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DEMOGRAPHIC SEGMENT

Population size

In population genetics and population ecology, population size (usually denoted N) is the number of individual organisms in a population.

The effective population size (Ne) is defined as "the number of breeding individuals in an idealized population that would show the same amount of dispersion of allele frequencies under random genetic drift or the same amount of inbreeding as the population under consideration."

Definition: The best definition of a population size is the number of people or other living creatures within a given area. This number varies depending on the number of births and deaths at any given time.

Impact of population size on market demand under a market economy

This article presents an analysis of the relationship between population size and market demand. It is argued that a smaller elasticity of a product is related to a greater impact of the size of population on the consumption of such a product. Greater elasticity reduces the impact of population. The impact of population is also mediated by average salary and salary structure. Salary structure affects prices, and prices affect supply and demand, which affect consumption. In a market-oriented economic system, the impact of population size on market demand affects supply and demand and prices. Current market demand reflects the effect of supply and demand in previous periods. Current population size will affect future market demand through prices and supply elasticity. Population changes are slow, and consumption changes are slow. The slowness of the process of change means there is time to adjust production and distribution in order to achieve stability in market supply. Control of price increases and inflation will promote economic growth, social stability, and improvement socialist market economic system. It is argued that the supply of bicycles is elastic. Despite increased investment, labor, and fixed assets, profits will not grow. However the entertainment industry, as well as education, public welfare, urban utilities, non-commercialized housing, and telephones are less elastic. A large consumer population and smaller supply elasticity result in high costs of installation, which are made higher by the state monopoly. It is argued that in China it is necessary to regulate certain necessities with less market elasticity in order to be consistent with optimum allocation of resources.

The Impact of Population Growth on Tomorrow’s World:

The experts writing in this volume conclude that slowing population growth is essential if the world’s poor are to be lifted out of poverty, and if the next generations are to live in a biologically sustainable economy. Coming from many disciplines, the authors emphasize how the size, rate of growth and age structure of the human population interact with many other key factors, from environmental change – including atmospheric pollution – to conflict and the breakdown of governance. Fortunately, the assumption that people must become richer or better

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educated before they have fewer children is being replaced by a clearer understanding of the many barriers that separate women from the knowledge and technologies they need to manage the size of their family. When these barriers are removed, family size falls even in poor, illiterate communities. Conversely, as a result of lost attention to family planning since the 1990s, the projection for the population of several countries in 2050 has been raised. Investment in family planning and education interact synergistically. It is therefore imperative that attention be given to the large and growing unmet need for family planning.

Age Structure

Categorization of the population of communities or countries by age groups, allowing demographers to make projections of the growth or decline of the particular population.

Definition: The age structure of a population is the distribution of people among various ages. In graphic form, age structure is portrayed as an age pyramid whose relatively broad base indicates the number of children while the peak reflects the increasing likelihood of death as people age. A population whose age structure has a very broad base and a sharp narrow peak is said to be “young,” while a structure whose base is not much wider than the rest of the pyramid is “old.”

Effects of age-structure

Age Structure of the Workforce and Firm Performance

An important task of human resource management is the development and retention of an efficient workforce. Therefore, applicants have to be checked, whether they are in line with the requirements of a certain job. Besides, the characteristics of employees may change over time and comparative advantages differ between young and older workers. The productivity of a certain employee might be affected by her colleague. It might matter, whether this employee works together with a similar-aged colleague or with someone from a very different generation. It is important to know, whether firms with homogeneous rather than heterogeneous workforces are doing well.

In 2001, the median age of Bangladesh population was about 18 years. From 1951, the death rate started declining but with little effect on birth rate. The population increased from 40.21 million in 1951, 89.9 million in 1981,109.9 million in 1991and 130.5 million in 2001. As the second phase of the theory of demographic transition has been passing through the composition of census data of 1974, 1981, 1991 and 2001 respectively, show the "baby boom" generation and slight edge of the population in the old ages.

In the context of the present characteristics of young population, the rapid population growth accompanied with the ageing of population has its impact on bio-social and socio-economic

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aspects of the population. The high population growth rate of Bangladesh is caused not only by current or high past fertility but also by the "momentum" created by the high fertility and falling mortality in the past five decades.

In Bangladesh, the potential exists for a second-generation "baby boom" resulting from this changing age structure. Unless compensated for by a rapid fall in the fertility of younger married women, who should be reached by more effective family planning programmers and benefited by other associated socio-economic improvements, birth rates and population growth rates are unlikely to fall. In considering the future policy direction for fertility regulation, it is important to take note of this emerging phenomenon.

