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Orientations of Young Men and Women to Citizenship and European Identity Workpackage 1 – Socio-demographic Background

Spain Madrid, December 2001

Socio-Demographic Background, Spain

by

Héctor Grad (U. Autónoma de Madrid) &

Maria Ros (U. Complutense de Madrid)

with the collaboration of

Miryam Rodriguez & Gema García

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INDEX

I. EDUCATION ........................................................................................................... 3 1.1. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM ...................................................................... 3

1.1.1. Infant Education ..................................................................................... 3 1.1.2. Primary Education .................................................................................. 3 1.1.3. Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) .............................................. 3 1.1.4. Vocational Training (FP)........................................................................ 4 1.1.5. High School ............................................................................................ 4 1.1.6. Higher Education.................................................................................... 4

1.2. STATE AND REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF ACCESS TO EDUCATION....................................................................................................... 4

1.2.1. Vocational Training................................................................................ 5 1.2.2. Higher Education.................................................................................... 5

1.3. GENDER DIFFERENCES ........................................................................... 6 II. EMPLOYMENT SITUATION OF YOUNG PEOPLE .......................................... 7

2.1. PROLONGATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL PERIOD............................ 7 2.2. AGE............................................................................................................... 8 2.3. GENDER....................................................................................................... 8 2.4. DIFFERENCES AT STATE AND REGIONAL LEVELS.......................... 9

2.4.1. Gender .................................................................................................. 10 2.4.2. Age ....................................................................................................... 10

III. YOUTH EMANCIPATION................................................................................. 11 3.1. LATE LEAVING OF THE FAMILY HOME ............................................ 11

3.1.1. State support ......................................................................................... 12 3.1.2. Age and employment............................................................................ 12 3.1.3. Reasons for leaving the family home ................................................... 12 3.1.4. Mean age on emancipation: differences by region............................... 13

3.2. MARRIAGE................................................................................................ 13 3.2.1. Gender .................................................................................................. 14 3.2.2. Marriage and cohabitation.................................................................... 14 3.2.3. Age at first marriage: Gender and region ............................................. 16

IV. REFERENCES..................................................................................................... 16 V. TABLES ................................................................................................................ 18

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I. EDUCATION

1.1. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

The Constitutional Law 1/1990 (Ley Orgánica de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo, LOGSE) reformed the Spanish education system at all levels prior to university. The aim of this reorganization of the system was to achieve effective regulation of the stage prior to that of compulsory schooling, a profound reform of Vocational Training (Formacion Profesional, FP) and a link between the General and the Special (Arts and Languages) educational streams.

The Law establishes a ten-year period of free and compulsory education. It sets the start of compulsory schooling at age six and raises the school-leaving age from 14 to 16. That age (16) is set as the minimum legal age to begin work.

According to the Law, the General Stream of the Education System is structured in stages as follows: Infant Education, Primary Education, Compulsory Secondary Education (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria, ESO), High School (post-compulsory secondary stage), Vocational Training (FP at medium and superior level), and Higher Education.

Below we describe in detail both the compulsory and the non-compulsory stages specified by the educational legislation:

1.1.1. Infant Education This is the first stage of the system (up to age six). It is not compulsory, and is structured in two phases of three academic years each: from birth to age three and from three to six.

1.1.2. Primary Education This is the first compulsory stage of the education system and comprises three phases of two academic years each, covering the period from age six to twelve.

1.1.3. Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) This covers four academic years organized in two phases of two years each, from age twelve to sixteen. Pupils that successfully complete this stage achieve the Grade in Secondary Education qualification, which allows access to the High School or the medium-level Vocational Training (FP) stages. Students failing to achieve this stage objectives can move on to “Social Guarantee”1 programs. 1 “Social Guarantee” programs are aimed at young people from age 16 to 21 that have not passed the ESO nor have any Vocational Training qualification. These are welfare

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1.1.4. Vocational Training (FP) Vocational Training comprises a set of specialized training modules of different length. It is structured in two levels: medium and superior. Medium-level training is for pupils aged sixteen to eighteen. Access to this stage requires having passed the ESO achieving the Grade in Secondary Education qualification; alternatively, those aged 18 and over may take a special admission test. Access to superior-level FP requires the High School qualification. Alternatively, applicants over 18 that have passed the the medium-level Vocational Training can access through an specific admission test. Pupils that pass the superior- level FP (over two years), obtain the Superior Technician qualification in the chosen specialization field, which entitles them to accede to some university studies.

1.1.5. High School This covers two academic years from age 16, which marks the end of compulsory education, to age 18. There are four different specialization paths (Scientific-Technological, Bio-Health, Social Sciences and Humanities-Languages). Success in this stage allows access to university (after passing the admission exam), to the superior-level of the Vocational Training or of the Arts Special Stream.

1.1.6. Higher Education The access to university studies requires the High School qualification and a standard state-admission exam. It is also possible to accede to some undergraduate studies via FP superior level. Finally, people aged over 25 are allowed to a special admission exam. University studies may involve short degrees (three years) or long degrees (four or five years). Postgraduate studies include the doctorate, regulated by the state, and graduate specialization courses (Masters) run by each university. The doctorate involves two years of study (including lectures and research experience), for the award of the Diploma in Advanced Studies, prior to the preparation of the dissertation.

1.2. STATE AND REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF ACCESS TO EDUCATION

In general, there has been a decreasing trend in student numbers in the different non-university educational stages (Primary Education, ESO, Higher School, and FP) in

oriented one-year programs covering both basic and vocational contents, and leading to a Certificate of Professional Competence. This basic professional training prepares pupils to the work life or to continue studies, especially at the medium-level Vocational Training.

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Spain since the beginning of the 1990s (see Table 1.1.). This trend is present both in Madrid and in the Basque Country, and reflects a significant decrease in Spanish birth rate and youth population since the early 1980s (see Table 1.2. for the last three actualizations of the population survey).

---------------------------------------- INSERT TABLE 1.1. & TABLE 1.2.

