHMeff= 30 arcmin

IRAM 30m CO J = 2 1 (231 GHz)

HERA 9 x 11”

Factor ~160

in resolution!

Schuster et al. 2004

Ungerechts & Thaddeus 1987


JCMT Heterodyne Array Receiver Programme

• 16 elements

• 325 – 375 GHz

• 14" FWHM

http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/projects/harp/


• 7 pixels

• frequency range 602 – 720 and 790 – 950 simultaneously

• beamsize 9" – 7" and 7" – 6"

• IF band 4 – 8 GHz

CHAMP+Carbon Heterodyne Array of the MPIfR

Philipp et al. 2005http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/div/mm/tech/het.html#champ

http://www.strw.leidenuniv.nl/~champ+/


Important:

• Uniform beams

• Uniform TRX

and

TRX not “much” worse than TRX of state-of-the-art single pixel RX

Common sense requirements for any array RX:

All of the above superbly met by MMIC array spectrographs!


• focal plane array: 4×4 pattern.

• currently mounted on the FCRAO 14m telescope

• Will be moved to the LMT

• fixed tuning => best performance at all frequencies

• being expanded to 32 elements

• InP MMIC pre-amplifiers: 35-40 dB gain band

• (Tsys=50 – 80 K)

• instantaneous bandwidth: 15 GHz (85 – 115.6 GHz with only two local oscillator settings)

http://www.astro.umass.edu/~fcrao/instrumentation/sequoia/seq.html


W-band (80 – 116 GHz) Science with MMIC Array Spectrographs (MASs)

Apart from CO J=1-0 lines there are ground- or near-ground-state transitions of HCN, HNC, CN, N2H+, HCO+, CH3OH, SiO… all between 80 and 115 GHz

Because of their high dipole moments, these species trace high density gas, n > 104 cm-3 ( CO: n > 102 cm-3)

Large-scale distribution of these molecules on larger GMC scales poorly known

Strong emission in these lines, as well as in rare C18O isotope, traces high column densities ( star formation)

These lines are very widespread (= everywhere) over the whole Galactic center region (-0.50 < l < 20)


Other most interesting projects include complete (mostly) 12CO and 13CO mapping of nearby galaxies.

These are HUGE (many square arc minutes)!

Such maps would be interesting in their own right and are absolutely necessary as zero spacing information for CARMA, the PdBI, and ALMA.

REALLY FANTASTIC would be MASs on CARMA and the PdBI!!!

… and they would make these facilities highly competitive in the ALMA era, as ALMA will (probably) not have MASs for a very long time.


Sensitivity

int

sys

t

Tconstrms

With the IRAM 30m telescope at 90 GHz it would take 25/N hours to produce a Nyquist-sampled map of area one square degree with an N element MAS at an rms noise level of 0.2 K and a velocity resolution of 1 km/s.

const 1 for 8/10 bit

sampling

FFT spectrometers!


New Backend Option: Fast Fourier-Transform (FFT)-SpectrometersPrinciple:• Direct sampling of RX IF with 8/10 bit resolution• Continuous FFT calculation with given window function (to suppress side lobes)• Calculation of power spectrum• Power spectrum averaging

All on one chip: FPGA (= Field Programmable Gate Array)


Overwhelming advantages of FFT Spectrometers:

FPGAs: Field-Programmable Gate Arrays

• ADC with 8 or 10 bit sampling (ACs: 2bit)

higher sensitivity, no need for total power detectors

Much higher dynamic range Leveling much simpler simplification of IF module

• 100% mass production chips no custom made chips much better reacion to markets take full advantage of Moore’s law

• very high channel numbers:

• Today: 1 GHz/32768 channels

• Soon (1 – 2 yrs): 2 GHz/65536 channels

• Very high degree of integration: Integration of a complete spectrometer(digital filters, windows, FFT, power builder and accumulator) of one chip (AC’s use cascaded chips

• can be re-programmed

• much lower power consumption (more reliable) B. Klein


DRAO/ROE/DAO/NRAO

Correlators

IF racks

40 x 1 GHz (40 x 32768 channels)

= 30 kHz v = 0.03km/s@300 GHz

32 x 0.8 GHz (32 x 1024 channels)

= 1 MHz v = 1km/s@300 GHz

Data reduction machine

FFTShttp://www.acquiris.com/

http://www.drao-ofr.hia-iha.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/science/jcmt_correlator/

FFTS data reduction “machine”


SEQUOIA is just the beginning:MMIC Array Spectrographs (MASs) will• soon (within a few years) have ~100 elements and• somewhat later have many 100s of elements• Large MMIC FPAs currently being developed at JPL (PI Todd Gaier) driven by cosmology (T. Readhead)/space• (FFTS) backends will be available

• With LOs integrated, MASs will revolutionize large areas of molecular line astronomy

• Question: Will HEMTs become competitive at shorter λλ?


