socioeconomic status of elderly women in india and...

Socioeconomic Status of Elderly Women in India and Japan

RATHI RAMACHANDRAN AND RADHIKA R.

Greying of population is one of the most significant characteristics of the twenty-first century. Rapid ageing trends present new challenges to governments, communities, families, and the elderly themselves. Elderly women are a significant group of the society. Addressing their agendas in familial, social and economic spheres is imperative for improving their overall status and, in turn, the society's as well. This article describes the result of a comparative study to examine the cross country differences (India and Japan) in the socioeconomic status of elderly women. It aims at highlighting the differences in the social and economic conditions of aged women in a developed country as against a developing country. Empirical data was collected from representative samples of elderly women from both countries.

Ms. Rathi Ramachandran is a Research Scholar and Dr. Radhika R. is Selection Grade Lecturer, Department of Home Science, Government College for Women, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.

INTRODUCTION

Ageing is a normal phenomenon of human life and is generally associated with a decline in physical and mental ability. Ageing of population is a by-product of demographic revolution, which is usually called demographic transition (Kapoor and Kapoor, 2000). In the Indian context, people who have attained 60 years and above are considered old, whereas in developed countries old age begins at 65 years (Mahadevan, Audinarayana, Jayasree and Ramalingam, 1992). The geriatric population is rapidly increasing and about one million elderly persons are added every month to the world. Having the two most populous countries like India and China, the Asian region has 48 per cent of the world's elderly (Karkal, 2000).

In India, 6.5 per cent of the total population are above 60 years of age. The percentage of female population aged 60 years and above constitutes 8.9 per cent as against 8 per cent of the male population. With improvement in health and medical facilities, there has been a decrease in the mortality rate and increase in the life expectancy at birth (Renganath, 2002). According to the 2001 Census (India, 2002), the life expectancy for males is 63.1 years and for females is 64.1 years.

Japanese society is ageing faster than ever before and this trend is particularly prominent for women. The elderly population of Japan accounts for 19 per cent of the total population. It is estimated that 19.4

276. Rathi Ramachandran and Radhika R.

per cent of all women (17 per cent of the total population) are in the elderly age brackets (Japan Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommunications, 2003).

Decline in fertility rates is a major factor contributing to the rapid population ageing in Japan. Life expectancy is longer in Japan than in most other countries — 77 years for males and 85 years for females. The increase in life expectancy is a result of improvement in the social environment such as economy, hygiene, peace-keeping and security (Yamada and Izumi, 2003).

Aged women are called 'wet leaves' in Japan, 'kankeri' (second childhood) in China and 'shastipurthi' in Sanskrit (Gowry, 2003). In India, older women are seldom part of the development agenda. Their contributions are slighted and discussions of their situations are usually afterthoughts. Their work is not considered as economically productive and their contribution throughout their lifespan is not quantified or valued (Karkal, 2000).

The well-being of the elderly is intimately linked to their education. Large segments of the current elderly population are either illiterate or have low education in India. Older women are the least literate because of the existing gender differentials in literacy levels in the general population (Irudayarajan, Mishra and Sharma, 1999).

In traditional Japanese society, with its mixture of Buddhist and Confucian ideals and influences, women were regarded as inferior to men in ability and competence (Takashi, 1984). Since 1960, the high growth of Japanese economy brought rapid socioeconomic changes such as rise of living standards and scientific and technological progress. These changes, together with longer life expectancy, lower birth rate, and higher educational levels of Japanese women, rose almost annually after World War II. Today, adult literacy for females as well as for males is 100 per cent (Japan: Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, 2002).

Rapid urbanisation, migration and increasing opportunities for women's education and employment led to an increase in nuclear families and a decrease in joint families. Now, the elderly in J apan tend to live separately and independently of their children. Today, most of the Japanese elderly are in a better financial status as a result of various forms of public pensions, employment opportunities, and other savings (Japan NGO Report Preparatory Committee, 1999).

Studies on the ageing of population are of recent origin. Demography of ageing challenges both developed and developing countries alike. Research efforts, which emphasise the socioeconomic status of aged women, are very few. Since women's agendas in familial, social and economic spheres are under represented and go unnoticed, the present study was expected to throw new light into the same.

It is in this context that the present study was undertaken in India and Japan, keeping in view that the former being a developing country

Socioeconomic Status of Elderly... 277

and the latter being a developed country, will provide significant information regarding differences in the social and economic status of elderly women.