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The schooling rates in the compulsory stages from Primary to the first phase of ESO (age 6 to 14) is complete in the analyzed academic years. Furthermore, schooling rates in second phase of ESO and High School (14 to 18 years) have increased gradually from 89% in 1996/97 to 95,5% in 2000/01 (as shown in Table 1.3.). This increase can be attributed to the raising of compulsory education to age 16 by the LOGSE.

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INSERT TABLE 1.3. --------------------------------

1.2.1. Vocational Training

The total number of pupils enrolled in Vocational Training2 in the 1996/97 academic year for Spain as a whole was 704,556 pupils (9.4% of the pupils in the non-university general education system). 85.3% of these pupils were in medium-level Vocational Training.

These rates for Vocational Training are far lower than in the rest of Europe. For Germany and Austria the figure is 75%, for Italy 73% and for the United Kingdom a little over 55%. The reluctance of young people to choose Vocational Training in Spain can be mainly attributed to its low social prestige and its image as second-class education, an option chosen only by those who “cannot” accede to university studies.

Finally, the schooling rate in Vocational Training differs between regions. The figure for the Basque Country (10%) is higher, and the rate for Madrid Region (7%) is lower, than the rate for Spain as a whole (9.4%).

1.2.2. Higher Education

The population of university students has increased considerably since the early 1980s, from 657,447 enrolled in 1979/80 to 1,581,415 in 1999/00.

Due to the previously-mentioned decrease in the birth rate, the size of the 18-24 cohorts have begun to decrease since the 1992/93 academic year (4,586,431), with greater intensity from 1997/98, to reach 4,213,153 in 1999/2000. The effect of this decrease on

2 Including the 103.074 pupils at Training Modules, both at medium (modules II) and superior (modules III) level. These modules are assimilated to Vocational Training.

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the student population has been attenuated by the slight, but constant, increase in university enrolment, from 23.5% of the relevant cohorts in 1993/94 to 27.1% in 1999/2000. Nevertheless, the total number of students enrolled began to fall since the last academic year (-34,084 in 2000/01).

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INSERT TABLE 1.4. --------------------------------

Table 1.4.shows that in the academic year 99/00, 72.1% of students were aged between 18 and 24, and a little over half (53%) were women (see Table 1.5.).

----------------------------- INSERT TABLE 1.5.

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In the academic year 1999/00 there were 252,182 students enrolled in Higher Education in Madrid, representing 34,1% of the 18 to 24 cohorts. In the same academic year, there were 77,782 students (29,4% of the cohort) in the Basque Country. Following the general pattern, the proportion of women is higher among university students both in Madrid and in the Basque Country.

The analysis of enrolment by type of studies for the academic year 1999/2000 in Spain (see last five years’ figures in Table 1.6.) shows that Social Sciences and Law studies concentrated the greatest group of students (48.45% of the student population), followed in size by the group at Technical studies (23.92%), Experimental Sciences (8.90%), Human Sciences (11.36%), and Health Sciences (7.36%) – see MECD (2000). These trends have not changed much over recent years, with Social Sciences and Law being the most popular option and Technical degrees coming second since 1994/95.

----------------------------- INSERT TABLE 1.6.

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With regard to regional distribution, Social and Legal Sciences is the most popular option in both the Basque Country and the Madrid Region. Table 1.7. also shows us that in the academic year 1999/00, 53.0% of the students in the Basque Country and 47.2% of them in Madrid attended these studies. The second most popular option at both a national and regional level was Technical studies, 25.2% of the students in Madrid and 25.6% in the Basque Country.

------------------------------ INSERT TABLE 1.7.

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1.3. GENDER DIFFERENCES

Distribution of pupils by gender shows a slightly higher proportion of males in FP as a whole, with 53% men in medium level FP and 52% in superior level FP. As reported above, there is a greater representation of women (53%) at the higher education.

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Nevertheless, there are appreciable gender differences between the different types of university studies, with women under-represented in technical subjects. This same tendency is observed at a regional level, where the proportion of women is higher both in Madrid and in the Basque Country (see Table 1.5.).

The over-representation of women may also be observed in graduation rates at higher education, though we did not find any published data about gender differences for graduation according to the type of studies. Table 1.8. shows that, for the period 1993/94-1999/00, the rate of graduation was considerably higher for women (though the difference is smaller in 1999/00). Given that the rate of graduation for women is higher than their proportional representation in the university student population, this result may be interpreted as a greater relative success of women at this educational stage.

----------------------------- INSERT TABLE 1.8.

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II. EMPLOYMENT SITUATION OF YOUNG PEOPLE The distinction between the “employed” and/or “unemployed” is fundamental for understanding the life attitudes and expectations of the young population in Spain. According to the definition of the Spanish National Institute of Statistics (Active Population Survey - Encuesta de Poblacion Activa, EPA), “active” people are those aged over 16 that satisfy all the conditions for being included among the “employed” or “unemployed” (persons without employment, having lost a job or seeking one).

2.1. PROLONGATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL PERIOD

Precariousness and temporariness are the main characteristics of the current labor market situation. 67% of women are hired by temporary or substitution3 contracts, as against 58% of men hired in the same conditions. Only 21% of women between 16 and 25 enjoy a fixed contract, as against 26% of men of the same age (Cruz & Santiago, 1998).

This uncertainty leads many people, especially women, to prolong their education. Young people perceive that greater investment in education would improve their chance to accede to the labor market in better conditions. Indeed, a study based on the Active Population Survey of the second trimester of 2000 for the population aged 16 to 35 (INE, December 2001) shows that, in the last ten years, 69.3% of those with primary studies took a year or more to find work, while the percentage was 62.5% among those that had finished High School, and 57.1% among university graduates. The mean time of seeking for the first job was 40.6 months for persons with primary studies, 29.1 months for those with High School education, and 22,9 months for those with a university degree. This job-seeking time was 52.3, 33.3, and 24.2 months, respectively, in Madrid; and 32.8, 28.3 and 29.0 months in the Basque Country.

3 These are contracts created to substitute a worker for a given term. The contract is rescinded when the absent worker returns to the job.