Mapping speed and sensitivity estimates indicate that very large sections (if not all) of the Galactic plane can be imaged

HUGE advantage over SiS arrays: Many lines in HEMT band can be imaged simultaneously

Necessary Spectrometer capability:

Example W-Band:

• Want to do 20 lines simultaneously

• need ~300 km/s (= 100 MHz) each

Need N 20 100 MHz = N 2 GHz

2 GHz FFTS bandwidth cost ~ 40 kEU today/MUCH less next year

At today’s prizes, an FFTS for a 100 element array would cost 4 MEU

HOWEVER: Above is the de luxe correlator. To save money, could do fewer lines, use narrower bandwidths

Also: Remember M

oore’s Law!!!

Also: Remember M

oore’s Law!!!

Actually, FFTS prizes are falling

Actually, FFTS prizes are falling

hyperhyper-M

oore these days

-Moore these days

Expect 3 kEU/GHz very soon

Expect 3 kEU/GHz very soon


The same spectrometer serving a multi-element MAS would also allow very wide band spectral line surveys toward single positions


3 mm region (70 – 116 GHz) in 500 MHz chunks

4000 – 5000 lines!!!!

10 minutes per spectrum (near) confusion limit

IRAM 30m telescope Sgr B2-N

“Large Molecule Heimat”

(Belloche, Comito, Hieret, Leurini, Menten, Müller, Schilke)

With a HEMT RX this would have taken 2 LO settings

Factor ~100100 savings in observing time


FFT-Spectrometers – Timeline and Perspectives:• 2005/MPIfR: Development of an FFT Spectrometer with

• 16384 channels• 500 MHz bandwidth

• SUCCESS: Brought into operation at the 100m telescope (April 2005) and (1GHz/32768channels) at APEX (June 2005)!

FFTS Technology available today!


FFT Timeline – Perspectives (cont'd):

2005 – 2009: Doable today(!):

• 3 GHz BW using three cascaded ADCs @ 2GS/s (10- bit) and • analog input BW of ~3.3 GHz • FFT-Processing: continuous 4 GS/s with 64.000

channels in one high-end Xilinx-Chip (XILINX VII Pro70) (Study by RF-Engines).

• Cost: kEU 15 – 20 for 1 GHz BW (Hardware) • ca. 90 kEUR (one time only) for Xilinx-programming

Firm RF-Engines: http://www.rfel.com/Newseventsdetail.asp?ID=68


Timeline – Perspectives (cont'd): > 2009:• Complexity of Xilinx chips doubles every 14 – 18 months • ► Costs:

• Grow linearly with each RX element• Minimal serial production costs by simple reproduction of system


FFTSs and MASsSynergy – Pooling resources

FFTSs: Bernd Klein, MPIfR, [email protected] Collaboration with Arnold Benz (ETH Zürich/Acqiris)

Potential “users” for FFTSs and MASs (= possible co-financers):• IRAM• APEX• LMT • Effelsberg 100m telescope• GBT• Madrid 40m telescope, Sardinia Telescope

+ ...


Submillimeter Facilities in the high Atacama desert:• ASTE – The Atacama Submillimeter Telescope Experiment

• 10m

• NAO Japan, Tokyo U., Osaka Prefecture U., U. Chile http://www.alma.nrao.edu/library/alma99/abstracts/sekimoto/sekimoto.pdf

Talk by H. Ezawa (next)

• Nanten-2

• 4m

• Nagoya U., Osaka Prefecture U., Seoul National U., Cologne U., Bonn U., U. Chile

http://scorpius.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp/workshop/kawai/NANTEN-2.html

http://www.ph1.uni-koeln.de/workgroups/astro_instrumentation/nanten2/

• APEX – The Atacama Pathfinder Experiment


The APEX telescopeBuilt and operated by• Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie• Onsala Space Observatory• European Southern ObservatoryonLlano de Chajnantor (Chile)Longitude: 67° 45’ 33.2” WLatitude: 23° 00’ 20.7” SAltitude: 5098.0 m