During the transition from high to low fertility in Bangladesh, an unprecedented proportion of the population will be between the age 15 and 64 years, which are roughly the working ages. The working-age population will increase at a rate considerably higher than that of the total population, and initially the larger increments in absolute terms will be to the younger half the working ages. The rapid increase in the population in the younger working ages between 2010 and 2020 will pose a serious challenge to Bangladesh to generate sufficient employment opportunities.

Similarly, the faster growth of labor-force in the coming years of this century will require long-term perspective planning for necessary adjustment in manpower planning as well as the economy in general. Changes in age structure would also imply changes in consumption patterns and level of saving and investment. Therefore, planning for production, consumption, investment, distribution and so forth should reflect the changes in age structure.

Between now and 2025, the country will witness its maximum population growth. Such growth threatens severe implications not only in the alleviation of poverty but also in such matters as food supplies, employment, housing, health care, forests and other natural resources, and the environment.

In conclusion, we can say that no matter what we do, the population will continue to increase over the 40 years, that with tomorrow's mother already born, even major fall in family size would mean that many more babies would be born in the following generation than the present one. As such, the age-structure of population is an important field for policy planning and policy implementers to study.

Geographical DistributionDefinition: the natural arrangement and apportionment of the various forms of animals and plants in the different regions and localities of the earth.

This word doesn't usually appear in our free dictionary, but the definition from our premium Unabridged Dictionary is offered here on a limited basis. Note that some information is displayed differently in the Unabridged.

To access the complete Unabridged Dictionary, with an additional 300,000 words that aren't in our free dictionary, starts a free trial. Put simply, geographic distribution is the way plants and

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animals are organized within a given area. The study of geographic distribution is part of the field of biogeography, which seeks to answer not only where animals live, but the reasons behind their presence in these locations.

The geographic distributions and phylogenetic relationships of surface taxa and related subterranean taxa can help to distinguish between the two key hypotheses of origin;

Impact of Geographic distribution

Diversity in customer culture and business Geographical distribution exacerbated the problems associated with a large (and conflicting) set of requirements created by the use of the system in diverse market, national, and organizational cultures. Firstly, customers’ language is a critical factor that directly impacts activities such as requirements elicitation and validation since language barriers affect the transfer of knowledge of requirements to field personnel and developers. Additional challenges emerge at several levels: market trends may differ by market segment; differences in national culture often lead to requirements be meaningful in the context of certain cultural beliefs and values (e.g. some countries may value stability and ask for a requirement only because it was in previous releases, when other clients favor new features in the system for continuous progress). Furthermore, distance increases the likelihood of diversity in corporate culture, i.e. system usage in an existing methodology.

Geographically distributed teams are increasingly prevalent in the workplace, and research on distributed teams is ever more available. Despite this increased attention, we still know surprisingly little about how the dynamics of distributed teams differ from those of their collocated counterparts and how existing models of teams apply to this new form of work. For example, although it has been argued that distributed as compared with collocated teams have more severe conflicts that fester longer and resist resolution, few comparative studies investigate dynamics such as conflict in both distributed and collocated teams .

Ethnic Mix

Definition: People of the same race or nationality who share a distinctive culture.

An ethnic group is a group of people who share a common characteristic that makes them unique to every other group. An example of an ethnic group would share the same culture or race.

Ethnic group defined the term ethnic group is generally understood in anthropological literature (cf.e.g.Narroll1964) to designate a population which:

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1. is largely biologically self-perpetuating2. Shares fundamental cultural values, Realized in overt unity in cultural forms3. Makes up a field of communication & interaction

1. pertaining to or characteristic of a people, especially a group (ethnic group) sharing a common and distinctive culture, religion, language, or the like.

2. Referring to the origin, classification, characteristics, etc., of such groups.

4. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of members of such a group.

5. Belonging to or deriving from the cultural, racial, religious, or linguistic traditions of a people or country: ethnic dances.

Effect of Ethnic Mix in Business Organization:

Potential trainees from minority ethnic groups needed to be made aware of the availability of training courses by appropriate means. Personal recommendation through word of mouth was particularly important in many minority ethnic communities. Training projects to benefit minority ethnic groups had to both encourage and enable trainees to ‘get through the door’.

City Challenges also sought to reduce other barriers to participation in training provide pastoral care and welfare support during training and careers advice before, during and after training.