The findings of the study will certainly help the planners and policy makers to develop new policies and strategies to improve the socioeconomic status of elderly women. The study is expected to enlighten policy makers regarding the needs of the elderly and indicate remedial measures for making older persons real assets rather than being considered liabilities. By identifying the various factors that contribute to the better status of aged women in a developed country like Japan, a developing nation like India can adopt better practices prevailing in that country for the upliftment of the of the elderly in our country.

Therefore, the objectives of the study were to:

• understand the socioeconomic status of elderly women in India and Japan;

• study the awareness of elderly women towards the welfare programmes for the aged;

• asses the opinion of the elderly on caring of the aged;

• get an insight into different social, financial and familial problems faced by elderly women;

• find out the health problems commonly faced by elderly women; and

• suggest measures for the welfare of elderly women in India.

METHODOLOGY

As mentioned earlier, the study was carried out in India and Japan. Purposive sampling technique was adopted to select the areas for the study. Tokyo was selected for conducting the study in Japan and in India, the study was conducted in Thiruvanahthapuram, the capital city of Kerala State.

Tokyo, the capital city of Japan, comes under the prefecture of 'Tokyo Tho', which lies in the centre east of Japan, witnessing a high technological revolution and modernisation. It is a very crowded city. Kerala, which lies on the western side of the southernmost tip of Indian Peninsula, has many characteristics of a developed country in many aspects like high literacy rate, low infant and maternal mortality rate, comparatively better medical facilities than the other regions in the country and better infrastructure facilities. Thiruvananthapuram, a highly populated and growing city, is experiencing ever-increasing urbanisation. Both Tokyo and Thiruvananthapuram were selected considering the fact that both are capital cities.

The sample consisted of 300 women aged 60 years and above — 150 women each from Japan and India. The selection of respondents was

278 Rathi Ramachandran and Radhika R.

made based on the occupation of the respondents or their husbands' occupation. To get a representation from all categories of the population, respondents were selected from Class I (doctors, engineers, managers, professors, lawyers and business executives); Class II (officers, teachers, superintendents and nurses); and Class III categories (peons, attenders and security staff). Fifty respondents were selected from each of these categories from both the countries.

The tools developed for collecting the necessary information were questionnaire and checklist. The tools were selected based on the nature of the problem and the various advantages and appropriateness of these instruments with regard to the nature of the study. A questionnaire was developed to collect information regarding the respondent's socioeconomic background, awareness on welfare programmes, common health problems faced and opinion on the caring of the aged. The type of questionnaire developed was a 'mixed form', as both open-ended and closed type of questions were included. To understand the problems commonly faced by elderly women, a checklist was prepared with statements on the social, familial, economic and mental problems related to their daily life. Nominal group technique was applied to collect additional items.

This technique was applied among 30 respondents, 15 from Tokyo and 15 from Thiruvananthapuram. In Tokyo, these respondents were selected from an Old Age Club situated in Tokyo, while in India the respondents were selected from a Senior Citizens' Club in Thiruvananthapuram. Two new items were identified by the investigator, which were not in the list prepared based on the review of literature and these new items were included in the final Checklist. Thus, the final checklist consisted of 22 statements.

Considering the special feature of the respondents in Japan — the predominant and only language for communication is Japanese — the tools prepared were translated into Japanese. For the purpose of data collection in India, the tools got translated into Malayalam language to avoid misinterpretations of the questions and statements in the tools by the respondents.

To test the feasibility of the tools, the pilot study was conducted among 40 selected respondents, 20 from Tokyo and 20 from Thiruvananthapuram and the tools were found to be apt for the investigation and helped the investigator to venture on the study. The data was collected in 2004.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 gives the details regarding the socioeconomic background of the respondents. It is clear from Table 1 that the proportion of employed respondents was high in Japan (21 per cent). The increased employment opportunities for the elderly in Japan could be the major factor for their higher work participation.


TABLE 1: Socioeconomic Background of the Respondents

The higher employment rates of the Japanese elderly may be partly because of societal reasons, for East Asian countries have strong work ethics. In Japan, where the mandatory retirement age is normally set at 60 years, many corporations retain or rehire their employee after a mandatory retirement, resulting in higher employment rates among seniors. (Yoshida, 2003).