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In line with these figures, the group with university degree has the lowest level of unemployment. However, these data conceal a more complex reality, since there are substantial differences in unemployment rates for the different academic fields. Engineering and Technology graduates present an unemployment rate of barely 5.5%, while the rate is 14.5% for graduates in Human and Social Sciences and Law (paradoxically, the most frequent options for Spanish university students - MECD, 2000). According to the survey carried out by Cruz & Santiago (1998) among young Spanish people aged 15 to 294, 38% of the youth devoted their time exclusively to their studies, 33% only worked, around 17% were unemployed, 8% combined study and work simultaneously, and 3% described themselves as “housewives”.

2.2. AGE

Age is a fundamental variable in the occupational situation of young people since, obviously, the employment rate rises with age. The study by Cruz & Santiago (1998) and the report on “Spanish Youth” (Jovenes españoles - Elzo & Orizo, 1999)5 coincide in showing that the proportion of young people reporting a “working” situation increases with age, while the proportion reporting “study” situation decreases. The percentage that only work is 13% between 15 and 19 years (according to Elzo & Orizo, 5.9% between 15 and 17 years, and 20.5 between 18 and 20 years), 33% between 20 and 24 years, and 55% between 25 and 29 years, while the percentage of “studies only” is 72% between 15 and 19 years (90.2% for age 15-17 and 66.4% for 18-20, according to Elzo & Orizo), 35% between 20 and 24 and 8% between 25 and 29 years. The answer “work and study” is infrequent in Spain, and is only significant between age 20 and 24 (11% according to Cruz & Santiago). Finally, the percentage that report themselves as “unemployed” varies from 3.5% between 15 and 17 years, to 11.0% for 18 to 20-year-olds and 11.6% for those aged 21-24 (Elzo & Orizo, 1999).

2.3. GENDER The employment situation of the young population also depends on gender. The proportion of young women that study is greater than that of men, and their labor market insertion is also more precarious (they have higher unemployment rates and more difficulties to accede to their first job).

In 1997, 26% of women between 15 and 29 years worked (as against 39% of men), and 42% were studying (vs. only 36% among men at these ages). Looking at unemployment rates, young women had a disadvantageous status in comparison to young men; between 16 and 19, 49.89% of young people were unemployed, but the rate was 43.63% for men and 58.01% for women. Between 20 and 24 years the percentages followed the same

4 Survey based on a Spanish representative sample (N = 2,474) of young people of both genders, aged from 15 to 29 in 1997. 5 Survey based on a Spanish representative sample (N = 3,853) of young people of both genders, aged from 15 to 29.

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differential pattern, 34.67% were unemployed, but the rate was 28.15% for men and 42.37% for women. (Cruz & Santiago, 1998).

Current figures have not varied a great deal. Data of the National Institute of Statistics for the third trimester of 2001 (see Tables 2.1. & 2.2.) shows that, between ages 16 and 19, there were 174,400 young people unemployed in Spain (29.94% of the active population of these cohorts), of which 91,700 (52.5%) were men and 82,700 (47.5%) women. In spite of the higher unemployment rate for women (36.96% vs. 25.56% for men), this age group is the only where there more men than women unemployed – this may results of the greater size of men populations (1,060,000 men vs. 994.700 women) and activity rates (33.83% for men vs. 22.50% for women).

----------------------------------------- INSERT TABLE 2.1. & TABLE 2.2.

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The unemployment rate is lower for the cohorts aged 20 to 24: 441,600 young people are unemployed (22.55% of the active population of these cohorts), and this trend appears both for men and women. However, there is again a significant gender difference – the unemployment rate is 29.38% for women, as against 16.91% for men – consequently, 59.0% of unemployed at these ages are women.

The same gender differences are also reflected in the activity rates in Spain: Between age 16 to 19, 582,400 young people are active (61.5% men and 38.5% women); and between 20 and 24, the number of active people is 1,958,700 young people (54.7% men and 45.3% women).

Summing up, unemployment rates are higher for young Spanish women, whilst activity and employment rates are always higher for young men. The hardship of youth for finding work is underscored if we compare Spanish figures with other EU countries (Cruz & Santiago, 1998). According to Euroestat (1997), the unemployment rate for Spanish women aged 15 to 24 years was the highest in Europe (48.3%), and that for men of the same age (36.6%) was only surpassed by the figure for Finland (41.3%).

2.4. DIFFERENCES AT STATE AND REGIONAL LEVELS Both the rate of active people and that for unemployment are lower in Madrid (48,82% and 21,75%) and in the Basque Country (42,27% and 22,82%) than in Spain as a whole (49,33% and 24,24%).

Table 2.3. shows a decrease in unemployment between 1996 and 2000 in all occupational sectors. The largest drops in unemployment rates have occurred in Industry and Construction.

---------------------------------- INSERT TABLE 2.3.

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Even though unemployment fell between 1996 and 2000, especially for age 20 to 24, women continue to present higher unemployment than men of these cohorts. Moreover,

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the fall in unemployment is greater among men, notably for the years 1997/98 and 1999/00.

Table 2.4. presents the latest data of the National Institute of Employment (INEM), for the third trimester of 2001, which support the trends described above.

------------------------------------ INSERT TABLE 2.4.

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2.4.1. Gender

Gender is associated with differences in the occupational situation, both at Spanish (see Table 2.2.) and regional level (Tables 2.5. & 2.6.). In general, women are discriminated by lower rates of activity and employment and higher rates of unemployment.

---------------------------------------- INSERT TABLE 2.5. & TABLE 2.6.

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The employment rate is 32.66% for women as against 58.69% for men in the total Spanish population. The corresponding figures are 39.40% and 63.98% in Madrid, and 35.02% and 59.32% in the Basque Country.

Moreover, the unemployment rate among those aged 16 to 24 is 24.24% but 30.91% for women as against 19.08% for men in the total of Spain. As a result, 63% of unemployed people in this age group are women. Both in Madrid and in the Basque Country, unemployment affects women (26.09% and 24.94%) to a greater extent than men (17.99% and 21.24%), and this difference has been maintained throughout the last 20 years. Specifically, Table 2.3. shows that the number of young women unemployed is always greater than the number of men. Furthermore, the difference in the unemployment rate is much greater in Madrid than in the Basque Country (as shown in Table 2.4.).