Many trainees from minority ethnic groups required basic skills training before they could access mainstream training courses. Training projects needed to make trainees ready for further training and/or improve confidence levels and motivation for training. Once they had undergone City Challenge training programmers, the outcomes for minority ethnic and white trainees were not dissimilar.

Business support strategies were generally aimed at growth and job creation wherever it could be nurtured. However, there was little evidence of explicit attempts to target and support those minority ethnic businesses attempting to break out of markets serving their own communities.

Awareness of business support services was enhanced among minority ethnic businesses by establishing channels of communication both to individual firms and to groups of firms, and fostering networks of local minority ethnic businesses and/or all local businesses.

Business support agencies needed to, first, demonstrate sensitivity to minority ethnic business needs, problems and opportunities; second, be sufficiently aware of and sensitive to the diversity of minority ethnic business in order to provide appropriate and targeted business support and, third, have credibility in the eyes of minority ethnic business people.

Income distribution

Definition: The distribution of wages earned across a company, industry, or country. Income distribution reveals what percentage of individuals are at various wage levels, information that can reveal more about overall wage patterns than average income.

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Economic Definition of income distribution

Term income distribution Definition: The manner in which income is divided among the members of the economy. A perfectly equal income distribution would mean everyone in the country has exactly the same income. The income distribution in the good old U. S. of A., while more equal than most nations of the world, is far from perfectly equal. A certain amount of inequality in the income distribution is to be expected because resources are never equally distributed. Some labor is naturally going to be more productive--better able to produce the stuff that consumers want--and thus get more income. The same is true for capital, land, entrepreneurship. However, without government intervention, an unequal distribution of income tends to perpetuate itself. Those who have more income, can invest in additional productive resources, and thus can add even more to their income.

The impact of the crisis on the distribution of income Labor hoarding, as a result of the reduction of working time, is likely to be quickly undone as the economy recovers. This will mean, however, that economic recovery will be initially characterized by jobless growth, so that the decline in unemployment will be slow.

The crisis may also be the immediate reason for – albeit not the ultimate cause of – radical reform of pension systems. In view of the ageing of the population and increasing longevity, a limitation of future pensions is usually an important element of these reforms with a view to safeguarding the financial sustainability of the pension system in the long run. Consequently, the relative income of pensioners may decline and their risk of poverty will increase in the long run.

Tax rises will, of course, affect average income levels negatively. The impact on income distribution is less clear-cut and depends on the precise nature of the measures taken. A rise of indirect taxes usually increases income inequality, since savings, which constitute a larger proportion of higher incomes, are exempt from this tax rise. The effect on income inequality of a rise in direct taxes depends on the progressivity of the tax rise.

Income Inequality, and Its Cost

INEQUALITY has always been part of the American economy, but the gap between the rich and the poor has recently been widening at an alarming rate. Today, more than 40 percent of total income is going to the wealthiest 10 percent, their biggest share of the nation's pie in at least 65 years. The social and political repercussions of this disparity have been widely debated, but what about the effects on the economy?

Oddly, despite its position in the political debate, the question has received little attention from economists. Mostly, they have focused on measuring income inequality and establishing its causes. Some research has been done, however, and the results, including insights from related disciplines like psychology and political science, are disturbing.

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In the United States, there is plenty of evidence that this has been occurring. Bush administration policies that have already reduced the estate tax and cut the top income and capital gains tax rates benefit the well-to-do. It seems hardly an accident that the gap between rich and poor has widened.

Professor Pressman relates those results to economic behavior in corporate America. "If a C.E.O.'s salary is going through the roof and workers are getting pay cuts, what will happen?" he said. "Workers can't outright reject the offer — they need to work — but they can reject it by working less hard and not caring about the quality of what they are producing. Then the whole efficiency of the firm is affected."

THE effects of income inequality aren't entirely negative. Without some inequality, there would be little economic incentive to earn more. And some researchers, particularly advocates of supply-side theories, predict that as the rich get richer, their increased wealth will be used for greater savings and investment, thereby bolstering growth. The latest data on the American economy, though, do not seem to support this prediction.

ECONOMIC SEGMENT

Inflation rate

Definition: In simple language, inflation means rising prices and it shows the increase in cost of living. In economics, inflation is explained as rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. With the rise in price levels a unit of currency will buy fewer goods and services. As a result, the purchasing power of money will be reduced with

inflation. In other words the real value of money will be lost day by day along with inflation. The percentage increase in the price of goods and services, usually annually.