Even if the elderly do not need the earning, they do not retire from their jobs, because they work for self-satisfaction, for friendly relations with colleagues and for the realisation of their social participation. (Naganawa, 1997)


The elderly in India, especially in rural areas, work mainly for economic reasons. The predominantly rural character accompanied with least proportion of population in wage and salaried employment affected by compulsory retirement ages allows persons to work till they are able to do so. In case of self-employment, economic necessity forces many to continue working for as long as they can. More elderly men participate in the economic activities as compared to women (Gulati, Rajan and Ramalingam, 1997).

Considerable variation was observed on the level of personal income between the two samples. A high majority of respondents (91 per cent) selected from Japan had regular personal income. The prompt pension system, higher employment rate of elderly, as well as the better economic condition of the Japanese, could be the major reasons. Only 37 per cent of the selected respondents from India had a regular personal income. In India, fewer employment opportunities and poor pension system deprive the elderly of regular income (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1: Personal Income of the Respondents

Data revealed that a good majority of respondents from Japan (85 per cent) were not financially dependent on their children, as compared to 63 per cent in India. Prompt and regular pension system and higher employment opportunities helped most of the Japanese elderly to be financially independent. In India, the absence of a steady dependable income, inadequate pension and lesser employment opportunities forces most of the elderly to be financially dependent on their children.

Regarding the role in decision-making, the proportion of respondents who had a say in decision-making process was high in India. Ninety-seven percent of the respondents selected from India and 91 per cent respondents from Japan expressed that their family members consulted them before taking decisions. India's cultural tradition of a


close-knit family, with high respect and honour for the elderly, could be the reasons for the involvement of the elderly in their family's decision-making process. In Japan, the younger generation give importance to individual freedom than to family bonds; it is a common feature in Japan for children to stay separately from their parents once they grow up.

Regarding usage of the labour-saving devices, majority of the respondents from Japan had almost all the labour-saving devices — vacuum cleaner (100 per cent), refrigerator, microwave oven, washing machine (99 per cent) and food processor (84 per cent). In India, majority of the respondents had only refrigerator (80 per cent), food processor (91 per cent) and pressure cooker (65 per cent). The differences can be attributed to a higher s tandard of living in Japan.

Among the 117 Indian respondents who got leisure time during the day, 36 per cent had leisure time between 1-3 hours and 4-6 hours. Among the 126 respondents from Japan, 32 per cent of them had leisure time between 4—6 hours and 27 per cent had leisure time of more than 7 hours during the day. In India, only 6 per cent of respondents got leisure time of more than 7 hours during the day. Significant difference was observed on this aspect by using 't' test (Table 2).

The Japanese respondents got more leisure time as compared to the respondents from India, probably due to the increased use of labour-saving devices, habit of dining out, and the food habits. Eating out and having readymade foods are a common feature of Japanese life. This may also help them to reduce the time spent for cooking and to find more leisure time.

In India, even though the use of labour-saving devices is becoming common, people never depend completely on electronic gadgets. Majority of people prefer traditional ways of cooking, which is laborious and time-consuming. Besides, people with low income cannot afford to buy electronic gadgets to support their household work. Due to this women take more time to complete various household chores. Hence, they are unable to get adequate leisure time as compared to the women in developed countries like Japan.

'Religious activities' was a major leisure activity among the Indian respondents as compared to 'recreational activities' among the Japanese respondents. (Table 3). This variation could be due to the difference in the religious, cultural and social backgrounds of the respondents from the two countries.


TABLE 3: Leisure Activities of the Respondents

Religion is the backbone of Indian culture. Hence the practice of going to places of worship is part of the daily routine of most Indians. In Japan, religion does not have a significant role in the life of people. Japanese society is very much influenced by the West, where more importance is given to recreation and other enjoyment.

Regarding household chores, 73 per cent of the respondents selected from Japan carried out household chores themselves, as against only 47 per cent from India. Use of labour-saving devices is very high in Japan, which helps them to carry out household work by themselves. Besides, the concept of domestic help does not exist in Japan, which may be another factor for people to do the household chores by themselves. In India, lack of labour-saving devices particularly among the poor elderly necessitates family members to jointly complete various household chores.

Considerable variation was observed on the respondents ' membership in old age clubs. Majority of respondents from J a p a n (99 per cent) had membership in old age clubs, whereas in India only 18 per cent of the respondents had membership in such clubs (Figure 2).