2.4.2. Age We shall now examine the situation of young people aged 16 to 24 in terms of economic activity, as well as activity and unemployment rates for groups of young people by age and gender at Spanish (see Table 2.2.) and regional level (Tables 2.5. & 2.6.).

At the Spanish and regional level, the highest rate of activity is found in young people aged 20 to 24 (63.25% for Spain, 63.54% in Madrid region, 60.01% in the Basque Country), in consistence with our observation that the youngest cohorts prolong their education before entering the world of work. There is also, although weaker, an interaction with gender in this aspect (activity rate is 68.76% for men and 57.66% for

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women for Spain, 67.68% and 59.56% in Madrid, and 68.02% and 51.98% in the Basque Country – where the gender gap is bigger).

Furthermore, as regards employment rates, young people aged 20 to 24 also have higher rates than those aged 16 to 19. The figures by age are 14.19% for women compared to 25.18% for men aged 16-19 (13.71% vs. 19.54% in Madrid, 7.83% vs. 10.30% in the Basque Country), and 40.72% compared to 57.13% for those aged 20-24 (45.22% vs. 57.27% in Madrid, 39.76% vs. 55.42% in the Basque Country). It is important to note that, both at Spanish and regional level, there are more young people between 20 and 24 than between 16 and 19 – especially women – seeking for their first job.

Youth unemployment rates are double the mean for the general population (12.77%, as against 29.94% for those aged 16 to 18 and 22.55% for those aged 20 to 24). Gender differences are great, though discrimination of women is relatively lower among young people: the general rate is 8.88% for men and more than double that for women (18.56%), while the figures between age 16 and 18 are 25.56% and 36.96%, and between 20 and 24 are 16.91% and 29.38%, respectively.

In sum, this analyses highlight a general of gender gap in employment situation, both at Spanish and at regional levels. With no regard to age groups, young women have lower rates of activity and employment and higher rates of unemployment than young men. Likewise, the cohort of young people between 16 and 19 years has a higher unemployment rate (in both men and women), while people aged 20 to 24 present higher rates of activity and employment, especially among men - with no regional differences in this trend.

III. YOUTH EMANCIPATION

3.1. LATE LEAVING OF THE FAMILY HOME

Elzo & Orizo (1999) found that 90% of young people between 15 and 24 still lived in the nuclear family home. In agreement with them, the “Report on youth in Spain” (Informe sobre la juventud en España, Martin & Velarde, 1996)6 – a survey of young people aged between 15 and 29 - found that only 16% of women and 11% of men had left home. A 42% of these emancipated young women had left home before age 21, as against 36% among men. Furthermore, a 40% of emancipated men and women had left home between the ages of 21 and 24.

This Spanish trend to stay on in the family home is shared with other European countries of Catholic tradition, such as Italy; the European mean for young people living with their parents in 1996 was 40%, as against 56.3% for Spain and 62.2% for Italy. (Euroestat, 1997).

Late leaving of the family home by young people may be mainly attributed to economic and work difficulties, to the prolongation of education, to the importance of the family

6 Survey based on a Spanish representative sample (N = 6,000) of young people aged between 15 and 29 (including N = 585 of emancipated women, and N = 400 of emancipated males of these age cohorts).

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in Catholic and Mediterranean cultures, and to the feelings of comfort and satisfaction by young people at their family homes. In 1999, the family was “very or quite important” for 98% of young people, while 97% were “fairly satisfied” with their family (CIS, 1999)7. Elzo y Orizo (1999) also found that 50% of interviewed youth recognized that they stay at family home simply because it was more comfortable for them.

3.1.1. State support

The limited development of the welfare state in Spain is reflected in the scarce resources devoted to supporting young people. Only 1.5% of youth benefit from any grant, scholarship or allowance, while 2.1% receive unemployment and social security benefits.

This situation places Spain at the opposite extreme to the European countries (such as Denmark, Holland or Finland) that grant most financial support to youth, helping them to leave home and maintain themselves. This support has an important social redistribution function, reducing the family economic load and facilitating the independence of studying or unemployed young people (Euroestat, 1997).

3.1.2. Age and employment

Age and employment are the two factors that most influence youth emancipation. The young population (between 15 and 29) that mainly study are more likely than others to stay at family home: specifically, 94% stay, while only 6% share a home with other (one or several) people. Among young people that both study and work, 82% live with their parents, 6% share home with other people, and other 13% live with their partner or with other family members. Among young people that only work, 65% still live with their parents, 6% live alone, 20% reside with their partner and 9% live in “another way” (Cruz & Santiago, 1998).

Even though employment has an emancipatory effect in Spain, it is not a sufficient condition for young people to set up on their own (65% of young people aged 15 to 29 that work still live in their parental home). A large majority of young people move from the parental home to their own only on marrying, and in fact 35% of young people would prefer to get married in church before living with their partner, 24% would live first with their partner and then marry in church, and only 18% would prefer to live together without getting married (Cruz & Santiago, 1998).8

3.1.3. Reasons for leaving the family home

7 Survey based on a Spanish representative sample (N = 2,467) of young people of both genders, aged from 15 to 29. 8 Survey based on a Spanish representative sample (N = 2,474) of young people of both genders, aged from 15 to 29.

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Among young people asked about the main reason for they would leave the family home, 40% said they would leave due to finding a job, 20% would leave after finishing their studies (both factors linked to economic emancipation), and another 22% would leave the family home to live with their partner. Furthermore, for young people that decided to leave family home and set up on their own, the majority (39%) leave in order to live with their husband or wife, 22% to live with their partner, 18% to live alone, 16% to live with a friend or a group of friends, and the remaining 5% to live “in another way”. (Elzo & Orizo, 1999).