• 12 m• = 200 m – 2 mm• 15 m rms surface accuracy• currently (June 2005) in final testing phase• First facility instruments:

• 345 GHz heterodyne RX• 295 element 870 m Large Apex Bolo-

meter Camera (LABOCA) http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/div/mm/apex/

MPG45%

ESO24%

OSO21%

Chile10%


Bolometers• LABOCA-1: 295-channel at 870 µm (MPIfR, Bochum U., IPHT Jena)

• FOV: 11', beam 18” (same as MSX and Herschel 250µm)• 37+-channel at 350 µm (MPIfR)• 324-channel at 1.4/2 mm for Sunyaev-Zel'dovich survey (UCB, MPIfR)

• new software: BoA (Python/F95) www.openboa.de

•Heterodyne• 183 GHz water vapour radiometer• 210-270 GHz (OSO)• 270-375 GHz (OSO)• 375-500 GHz (OSO) • 460/810 GHz dual channel First Light Apex Submillimeter Heterdyne Rx (FLASH)• 800-900 GHz (MPIfR/SRON, PI)• CHAMP+ 600-720/790-920 GHz, 2×7-elements (MPIfR, PI)• FIR receivers: up to 1.5 THz = 200 micron (OSO, Köln)

Instrumentation

First light instruments: in operation now (June 2005)


Two Major Apex projects:

• APEX-SZ

• A 870 m Survey of the Galactic plane

Concrete projects (Start: Late 2005)

Concept


Big

Ban

g

0 379,000 yrz=1089

today

14 Gyrtime

The Sunyaev-Zel'dovich EffectThe Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect

Zhang, Pen, Wang 2002


SZSZ

XX

SZ differential surface brightness is independent of redshift.

Carlstrom et al.

APEX beam at 2mm (40") ~ BIMA beam at 1 cm


UCB/APEX SZ Array

• 1.4fλ horns coupled array• 330 bolo’s in 6 wedges• Each TES bolometer

coupled through resonant circuit to SQUID readout• direct path to

Multiplexing• 150 GHz and 217 GHz by

swapping horns & filters

14 cmhttp://bolo.berkeley.edu/apexsz/


SZ Effect

1 deg

SZ plus CMB

APEX

T

+150

+100

+50

0

-50

-100

-150

Si m

ulat

i ons

by

M.

Whi

t e


The APEX Sunyaev-Zel'dovich The APEX Sunyaev-Zel'dovich

Galaxy Cluster SurveyGalaxy Cluster Survey

BasuBeelenBertoldi/Co-PIBertoldi/Co-PIKreysaMentenMudersSchilkeChoDobbsHalversonHolzapfelKermishKneisslLantingLee/Co-PILee/Co-PILuekerMehlPlaggeRichardsSchwanSpielerWhiteSunyaevBöhringerHorellou

a collaboration between MPIfR and U.C. Berkeley in association with RAIUB, MPE, MPA, OSO, …

Zhang, Pen, Wang 2002

Discover and catalog several 1000 galaxy clusters in a mass limited survey: map 200 deg2 to ~10 mK rms per ~60" pixel.

Constrain cosmological parameters and dark energy equation of state, w.

SZ contribution of z>10 Supernova-remnants.

Observe evolution of structure, and test theories of structure formation.

Study clusters in detail: structure, evolution, galaxy populations.

Study CMB secondary anisotropies, weak lensing, Ostriker-Vishniac effect, quadratic Doppler effect, etc.