Among the initiatives by the elderly, old age clubs are prominent as bases for various programmes in Japan. To help people enjoy their old age, elderly people are encouraged to utilise their wealth of knowledge and experience as active members of society by participating in old age clubs' activities. Hence most of them have membership in old age clubs and similar organisations. (Goodman, 2002)

But such a feature is not common in Indian. Hence, the membership of elderly in such institutions is very less. Out of the 27 respondents who had membership in old age clubs, the majority (63 per cent) participated in the religious activities organised by these clubs. But the


majority of respondents from Japan (77 per cent) participated in recreational activities of the clubs.

Religion plays a major role in the life of Indian people. This could be one of the reasons for the pronounced religious activities in old age clubs in India. In Japan, religion does not play any role in the routine activities of people and therefore the activities are focused on recreation and education. This reason can be attributed to the increased recreational activities among the old age club proceedings in Japan. It was also observed that the proportion of respondents who had participated in social work was high in Japan (48 per cent) compared to India (4 per cent) (Figure 3).


Now the Japanese elderly, with financial security through pension and other sources are trying to find true 'meaning of life' and their interest in social, work and volunteer activities has been growing in recent years. (Yoshida, 2003)

Majority of respondents from Japan (93 per cent) were aware of government programmes for the welfare of the elderly, whereas in India only 69 per cent were aware of such programmes. In Japan, majority of elderly women had membership in old age clubs and other welfare centres for elderly which functioned as a platform for bringing the elderly together, facilitated their interaction with one another, and provided information regarding the welfare of the elderly. Such a feature is not common in India.

The study revealed that majority of the respondents from India (77 per cent) preferred to spend their old age in their own homes, whereas in Japan only 27 per cent of the respondents preferred to stay in their own homes. It was also found that 51 per cent of respondents from Japan preferred to spend their old age in nursing homes/care houses, whereas no respondent from India preferred this option. Twelve per cent of respondents from Japan preferred old age homes as against 1 per cent in India (Figure 4).

FIGURE 4: Preference for Old Age Home

The preference for living in 'nursing homes/care houses' and 'old age homes' among the respondents from Japan could be due to the higher standard of services and care these institutions provide to elderly people. In India, living in care houses/old age homes is not a common feature. The preference for living in one's own home, among the respondents from India, could be due to the Indian tradition for people to live in their own homes.

To see whether there is any significant difference in the socioeconomic status of the respondents selected between the two countries, 'Z'-test was

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Socioeconomic Variables

Regular Personal Income

Financial Dependence on Children

Membership in Old Age Clubs

Activities in old age clubs: a) Religious b) Educational c) Recreational d) Social Work

5. Role in Decision-Making

Performance of Household Chores a) Self b) Joint Effort c) Children d) Servants

Awareness on the Welfare Programmes

Preference to spend old age in: a) Old Age homes b) Nursing homes/Care houses c) Own home

Labour-saving devices a) Refrigerator b) Mixer c) Vacuum Cleaner d) Microwave Oven < e) Washing Machine f) Pressure Cooker

Z

9.723**

4.326**

14.304**

4.136** 0.166 5.925

4.273** 2.273**

4.27.3**

4.59** 2.489*

1.536 1.741

5.151*

3.703** 10.178** 8.783**

5.5* 1.931

13.179**. 13.474** 10.003** 3.685**

Note: * Significant at 0.05 level; ** Significant at 0.01 level

Problems Commonly Faced by Elderly Women

Various familial, social, economic and mental problems of the respondents from both the countries were ranked. 'Health problems' stood out as the major problem and ranked first among the respondents from India, whereas in Japan 'fear of death' ranked first. But among the respondents from India, 'fear of death' was in the 11th position.

Majority of the elderly in India have faith in, religion compared to the elderly in Japan. 'Religious activities affect the older person's adaptation to ageing. The general loss of religious belief in any society may produce

used. Significant difference was found on the aspects like regular personal income, financial dependence on children, membership in old age clubs, activities in old age clubs, role in decision-making, doing household chores, availability of labour-saving devices, awareness of welfare programmes, and preferences in living during old age (Table 4).

TABLE 4: Socioeconomic Status of the Elderly Women in India and Japan


Health Problems Faced by Elderly Women

Some of the respondents had one or other illness and some of them reported a combination of ailments. Visual problem, difficulty in

a feeling of uncertainty' (Patel and Broota, 2000). Lack of belief could be the reason why 'fearing death' was high among Japanese elderly.