In line with these findings, the “Report on youth in Spain” (Martin & Velarde, 1996) showed that, of those young people between age 15 and 29 that decided to live independently (19%), 10% bought a flat or house, 4% rented a dwelling, 4% lived in a residence inherited from or given by their family, and 1% lived in a residence given by their partner’s family. Thus, they preferred to buy than to rent a home.

3.1.4. Mean age on emancipation: differences by region

This prolongation of stay in the family home sets the mean leaving-age at around age 25, for both men and women. According to regions, in 1999, 95.3% of young people (aged 15 to 29) in Madrid lived in their parents’ home; 3% lived with their partner, and 1.7% lived “in another way”. In the Basque Country the proportion of young people of the same age group living with their parents rises to 98.5%, with 1% living “in another way”, and a mere 0.5% with their partner. (Elzo & Orizo, 1999).

In line with this data, young people in the Basque country claim to have more difficulties for emancipating themselves, and more frequently mention the economic constraints, though 51% say they live “fantastically” with their families, as against 46% of young people in Madrid who make the same affirmation (Elzo & Orizo, 1999).

In sum, young people in Spain do not appear to show urgency for personal emancipation. Living in the family home is satisfactory and comfortable for the great majority of young people, and additionally, many claim economic difficulties or the prolongation of their studies for the need to stay at family home. The scarcity of state support for students and unemployed youth is a complementary factor that hinders emancipation.

3.2. MARRIAGE Marriage continues to be the most desirable form of cohabitation for young people between ages 15 to 29. According to Martin & Velarde (1996), 90% of men and 80% of women of these age cohorts were single in Spain. In the same line, Cruz & Santiago (1998) report that 35% of young people between 15 and 29 would prefer to get married in church before living with their partner, and that only 18% would like to live together without being married.

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3.2.1. Gender

There are significant gender differences in marital status from age 15 to 29 in Spain due to the earlier marriage-age of women. This difference in marital status appears after age 20, and becomes significant after age 24. According to Martin & Velarde (1996), 1% of women were married, with negligible figures for men among the under-20s. Between ages 20 and 24, 10% of women were married, in contrast to only 4% of men. Among those aged 25 to 29, the percentage of women increased to 45%, with the figure for men standing at 26%.

According to the Spanish Statistical Annual (INE, 2001), among the total of 207,041 marriages carried out in Spain during 1998, 1,518 (0.73%) involved men and 6,321 (3.05%) involved women under 20 years old; while 24,432 (11.80%) marriages involved men and 48,589 (23.47%) involved women between ages 20 and 24. It is noteworthy to note the far greater proportion of women involved in marriage at these ages (even though the marriage of those under 20 does not have a significant statistical weight). Therefore, the gender difference, with women getting married younger than men, holds regardless of the age cohort considered.

3.2.2. Marriage and cohabitation

Cruz & Santiago (1998) show that 66% of young people between 15 and 19 prefer to marry in church, regardless of whether they have lived previously with their partner; and this percentage drops to 56% among those aged 20 to 29. Only 16% of young people aged 15 to 19 years prefer to live with their partner without getting married, and this figure rises to 18% in the 20 to 29 age group. Preference for marriage tends to be weaker in the older groups of young people.

Even today, it is difficult to study the evolution of cohabitation in Spain due to the lack of both statistical records and specific surveys. The “Report on Youth in Spain” (Martin & Velarde, 1996) shows that only 15% of emancipated young people (aged between 15 and 29) live with a stable partner without previously having married.

Nevertheless, both cohabitation and living alone are alternatives to marriage that seem to be gaining ground among young Spanish people, though studies show that the marriage commitment continues to be important for them (Cruz & Santiago: 1998). For 46% of men and women between 15 and 29, marriage is in general “quite important”, and only 17% consider it “not at all important” (CIS, 1999). Likewise, the majority of young people between 15 and 24, specifically 63%, believe that marriage continues to be a socially significant institution. There is a small gender difference in this aspect: 65% of men as opposed to 61% of women hold this belief. Similarly, marriage is more relevant for the cohorts aged 15 to19 and 25 to 29; education also has an influence, with 74% of those with lower levels of education believing marriage to be important, as against 62% of those with a university education (Cruz & Santiago: 1998).

Despite the fact that cohabitation and living alone are presented as alternatives to marriage, in Spain both forms of relationship appear to show themselves as first steps

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towards the “formalization” of couples, rather than as definitive forms of union. (Cruz & Santiago: 1998).

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3.2.3. Age at first marriage: Gender and region

In Spain, mean age at first marriage is 28 years for women and 30 for men. In the Madrid region, mean age at first marriage is similar to the total for Spain (CAM, 2001). The mean age for women is four years lower in the Basque Country (Eustat, 2001). Thus, women enter into matrimony younger than men in both Madrid and the Basque Country.

Though cultural traditions still maintain a significant effect, the trend for early marriage has decreased, with marriage coming later over the 1980s and 90s (Cruz & Santiago, 1998).

No differences are observed between Madrid and the Basque Country as regards the social reputation of marriage. Thus, for 35% of young people, the best way of lending stability to a relationship is through religious matrimony, 24% think it better to live together and then have the church confirm the union, 11% agree with this principle, but prefer civil to religious marriage, 18% think that stability of the couple is achieved by living together without being married, 6% prefer a civil marriage directly, and 6% opt for “other types of living”.

These opinions can be associated to the long social and cultural Catholic tradition that has prevailed for many years in Spain (Cruz & Santiago, 1998). In this context, the influence of the familiar is important: Family pressure is the main reason to prefer marriage to other forms of union for 72% of young people between 15 and 29; and 70% mention, in second place, having children (or the possibility for this) as main argument for their preference for marriage over cohabitation without matrimony (Cruz & Santiago, 1998). This seems to indicate that marriage may be the best option for young people to avoid family and social pressures.