A Galactic Plane surveywith APEX

F. SchullerF. Schuller, K. M. Menten,

P. Schilke, F. Wyrowski

Max Planck Institut für Radioastronomie


The APEX GalacticPlane surveySurvey definition

Sensitivity: reach 1 Msun in nearby regions, and a few 10 Msun in Galactic Center

Gas mass in cores using Hildebrand (1983) andstandard physical parameters, =2, Td=50 K:

F(870 m) d=200 pc d=1 kpc d=3 kpc d=8.5 kpc

10 mJy 0.0033 0.083 0.75 6.0

30 mJy 0.010 0.25 2.25 18.0

50 mJy 0.017 0.42 3.75 30.1

100 mJy 0.033 0.83 7.5 60.2

~1 sec of observing time


The APEX GalacticPlane survey

- Main goals:• To have a complete census of high mass star

formation in the Galaxy• To derive the protostellar IMF down to below 1 Msol in a number of nearby regions

- Proposed area to observe at 870 m:-80° < l < +20° ; | b | < 1°

Northern part of the plane: complementarity with SCUBA-2



- Sensitivity: one- = 10 mJy• 0.4 Msun detected at 5 at 1 kpc

• 30 Msun detected at 5 in the Gal. Center- Some limited areas in a few southern star forming regions with higher sensitivity (well below 1 Msol)

Total observing time: about 1000 hours



• Instrumentation: LABOCA (Large APEX BOlometer CAmera) = 295 bolometers for observing at 870 m

• APEX beam at 870 m:18"= MSX pixels = Herschel at 250 m



Possible extensions

• Additional observations at shorter wavelengths: a 37-channel array operating at 350 m will be available soon

• complementary observations in selected regions

• Polarimetry at all wavelengths

• Additional observations at longer wavelengths: use of the UC Berkeley SZ camera (1.4 and 2 mm) as a backup project well-suited for poor weather conditions dust emissivities (’s)

• Great complementarity with Herschel GP surveys


Telescope “ready”: 11 / 2003

Holography 5 / 2004

1.2 mm Bolometer 5 / 2004 - first light: May 29

460/810 GHz Rx 6 / 2004

Holography 5 / 2005

Regular operation: 8? / 2005

LABOCA-1: 12? / 2005

ASZCa ? / late 2005

CHAMP+ ? / fall 2005

350 micron bolometer ? / 2006

LABOCA-2 (TES technology) ?

APEX Timeline

15 15 m rms

m rms

Thanks, N. Patel/T.K. Sridharan (SAO)!


Cornell Caltech Atacama Telescope

• Joint project of Cornell and Caltech/JPL• New telescope for submillimeter astronomy

• 25 m diameter – not confusion limited in reasonable exposure

• High aperture efficiency up to 200 µm wavelength• High, dry, low latitude site – northern Chile (> 5000 m)• Field of view (> 15′) for large format bolometer arrays• 12 µm surface quality, closed loop active control

• Feasibility study underway• Construction 2008 – 2012

CCAT Slides courtesy of S. Radford Posterhttp://www.astro.cornell.edu/research/projects/atacama/


CCATDesign Concept• 25 m dia., 12 µm surf

• RC optics, 20′ FOV

• Active primary surface

• Panels: large, stiff, kinematic mounts

• Steel mirror truss

• Nasmyth foci

• Az: Hydrostatic bearings

• El: Rolling elem. bearings

• Calotte dome


Cerro Negro

Cornell U./R. Giovanelli


Gary Melnick’s talkhttp://safir.jpl.nasa.gov/


Dome C – Concordia Station

Altitude 3250 mSouth pole: 2300 m

Dome A: > 4000 m

Could build large single dish plus interferometer of arbitrary baseline length

http://www.concordiastation.org/


Thank You


Bonus Material


Lots of new entries for Glen Petitpas’:

Dumb Or Overly Forced Astronomical Acronyms Site (or DOOFAAS)

http://www.astro.umd.edu/~petitpas/Links/Astroacro.html


AC-coupling/DC-bias (old ) vs. DC-coupling vs. AC-bias (new)

DC-bias (old)

• simpler to implement

• Amplifier have extra noise that rises with falling frequency (1/f). With a

wobbler this is not a problem, because we have amplifiers with which 1/f noise only appears below the wobbler

frequency (2Hz)

• Downside: is By wobbling, we do not modulate the total power at the input, therefore the total power is still affected by 1/f-noise.

• Block DC part and let only AC part through (capacitor between bolo and preamp input throw away total

power)

DC-biased

Vrm

s/sqr

t(H

z)

AC-bias (LABOCA)

• get rid of 1/f noise

• need phase sensitive detection at the bias frequency more complex to implement

• Big advantage: Retain total power maps contain all the structure

• Other additional complexity: Need to compensate any

change of voltage at the input of the amplifier (atmospheric variations) by an opposing voltage between scans AND keep track of that voltage.