'Financial constraints' ranked fourth among the respondents from India whereas it ranked only 15th in Japan. It is obvious that the strong economy of Japan, increased employment opportunities for older persons, and prompt pension system are the reasons. Low income, lack of employment opportunities and irregular and inadequate pension system has aggravated the elderly's financial problems in India.

The study also indicated the weakening family relationships among Japanese people. 'Rude behaviour of children,' 'economic exploitation by children', 'lack of support from the spouse', 'forced to look after the grandchildren even though tired' and 'physical abuse by husband' were ranked high among problems by Japanese respondents (Table 5).

TABLE 5: Problems Faced by Elderly Women


walking, heart problem, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, hypertension and fatigue were high among the respondents from India. Significant difference was observed on the incidence of these diseases between the samples using 'Z'-Test. The incidence of various diseases was high among the respondents from India.

The higher incidence of liver disease among Japanese respondents (47 per cent) compared to India (8 per cent) is clear from Figure 5. A possible reason is the higher consumption of alcohol by the people in Japan.

FIGURE 5: Problems Faced by Elderly Women


The better health standard of Japanese elderly could be due. to their awareness on health care, improved lifestyle, high level of literacy, food habits, better medical facilities, better hygienic conditions, availability of safe drinking water, and unadulterated food.

India is a developing country. Like other developing countries, India too is also facing problems like poverty, low nutritional status of people, poor accessibility to health care services, lack of proper medical facilities, non-utilisation of health facilities, illiteracy, poor hygienic conditions, shortage of drinking waters, and malnutrition. It is obvious that these factors contribute to the increased incidence of diseases among the elderly in India.

According to Paul (1992), elderly women in India suffer from health problems because of (i) inferior diet; (ii) non-utilisation of health facilities; (iii) non-availability of medical facilities; (iv) less working years and earning of women; (v) economic dependence and non-working status; and (vi) gender bias.

IMPLICATIONS

It is obvious from the findings of this study that social, economic and health status of elderly women in Japan are far better than their counterparts in India. The study showed that the employment rates of

elderly respondents were higher in Japan compared to India. According to the Labour Force Survey (Japan: Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommunications, 2002), 13.3 per cent of females aged 65 and over were in the labour force.

In Japan, like in the other East Asian countries, the concept of 'work' is not just 'labour'. Work can give the elderly a sense of responsibility and mission as well a rhythm in life, which is good for their physical and mental health. Many corporations rehire their employees after a mandatory retirement. (Yoshida, 2003).

In India, 10.9 per cent of rural elderly women and 4.6 per cent of urban elderly women aged 60 and over were in the labour force according to the 2001 Census. Higher proportion of rural elderly women continue to work than the urban elderly women to meet their economic demands. Reasons such as the absence of old age pension and wage employment forces the elderly to be economically active till they are able to do so. The present study clearly reveals that there is a vast difference in the income of elderly respondents in the two countries — in that the proportion of respondents having personal income was much higher in Japan compared to that of India.

In Japan, pension is one of the major components in the social security package for the elderly and is distributed promptly. In 1985, Japan introduced the national basic pension system, in which all citizens had to participate. All Japanese citizens between the ages of 20 and 60 have joined one of three public systems:

1. The National Pension System — a public programme, for the self-employed and homemakers;

2. The Employee's Pension Fund and Mutual Aid Pension — a public system, involving salaried personnel and public workers; and

3. A defined benefit pension programme and/or a defined contribution pension programme, which are added on to the above.

The benefits for the elderly are paid by younger generations aged 20 and over as pension premiums (Yamada and Izumi, 2003).

In India, the present old age pension scheme is inadequate in quantum and incomplete in its coverage. The pension offered is almost static or the increase, if any, has been negligible and is not commensurate with the ever-increasing cost of living. Most of the elderly have no other personal income to supplement the meagre pension.

The higher proportion of membership in old age clubs in Japan shows that elderly women participate more actively in social activities as compared to the aged women in India. There is a nation-wide system of government supported elder's clubs, to which most of the aged women belong to and which provide community service, group study and recreation. In addition, welfare centres operating for the aged, offer educational, recreational and consultation services with little or no cost. Subsidies are given to those clubs involved in community service


and other activities that provide the elderly with value in life. Although these clubs receive funding from both the state and municipalities, their programmes are typically bottom-up initiatives, usually conceived as responses to community needs (Goodman, 2002). These facilities are not common in India.