IV. REFERENCES

CAM (2001). Anuario estadistico de la Comunidad Autonoma de Madrid

(2001). Madrid: Consejeria de Hacienda, Instituto de Estadistica de la Comunidad de Madrid. [http://www.comadrid.es]

CIS (1999). Los jovenes de hoy. Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones

Sociologicas. Cruz, P., & Santiago, P. (1998). Juventud y entorno familiar. Madrid: Instituto

de la Juventud. Elzo, J., & Orizo, F. (1999). Jovenes españoles. Madrid: Fundacion Santamaria. Eurobarometer 47.2 (1997). Eustat (2001). Barometro Vasco de Opinion. Vitoria: Instituto Vasco de

Estadistica. [http://www.eustat.es]

16



INE (2001). Anuario estadistico de España. (2000). Madrid: Instituto Nacional de Estadistica. [http://www.ine.es]

INE (2001, December). Cifras INE - Boletin Informativo del Instituto Nacional

de Estadistica, diciembre/ 2001. Madrid: Instituto Nacional de Estadistica. INEM (2001). Madrid: Instituto Nacional del Empleo [http://www.inem.es] MECD (2000). Sistema educativo español Madrid: Ministerio de Educación,

Cultura y Deportes. [http://www.mecd.es] Martin, M., & Velarde, O. (1996). Informe sobre la juventud en España. Madrid:

Instituto de la Juventud.

17



V. TABLES

TABLE 1.1.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION: Primary and Secondary Education - General Stream

TABLE 1.2.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – POPULATION: Spanish Population by

Age, Year, Gender and Region TABLE 1.3.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION: Primary and Secondary

Education - General Stream - Schooling rate by Educational stage TABLE 1.4.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION: Higher Education -

Number of enrolled students and Schooling rate at Higher Education by Academic year and Age

TABLE 1.5.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION: Higher Education -

Number and percentage of students enrolled by Region and Gender – 1999/2000 & 2000/2001

TABLA 1.6.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION: Higher Education -

Number and percentage of students enrolled by Field and Year (1994/95-1999/00) – Spain

TABLE 1.7.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION: Higher Education -

Number and percentage of students enrolled by Field and Region – 1999/2000 TABLE 1.8.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION: Higher Education -

Number and percentage of Graduate by Year (1993/94-1999/00), Gender and Field TABLE 2.1.: POPULATION RELATED TO ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN SPAIN: Population

by Relation to Activity, Age, & Gender (thousands of persons) – 3rd Trimester 2001 TABLE 2.2.: ECONOMIC ACTIVITY RATES IN SPAIN: Rates of activity, unemployment

and employment by Gender and Age – 3 rd Trimester 2001 TABLE 2.3.: UNEMPLOYMENT BY GENDER, AGE & ECONOMIC SECTOR: Annual

figures in thousands TABLE 2.4.: YOUNG UNEMPLOYMENT BY GENDER AND REGION: Age group 16-24

years - 3rd Trimester, 2001 TABLE 2.5.: POPULATION RELATED to ECONOMIC ACTIVITY by REGION: Population

by Relation to Activity, Age, & Gender (thousands of persons) - 3rd Trimester 2001 TABLE 2.6.: ECONOMIC ACTIVITY RATES BY REGION: Rates of activity,

unemployment and employment by Gender and Age – 3 rd Trimester 2001



TABLE 1.1.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS - EDUCATION Primary and Secondary Education - General Stream

Number of students enrolled at each Educational stage by Academic year and Region

ACADEMIC YEAR

EDUCATIONAL STAGE 1996/1997 1997/1998 1998/1999 1999/2000 2000/2001

SPAIN - TOTAL

Primary education & 1st phase of Compulsory Secondary Education9

(6-13 years) 3,803,538 3,664,428 3,566,247 3,485,830 3,443,821

2nd phase of Compulsory Secondary, High School, & Vocational Training

(14-17 years) 2,548,270 2,439,491 2,405,432 2,320,698 2,251,995

MADRID REGION

Primary education & 1st phase of Compulsory Secondary Education

(6-13 years) 462,717 446,894 436,719 430,531 429,567


(14-17 years) 343,767 332,860 320,142 307,109 294,423

BASQUE COUNTRY


(6-13 years) 157,867 150,699 145,128 140,238 136,464


(14-17 years) 146,162 136,580 128,266 121,862 116,829

Source: Our elaboration based on data from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport - MECD (2000).

9 This stage corresponds to the General Basic Education (Educación General Básica – EGB) in the organization of the educational system by the previous General Education Law (1970). Both systems overlapped in some of the reported academic years.



TABLE 1.2.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS - POPULATION

Spanish Population by Age, Year, Gender and Region

YEAR 1996 1998 1999

AGE 6-13 years population

GENDER REGION Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

SPAIN –TOTAL 3,564,698 1,829,441 1,735,256 3,437,195 1,763,812 1,673,383 3,388,955 1,741,157 1,647,799

MADRID REGION 427,058 219,469 207,588 414,568 212,961 201,610 412,066 211,597 200,469

BASQUE COUNTRY 156,341 80,148 76,192 144,730 74,175 70,555 140,378 71,936 68,441

AGE 14-17 years population

GENDER REGION Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

SPAIN –TOTAL 2,341,623 1,199,959 1,141,665 2,172,397 1,113,640 1,058,758 2,081,286 1,068,295 1,012,991

MADRID REGION 288,120 147,374 140,746 267,244 136,803 130,441 257,773 132,225 125,548

BASQUE COUNTRY 112,863 57,730 55,132 100,635 51,473 49,162 94,564 48,517 46,047

Source: Our elaboration based on data from the National Institute of Statistics - INE (2001).



TABLE 1.3.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS - EDUCATION Primary and Secondary Education - General Stream

Schooling rate by Educational stage

ACADEMIC YEAREDUCATIONAL STAGE 1996/1997 1997/1998 1998/1999 1999/2000 2000/2001


(6-13 years) 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%


(14-17 years) 89.5% 91.7% 92.8% 93.9% 95.5%

Source: Our elaboration based on data from MECD (2000).