Effects of Inflation

The most immediate effects of inflation are the decreased purchasing power of the dollar and its depreciation. Depreciation is especially hard on retired people with fixed incomes because their money buys a little less each month. Those not on fixed incomes are more able to cope because they can simply increase their fees. A second destabilizing effect is that inflation can cause consumers and investors to change their speeding habits. When inflation occurs, people tend to spend less meaning that factories have to lay off workers because of a decline in orders. A third destabilizing effect of inflation is that some people choose to speculate heavily in an attempt to take advantage of the higher price level. Because some of the purchases are high-risk investments, spending is diverted from the normal channels and some structural unemployment may take place. Finally, inflation alters the distribution of income. Lenders are generally hurt more than borrowers during long inflationary periods which mean that loans made earlier are repaid later in inflated dollars.

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How high inflation rate affects on business and economy

Inflation is measured by the Rate of Inflation or Inflation Rate which is the percentage change in a general price index.

A low inflation rate is beneficial to a country and zero or negative inflation is considered as bad. Also, a high inflation is harmful to an economy and it affects an economy in many ways.

High inflation distorts consumer behavior. Because of the fear of price increases, people tend to purchase their requirements in advance as much as possible. This can destabilize markets creating unnecessary shortages.

High inflation redistributes the income of people. The fixed income earners and those lacking bargaining power will become relatively worse off as their purchasing power falls.

Trade unions may demand for higher wages at times of high inflation. If the claims are accepted by the employers, it may give rise to a wage-price spiral which may aggravate the inflation problem.

During a high inflation period, wide fluctuations in the inflation rate make it difficult for business organizations to predict the future and accurately calculate prices and returns from investments. Therefore, it can undermine business confidence.

When inflation in a country is more than that in a competitive country, the exports from former country will be less attractive compared to the other country. This means there will be less sales for that country’s goods both at home and abroad and that will create a larger trade deficit. At the same time, high inflation in a country weakens its competitive position in the international market.

Interest Rate

Definition: The interest rate is the yearly price charged by a lender to a borrower in order for the borrower to obtain a loan. This is usually expressed as a percentage of the total amount loaned.

Effects of Raising Interest Rates

If a central bank increases the base rate, this tends to increase all major interest rates in the economy. This means interest rates for both savers and borrowers will increase.

Higher interest rates will have various economic effects:

Therefore, higher interest rates will tend to reduce consumer spending and investment. This will lead to a fall in Aggregate Demand.

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 Effect of Higher Interest Rates - AD/AS

In this AD/AS diagram, higher interest rates have reduced AD causing lower real GDP and lower inflation.

 

Trade Deficit

Definition: Excess of a nation's imports of goods (tangibles) over its export of goods during a financial year, resulting in a negative balance of trade. Opposite of trade surplus.

A trade deficit occurs when the value of a country's imports is greater than the value of its exports. This means that the country's balance of trade is negative.

Effects of a Trade DeficitInitially, a trade deficit is not a bad thing. It raises the standard of living of a country's residents, since they now have access to a wider variety of goods and services for a more competitive price. It can reduce the threat of inflation, since the products are priced lower. A trade deficit can also indicate that the country's residents are feeling confident, and wealthy, enough to buy more than the country produces.

Over time, however, a trade deficit can cause jobs outsourcing. That's because, as a country imports certain goods rather than buying domestically, the local companies start to go out of business. The domestic business itself will lose the expertise needed to produce that good competitively. As a result, fewer jobs in that industry are created in the home country. Instead, the foreign companies hire new workers to keep up with the demand for their exports.

For this reason, many leaders propose reducing the trade deficit to increase jobs. They often blame trade agreements for causing deficits. A great example is the world's largest trade agreement, the North American Free Trade Agreement, or NAFTA. A response to trade deficits is often to raise import tariffs, or other forms of trade protectionism. However, these rarely work.

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That's because the industry is usually already moribund, and the skills lost, by the time these policies are suggested.

Budget deficit

Definition: The amount by which a government, company, or individual's spending exceeds its income over a particular period of time. also called deficit or deficit spending. Opposite of budget surplus.Excess of spending over income for a government, corporation, or individual over a particular period of time. A budget deficit accumulated by the federal government of the United States must be financed by the issuance of Treasury bonds .Corporate deficits must be reduced or eliminated by increasing sales and reducing expenditures, or the company will not survive in the long run.Similarly, individuals who consistently spend more than they earn will accumulate huge debts, which may ultimately force them to declare bankruptcy if the debt cannot be serviced. The opposite of a deficit is a surplus.