The Ministry of Education, Government of Japan, brings together national, prefectural and local governments into a coordinated effort to support the participation of the elderly in society through learning and study (Japan: Prime Ministers' Office, 1995). The Japan NGO Council, which was established in 1998, was based on the five key words 'Independence', 'Self-fulfilment', 'Participation', 'Care', and 'Dignity'. The Charter of Older Persons, made by the Council in 1999, says 'In the aged society, older persons' social role is indispensable'. The goal of the Council is to integrate of older persons in the society (Yoshida, 2003).

The excellent health status of the elderly in Japan is the combined effect of the high health awareness of people and availability of health care facilities. To improve the health of the elderly, there is free annual health examination in Japan followed by more detailed examinations and treatments for those who need it. For persons above 70 years, medical examination and medical care is free (Nagar, 1987). In India, there is no such programme for the aged.

In Japan, medical insurance is available to all people, including the elderly, covered by health insurance and similar schemes by government and other agencies. Along with the improvements in living standards and better nutrition, the health insurance system has contributed in achieving levels of average life expectancy that are amongst the highest in the world. In addition, the health insurance

. system has also created an outstanding health and medical service, which was indicated as the best in the world by the World Health Organisation (WHO) (Japan: Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommunications, 2003).

It is worthwhile to note here the various medical insurance programmes that provide access to basic medical services on an equitable basis in Japan. All Japanese citizens are required to participate in one of these programmes:

. 1. Employees' health insurances (organised by companies).

2. Government-managed health insurance scheme (operated by the central government).

3. National Health Insurance programmes (managed by local governments).

4. Mutual Aid Insurances, in which all public servants must participate.

5. Long-term care insurance, where those aged 65 and over can receive long-term care services.

289 Socioeconomic Status of Elderly...


Salaried persons and their dependents may join either the employees' insurance schemes or the government-managed health insurance programme. Farmers, the self-employed, and senior citizens and their families participate in National Health Insurance (Yamada and Izumi, 2003).

Lack of health awareness among the elderly and financial constraints are the major contributory factors for the poor health of the elderly in India. Medical insurance scheme by the government is not prevalent in India. Health care system at various levels in our country is designed for the general population and no special provision/preferences are provided to take care of the elderly. The health of the elderly is a part of health care of general population (Raju, 2002). The Indian attitude that illness is part of old age is very much deep-rooted. There is inadequate appreciation of the need for geriatric health care services in India. The general lesson India can learn from Japan is that higher social and economic status of the elderly can be achieved through hard work, efficient and sustained effort of government and the people together.

SUGGESTIONS

One of the major problems that elderly women in India face is economic dependence. This arises due to insufficient or no pension, insufficient or no savings, lower employment opportunities, and inability to perform additional income-generating activities.

Pension is one of the most sought after income by old people. In Japan, under the 'National Basic Pension for All', full-time homemakers, usually the unemployed spouses of salaried workers, are eligible to receive a basic pension and their employed spouse receives an extra pension benefit (Japan: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, 2002). But such a pension scheme to support elderly women does not exist in India. The government's rigid rules regarding pension covers only selected categories of people, who are only a microscopic minority of the population and does not cover these who are really needy.

Therefore, it is suggested that pension eligibility rules should be standardised and measures for speedy grant of pension should be formulated for all needy people. Pension should be adequate to meet the minimum needs of the recipients and the pension payment system should be prompt. The payment system for this purpose should be streamlined and adequate budgetary provisions should be made for this purpose.

Taking Japan as a model, the Government of India should try to evolve separate pension scheme to cover the unemployed, full-time and dependent homemakers to provide old age economic security for the aged 'women. The scope of the present old age pension should be widened to include all eligible persons, irrespective of their


employment history. The pension should cover those elderly, especially women, who do not have adequate means of survival, and no children to support them in their old age.

In this context, it is suggested that alternate arrangements may be made for those elderly people who are not covered in the old age pension scheme, to engage them in income-generating schemes so that they can earn well to lead a satisfactory life. This will add to the economic growth of the country also, as this section of the population will be productively engaged. This will give the elderly women a sense of satisfaction and meaning in life, which is good for their physical as well as mental health. Apart from government agencies, private agencies and voluntary organisations should also be involved in developing income-generating programmes for elderly women. Small-scale and cottage industries can be developed to the maximum level if we utilise the skills and experience of elderly women productively for their economic betterment.