Solved at SHARC II/CSO


Solar system objects

• size scales <1“ (moons, KBOs) to ~1‘ (Jupiter)

• best done with ALMA (except for nearby comets)

• no array detector advantage

Hale-Bopp HCN J = 4-3 / 1997 March 16

Matthews/Senay/Jewitt (JCMT)


3 mm region (70 – 116 GHz) in 500 MHz chunks

4000 – 5000 lines!!!!

With ALMA it will be possible to observe that whole spectral range within 10 minutes to confusion limit

10 minutes per spectrum (near) confusion limit

(Belloche, Comito, Hieret, Leurini, Menten, Müller, Schilke)

IRAM 30m telescope Sgr B2-N

“Large Molecule Heimat”


To make any believable identification of a new species (e.g., glycine) in this jungle you need an interferometer.

Show that many lines from candidate species all arise from the same position with the “correct” relative

intensities.

Usefulness of this approach was demonstrated by L. Snyder and collaborators using BIMA.


CHCH33CNCN CHCH331313CNCN1313CHCH33CNCN

CHCH33CH CH 22CNCN

CHCH22CCHCNHCN

CHCH33CH CH 221313CNCN HCHC33N vN v77 CC22HH33CN?CN?

Spectral line emission in Orion-KL

- Toward source I mainly SiO- Sulphur-bearing species toward Hot Core and Compact Ridge- Sulphur- and oxygen-bearing species toward IRc6

- Imaging helps to identify lines

SiOSiO 3030SiOSiO CC3434SS HH22CSCS

SOSO22 SOSO22vv22=1=1 3434SOSO223434SOSO

- Oxygen-bearing molecules weaker toward Hot Core and strong toward Compact Ridge- Nitrogen-bearing molecules strong toward Hot Core

CHCH33OHOH 1313CHCH33OHOH CHCH33OH vOH vtt=1=1 CHCH33OH vOH vtt=2=2

HCOOCHHCOOCH33 CHCH33OCHOCH33 CHCH22HH55OHOHHCOOHHCOOH

Henrik Beuther’s talk

Confusing picture:

Effects of chemistry

and excitatio

n

Imaging helps!


To do science with (3D) line surveys one needs very advanced data analysis tools:

• Automatic line identification and information extraction (fluxes, velocities)

• requires up-tp-date “living” molecular spectroscopy database

• LTE analysis

maps of N(X), Trot

• non-LTE analysis (LVG/Monte Carlo least sqares method; see Leurini et al. 2004 for CH3OH)

maps of n, Tkin, [X/H2]

• Fit dynamical models

Above all: Above all:

You need to use

You need to use

an interferometer

an interferometer


K-band-Science (18 – 26 GHz)

For temperature and column density determinations ideal: Ammonia (NH3)

• Multiple K-band lines (23.6 – 25 GHz) that can be done simultaneously

and

• simultaneously with 22.2 GHz H2O maser line

and

•simultaneously with 25 GHz series of CH3OH lines (maser and thermal)

K-band RX array would be VERY interesting!


Mapping speed (1 square degree)

rms(1 sec) = 0.2 K at 90 GHz

IRAM 30m

24” FWHM@90 GHz

Positions to observe for a Nyquist-sampled map of 1 square degree

90000

Time needed for a map with an N pixel array

25/N hours


Current and future SZ surveys:name type beam telescope clusters when

arcmin mACBAR Bolo 4 few ?Bolocam Bolo 151 1 10 10s ?SuZIE Bolo 1 10 ? 1997BIMA HEMT few 2001CBI HEMT 13 4 0.9 ? ?SZA HEMT 8 0.1 3.5 ? 2005?AMiBA HEMT 19 2 1.2 100s 2006AMI HEMT 10 1 3.7 100s 2006APEX Bolo 325 0.75 12 1,000s 2006ACT Bolo 1000 1 6 1,000s 2007Bolocam-2 Bolo 0.2 40 ? 2007?SPT Bolo 1000 1 8 20,000 2007Planck Bolo 5 2 10,000 2008

Compilation: F. Bertoldi

smast05 cambridge ma june 16, 2005 (sub)millimeter astronomy with single- dish telescopes – now...

Documents

smast05 cambridge ma

bolometers scuba

confusion limit slide

bolometers bolometer

solar system slide

bolometers laboca

heterodyne arrays

single dish telescopes