TABLE 1.4.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS - EDUCATION Higher Education

Number of enrolled students and Schooling rate at Higher Education by Academic year and Age

ACADEMIC YEAR 1994/1995 % (age) 1995/1996 % (age) 1996/1997 % (age) 1997/1998 % (age) 1998/1999 % (age) 1999/2000 % (age)

SPAIN POPULATION

TOTAL 39,217,591 39,262,029 39,301,126 39,334,401 39,361,223 39,380,800

18-24 years 4,575,310 11.66% 4,554,145 11.59% 4,514,031 11.48% 4,441,740 11.29% 4,349,323 11.04% 4,213,153 10.69%

over 24 years 26,080,464 66.50% 26,359,334 67.13% 26,633,036 67.76% 26,902,741 68.39% 27,167,483 69.02% 27,426,338 69.64%

NUMBER OF STUDENTS ENROLLED

TOTAL 1,440,259 1,497,867 1,544,162 1,552,372 1,570,568 1,581,415

18-24 years 1,073,143 74.51% 1,16,203 74.52% 1,154,091 74.74% 1,145,949 73.82% 1,154,089 73.48% 1,140,137 72.10%

over 24 years 367,116 25.49% 381,664 25.48% 390,071 25.26% 406,423 26.18% 416,479 26.52% 441,278 27.90%

HIGHER EDUCATION RATE (%)

TOTAL 4.69% 4.84 % 4.95% 4.96% 4.98% 4.99%

18-24 years 23.46% 24.51% 25.57% 25.80% 26.53% 27.06%

over 24 years 1.41% 1.45% 1.46% 1.51% 1.53% 1.60%




TABLE 1.5.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS - EDUCATION Higher Education

Number and percentage of students enrolled by Region and Gender – 1999/2000 & 2000/2001

ACADEMIC YEAR 1999/2000 2000/2001

GENDERREGION Total % (region) Male %(Male) Female %(Female) Total % (region) Male %(Male) Female %(Female)

SPAIN- TOTAL 1,581,415 100% 740,681 46.84% 840,734 53.16% 1,547,331 100% 726,845 46.97% 820,486 53.03%

MADRID REGION 252,182 15.94% 120,312 47.71% 131,870 52.19% 248,503 16.06% 117,899 47.44% 130,604 52.56%

BASQUE COUNTRY 77,782 4.91% 34,603 44.49% 43,173 55.51% 72,647 4.69% 32,070 44.14% 40,577 55.86%




TABLA 1.6.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION Higher Education

Number and percentage of students enrolled by Field and Year (1994/95-1999/00) - SPAIN

ACADEMIC 1994/1995 1995/1996 1996/1997 1997/1998 1998/1999 1999/2000

YEAR N % N % N % N % N % N %

TOTAL 1.440.259 100% 1,497,867 100% 1,544,162 100% 1,552,372 100% 1,570,568 100% 1,581,415 100%

Social Sciences and Law 766.198 53.20% 790,470 52.77% 800,381 51.83% 785,839 50.62% 776,417 49.44% 766,266 48.45%

Technical 309.980 21.52% 329,019 21.97% 348,477 22.57% 358,096 23.07% 373,129 23.76% 378,346 23.92%

Human Sciences 136.084 9.45% 143,930 9.61% 155,735 10.09% 163,964 10.56% 173,642 11.06% 179,588 11.36%

Experimental Sciences 117.079 8.13% 126,088 8.42% 129,122 8.36% 131,565 8.48% 134,557 8.57% 140,758 8.90%

Health Sciences 110.918 7.70% 108,360 7.23% 110,447 7.15% 112,908 7.27% 112,823 7.18% 116,457 7.36%




TABLE 1.7.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION

Higher Education

Number and percentage of students enrolled by Field and Region – 1999/2000

ACADEMIC YEAR SPAIN MADRID REGION BASQUE COUNTRY

1999/2000 N % N % N %

TOTAL 1,581,415 100% 252,182 100% 77,782 100%

Social Sciences and Law 766,266 48.5% 119,390 47.2% 41,522 53.3%

Technical 378,346 23.9% 64,201 25.2% 20,183 25.6%

Human Sciences 179,588 11.4% 22,913 9.0% 6,548 8.0%

Experimental Sciences 140,758 8.9% 24,264 9.4% 2,931 7.6%

Health Sciences 116,457 7.4% 21,414 8.2% 3,512 4.5%




TABLE 1.8.: SPANISH NATIONAL STATISTICS – EDUCATION Higher Education

Number and percentage of Graduate by Year (1993/94-1999/00), Gender and Field

1993/1994 1994/1995 1995/1996 1996/1997 1997/1998 1998/1999 1999/2000

N of GRADUATES 142,797 158,053 174,471 191,690 198,094 235,262 231,745

% Female 58.1% 59.5% 56.5% 57.1% 59.9% 58.1% 56.9%

% by Field

Social Sciences and Law 57.8% 57.40% 56.63% 57.08% 55.83% 50.85% 49.94%

Technical 13.98% 14.44% 17.85% 17.44% 18.16% 19.33% 20.02%

Human Sciences 10.14% 10.11% 8.50% 8.98% 9.17% 12.20% 11.00%

Experimental Sciences 6.58% 6.56% 6.46% 6.50% 6.65% 8.28% 8.46%

Health Sciences 12.22% 11.49% 10.56% 10.00% 10.19% 9.34% 10.57%




TABLE 2.1.: POPULATION RELATED TO ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN SPAIN

Population by Relation to Activity, Age, & Gender (thousands of persons) – 3rd Trimester 2001

Relation to economic activity Age

TOTAL POPULATION ACTIVE EMPLOYED UNEMPLOYED UNEMPLOYED SEEKING

FOR 1st JOB INACTIVE

Gender TOTAL

16-19 years 2054.7 582.4 408.0 174.4 91.4 1458.4

20-24 years 3096.6 1958.7 1517.1 441.6 159.9 1126

Gender MALE

16-19 years 1060.0 358.6 266.9 91.7 45 687.5

20-24 years 1560.9 1073.2 891.7 181.5 46.7 475.8

Gender FEMALE

16-19 years 994.7 223.8 141.1 82.7 46.4 770.8

20-24 years 1535.7 885.5 625.4 260.1 113.2 650.2

Source: Our elaboration based on data from INE (2001).