In the present study, we found that problems like 'feeling lonely' and 'lack of good friends to share feelings' ranked high among the respondents from India. Older people often feel alienated and lonely with the gradual decrease in participation in social activities. Participation in social, household and religious activities is essential for the well-being of the elderly. Connecting with family members, friends, neighbours and community groups brings happiness to all. In old age, this is more important, since older people are more likely to lose loved ones and friends and are, therefore, vulnerable to loneliness and dejection.

To help the elderly women overcome feelings of loneliness, to have sound physical and mental health, and to connect with the community, we suggest that the elderly women should be associated with creative and developmental programmes. Old age clubs and other organisations for elderly women should be formed, which will enable them to get involved in various social, recreational, educational and cultural activities.

Elderly women in India face different types of health-related issues due to various socioeconomic factors. The Government of India should implement a separate medical insurance scheme for the elderly, which will go a long way to mitigate the problem of health care of elderly. Health insurance policies for elderly women should also be formulated. There should be free medical care for the aged. Adequate free clinical facilities must be provided for the elderly women by opening dispensaries or through mobile dispensaries, especially for elderly women in rural areas. Both government and voluntary agencies must step in for such programmes.

A national security programme should be designed for disabled elderly women so that they can receive governmental support. There is a need to pay attention to the preventive aspects of health. To achieve this, elderly women should be educated on health, nutrition and better


hygienic practices in the community level as well as through the mass media. Government agencies and voluntary organisations should come forward for disseminating knowledge on health issues from time to time.

Special nursing homes for elderly women would be of great help for those who are in need of constant care due to considerable physical or mental disabilities and who are unable to receive proper care at home. There should be separate geriatric wards in all hospitals. Home help services should be implemented to provide care for the elderly who are bed-ridden and with other physical disabilities. Home helpers should be dispatched to provide nursing care at home for such persons. Special care houses for elderly women should be established at a low cost to those who are unable to lead fully independent lives due to age or recognised deterioration in physical capacity, and who are not in a position to receive support from their families.

We have a range of welfare programmes for various categories of people. But welfare programmes for the aged are very few. Hence, adequate attention needs to be given to develop programmes for the elderly to improve their socioeconomic and health status. Priority should be given to elderly women in all the programmes.

SUGGESTIONS BY RESPONDENTS

Respondents from India

• Old age pension should be improved and pension should be given regularly.

• Existing services offered by the government for the welfare of the elderly should be implemented more efficiently and streamlined.

• New policies and services for the aged should be evolved as the present services are not adequate quantitatively and qualitatively in the changed circumstances of modern living.

• The government should implement awareness programmes to make the elderly aware of various support services by the government.

• Separate queue system should be introduced for elderly women in various government offices and public places.

Respondents from Japan

• Government should provide adequate and exhaustive information regarding various government schemes offered for the elderly.

• Long waiting hours for getting things done is exasperating especially for the elderly. This problem should be attended to.

• Youngsters should be motivated properly to render adequate support to the elderly.

Formation of senior citizen forums for the elderly in every community could act as a platform to bring together the elderly and encourage their interaction. These forums should address various issues of the elderly people and find suitable solutions. There should be a separate wing for elderly women to address their problems. Consultation services should be provided through these forums. Home visits should be arranged by these forums to understand the actual living conditions of the elderly. These senior citizen forums should disseminate timely information related to various social, economic and health aspects to the elderly. Senior citizen forums should act as agencies to bridge the gap between the governmental organisations and the elderly.

Welfare centres should be established as a community-based initiative working with local volunteer groups, social organisations and charity organisations. These welfare centres should develop a range of educational and recreational programmes for the elderly people. It should develop programmes based on the community needs and ensure the participation of elderly women.

To support the poor elderly who are living alone, the government should form more old age homes with minimum cost. State-level agencies should be constituted for licensing, regulation and control of old age homes. Separate old age homes for elderly women are suggested. To improve the overall status of elderly women, adult education programmes should be widespread. They must be offered with education that will improve their quality of life and will provide value, dignity and meaning in life.


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Ageing has become a serious concern for women in India with a number of issues that are unique to them. Elderly women in India tend to be negatively affected with factors such as illiteracy or poor education, unemployment, widowhood, economic dependence, malnutrition, ill-health and other psychological problems. Like the younger age groups, the aged also require proper health and social care. In Japan, proper health care and social security packages provide far-reaching results in the quality of life of elderly people. The Law for the Welfare of the Aged in Japan declares that the elderly should be respected by society and clearly defines the responsibility of the state, as well as local bodies, relating to welfare measures for the elderly. The Law contains an abundance of policy measures, including provisions for residential care, a system of home helpers to visit and care for the elderly in their own homes, as well as providing for welfare centres, meeting places, and clubs for the elderly where active older people can initiate their own activities. In addition to this Law, Japan has a number of other laws for the elderly — Employee's Pension Insurance Law, National Pension Insurance Law, and Law for the Health of the Aged. The laws ensure guaranteed income, health care, housing, social

services, recreation, and other requirements of the aged. Total literacy for both males and females in Japan needs special mentioning.

India still has a long way to go to improve the status of the elderly, especially of elderly women. The skill and expertise of elderly women should be fully utilised in the nation-building process: There is lack of awareness regarding the potential contribution of aged women to the development process. There is an urgent need to formulate a range of welfare programmes and social security measures for the aged, with priority given to elderly women to improve their social, economic and health status. The government and voluntary agencies should work together in organising national-wide adult and continuing education programmes rigorously towards achieving this goal. Without this, all other efforts towards the promotion of social and economic status of elderly women would not be realised.

In India, studies have to be conducted on issues like social, security and recreational needs of elderly women to develop new policies for their welfare. Information on these aspects is crucial. In-depth studies on issues like socioeconomic problems, morbidity pattern and psychological stress of the elderly should be carried out. Studies have to be conducted on the provision and extent of utilisation of various social support programmes and health care facilities provided by the government and voluntary organisations for the welfare of elderly women.


REFERENCES

Goodman, R. 2002

Gowry, R. 2003

Gulati, L., Rajan, I. and Ramalingam, A. 1997

India: Office of the Registrar General 2002

Irudayarajan, S., Mishra, U. and Sharma, P. 1999

Japan: Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture 2002

Japan: Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare 2002

: Family and Social Policy in Japan: Anthropological Approaches, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

: Elderly Women: A Study of the Unorganised Sector, Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.

: Women and Work in Kerala: A Comparison of the 1981 and : 1991 Censuses, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 4(2),

222-231.

: Census of India 2001, New Delhi.

: India's Elderly: Burden or Challenge? New Delhi: Sage Publications.

: Report of School Basic Survey, Tokyo.

: Japan's Pension System, Tokyo.


Japan: Prime Minister's Office 1995

Japan: Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Posts and Telecommunications 2002

2003

Japan NGO Report Preparatory Committee 1990

Kapoor, S. and Kapoor, A. 2000

Mahadevan, K, Audinarayana, N., Jayasree, R. and Ramalingam, S. 1992

Naganawa, H. 1997

Nagar, S. 1987

Patel, A, and Broota, A. 2000

Paul, D. 1992

Raju, S. 2002

Renganath, 2002

Takashi, S. 1984

Yamada, Y. and Izumi, T. 2003

Yoshida, S. 2003

: Japanese Women Today, Tokyo.

: Labour Force Survey: Detailed Tabulations, Tokyo.

: Statistical Handbook of Japan-1, Tokyo.

: Women 2000: Japan NGO Alternative Report, Tokyo.

: Let us Care for Our Older Women, Research and Development Journal, 6(1), 19-21.

: Demographic and Social Implications of the Elderly in India. In P. Krishnan and K. Mahadevan (Eds.), The Elderly Population in Developed and Developing World: Policies, Problems and Perspectives, New Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation, 261-264.

: The World of the Elderly and the Silver Human Resources Centers, Japan Labour Bulletin, 36(6), 6-9.

: Status and Care of the Aged in India and Japan. In M.L. Sharma and T.M. Dak (Eds.), Ageing in India: Challenge for the Society, New Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 187-189.

: Loneliness and Death Anxiety among the Elderly: The Role of Family Set up and Religious Belief, Research and Development Journal, 6(3), 28-33.

: Ageing and the Aged, New Delhi: Inter-India Publications.

: Health of the Elderly in India: Issues and Implications, Research and Development Journal, 8(1), 25-29.

: Prospects of Health Insurance in India with Reference to Older Persons, Research and Development Journal, -8(1), 15-24.

: Japanese Women in Turmoil, Tokyo: Hakuhodo Institute of Life and Living Publishers.

: Ageing in Japan, Tokyo: Japan Ageing Research Centre.

: Social Participation among the Elderly, Tokyo: Japan Ageing Research Centre.

THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK, volume 67, Issue 3, July 2006

socioeconomic status of elderly women in india and...

Documents