TABLE 2.2.: ECONOMIC ACTIVITY RATES IN SPAIN

Rates of activity, unemployment and employment by Gender and Age – 3 rd Trimester 2001

RATEAGE Activity rate10 Unemployment rate11 Employment rate12

Gender TOTAL

TOTAL 51.79 12.77 45.17

16-19 years 28.35 29.94 19.86

20-24 years 63.25 22.55 48.99

Gender MALE

TOTAL 64.42 8.88 58.69

16-19 years 33.83 25.56 25.18

20-24 years 68.76 16.91 57.13

Gender FEMALE

TOTAL 40.10 18.56 32.66

16-19 years 22.50 36.96 14.19

20-24 years 57.66 29.38 40.72


10 Percentage of active people in relation to each age group population. 11 Percentage of unemployed people in relation to the active population of each age group. 12 Percentage of employed people in relation to each age group population.



TABLE 2.3.: UNEMPLOYMENT BY GENDER, AGE & ECONOMIC SECTOR

Annual figures in thousands

YEAR 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 TOTAL REGISTERED UNEMPLOYMENT 2275.4 2118.7 1889.5 1651.6 1557.5

UNEMPLOYMENT BY GENDER MALE

TotalAge 1064.9 968.4 818.2 682.2 615.9

16-19 years 71.9 61 48.2 37.4 30.220-24 years 147.8 127.9 100 75.3 63.1

FEMALE Total

Age 1210.5 1150.3 1071.3 969.3 941.6

16-19 years 83.2 72.6 60.5 49.1 42.420-24 years 209.5 189.6 166.8 141.4 132.3

UNEMPLOYMENT BY ECONOMIC SECTOR AGRICULTURE 59.2 57.5 55 48.8 43.7

NON-AGRICULTURE 1797.0 1664.3 1483.4 1309.6 1250.3INDUSTRY 461.5 399.1 331.9 284.4 254.9

CONSTRUCTION 272.1 244.4 201.8 163 153.5OTHER SECTORS 1063.4 1020.7 949.7 862.2 841.9

WITH NO PREVIOUS JOB 419.2 396.9 351.1 293.2 263.6 Source: Our elaboration based on data from INE (2001).



TABLE 2.4.: YOUNG UNEMPLOYMENT BY GENDER AND REGION

Age group 16-24 years - 3rd Trimester, 2001

GENDER TOTAL MALE FEMALE

Rate of unemployment Rate of unemployment Rate of unemploymentREGION N

% by Gender N

% by Gender N

% by Gender

24.24% 19.08% 30.91%SPAIN - TOTAL 263,349

100% 96,843

36.77% 166,506

63.33%

21.75% 17.99% 26.09%MADRID REGION 28,364

100% 10,897

38.42% 17,467

61.58%

22.82% 21.24% 24.94%BASQUE COUNTRY 9,251

100% 3,063

33.11% 6,188

66.89%

Source: Our elaboration based on data from the National Institute for Employment - INEM (2001).



TABLE 2.5.: POPULATION RELATED to ECONOMIC ACTIVITY by REGION

Population by Relation to Activity, Age, & Gender (thousands of persons) 3rd Trimester 2001

AGE GROUP TOTAL

POPULATION ACTIVE EMPLOYED UNEMPLOYED SEEKING FOR 1st JOB INACTIVE

MADRID REGION: Total Total 4226.7 2384.6 2156.3 228.3 59.4 1838.1

16-19 years 263.1 64.4 44.3 20.2 11.7 196.5 20-24 years 435 276.4 222.4 54 22.8 158.1

MADRID REGION – Gender: MALE Total MALE 1998.6 1369.9 1278.8 91.1 23.5 625.5 16-19 years 140.6 38.1 27.5 10.6 6.6 100.3 20-24 years 213.2 144.3 122.1 22.2 9.4 68.4

MADRID REGION – Gender: FEMALE Total FEMALE 2227.4 1014.7 877.5 137.2 35.9 1212.7

16-19 years 122.5 26.3 16.8 9.5 5.1 96.2 20-24 years 221.8 132.1 100.3 31.8 13.4 89.7

BASQUE COUNTRY: Total Total 1752.6 913.3 817.6 95.7 20.4 838.7

16-19 years 96.1 13.9 8.8 5.1 2.5 82.2 20-24 years 150.7 90.4 71.7 18.7 7.8 59.7

BASQUE COUNTRY: MALE Total MALE 838.8 533.9 497.6 36.3 6.9 304.3 16-19 years 50.9 8.4 5.2 3.2 1.1 42.5 20-24 years 75.4 51.3 41.8 9.5 2.9 23.5

BASQUE COUNTRY: FEMALE Total FEMALE 913.8 379.4 320 59.3 13.4 534.4

16-19 years 45.2 5.5 3.5 1.9 1.4 39.7 20-24 years 75.3 39.1 29.9 9.2 4.9 36.2




TABLE 2.6.: ECONOMIC ACTIVITY RATES BY REGION

Rates of activity, unemployment and employment by Gender and Age – 3 rd Trimester 2001

RATE

AGE Activity rate13 Unemployment rate14 Employment rate15

MADRID REGION: TOTAL 16-19 years 24.49 31.29 16.83 20-24 years 63.54 19.53 51.13

MADRID REGION: MALE 16-19 years 27.09 27.88 19.54 20-24 years 67.68 15.38 57.27

MADRID REGION: FEMALE 16-19 years 21.50 36.22 13.71 20-24 years 59.56 24.07 45.22

BASQUE COUNTRY: TOTAL 16-19 years 14.45 36.77 9.14 20-24 years 60.01 20.68 47.6

BASQUE COUNTRY: MALE 16-19 years 16.55 37.78 10.30 20-24 years 68.02 18.53 55.42

BASQUE COUNTRY: FEMALE 16-19 years 12.08 35.21 7.83 20-24 years 51.98 23.50 39.76


13 Percentage of active people in relation to each age group population. 14 Percentage of unemployed people in relation to the active population at each age group. 15 Percentage of employed people in relation to each age group population.

socio-demographic background, spain · spain madrid, december 2001 spain since the beginning of the...

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