Impacts for Budget Deficit

Some common impacts of government budgets include:

Sovereign Debt - Budget deficits can lead to lower sovereign debt ratings, if structural balances remain in negative territory for too long, while budget surpluses can lead to lower interest rates on sovereign debt due to an improved credit rating.

Tax Code Change - Structural deficits necessitate changes to either revenues or spending, with the former being the easiest to implement. Tax increases aimed at improving these deficits can negatively impact corporations/equities.

Currency Valuation - Financial markets can quickly lose faith in countries unable to resolve structural deficits, resulting in potential currency devaluations, while increased confidence in a country can lead to higher currency valuations.

Increased borrowing-The govt will have to borrow from the private sector, it does this by asking the Bank of England to sell bonds and gilts to the private sector.

Higher debt interest payments-Selling bonds will increase the national debt, this is currently £300 billion. The annual interest payments is approximately £23 billion, this has a high opportunity cost because it requires future generations to pay higher taxes.

Increased AD-A budget deficit implies lower taxes and increased G, this will increase AD and this may cause higher Real GDP and inflation.

Higher Taxes and lower spending -In the future the govt may have to increase taxes or cut spending in order to reduce the deficit. This may cause reduced incentives to work

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Increased Interest rates-If the govt sells more bonds this is likely to cause interest rates to increase. This is because they will need to increase interest rates in order to attract investors to buy the extra debt. If govt interest rates increase this will push up other interest rates as well.

Crowding Out-Increased govt borrowing may cause a decrease in the size of the private sector.

Inflation:o In extreme circumstances the govt may increase the money supply to pay the debt,

however this is unlikely to occur in the UKo If the govt sells short term gilts to the banking sector then there will be an

increase in the money supply, this is because banks see gilts as near money therefore they can maintain their lending to customers.

Gross Domestic Product

Definition of 'Gross Domestic Product - GDP'The monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period, though GDP is usually calculated on an annual basis. It includes all of private and public consumption, government outlays, investments and exports less imports that occur within a defined territory.

GDP = C + G + I + NX

where:"C" is equal to all private consumption, or consumer spending, in a nation's economy"G" is the sum of government spending"I" is the sum of all the country's businesses spending on capital"NX" is the nation's total net exports, calculated as total exports minus total imports. (NX = Exports - Imports)

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and Its Effect on the Market

The Gross Domestic Product of a country is its total economic output where all its goods and services created inside its borders within a year are given a corresponding market value. It is a good indicator of the standard of living as it reflects total production, income and consumption.  However due to social inequality, the standard of living varies from person to person. GDP includes all outputs coming from the agriculture, manufacture, services, and extractive industries as well and public and private goods. 

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Ideally, there should be a growth rate of about 6% per year. A proper way to compare GDP data year after year is to factor in inflation, deflation, and population growth.   This way we can compute for real growth in the economy. If the GDP only increases in proportion with population growth, then there is no growth at all. Given such, the economy is expected to grow by 6% or more.  If not, then this could be a sign that there are problems in the economy.

A country’s currency is a direct reflection of its GDP.  The total amount of money in a given country is equal to the total amount of its economic production. The higher the GDP, the stronger is the currency and its purchasing power.

An experienced foreign trader would have to make cross country comparisons on the GDP’s and the currencies of many nations. This is usually done by comparing exchange rates using global currency rates of exchange.  Then by factoring trends in the market of each country, one can have a fairly good grasp of what currency is getting stronger and what currency is getting weaker.  If there is a growth pattern in the GDP of one economy, then the best decision is to buy that currency because its value will increase through the years.  Just make sure that this country can sustain growth through the years because it may sometimes happen that GDP growth may not be sustainable due to environmental factors and other variables.

In the analysis it is best to factor in data on the Balance of Trade and Balance of Payments.  If the statistics on these register a surplus through the years while GDP growth rate is 6% and higher, then one can fairly expect that the value of its currency is going to go up. 

POLITICAL/LEGAL SEGMENT

Antitrust laws

Definition : The antitrust laws apply to virtually all industries and to every level of business, including manufacturing, transportation, distribution, and marketing. They prohibit a variety of

practices that restrain trade. Definition of 'Sherman Antitrust Act'-Anti-monopoly U.S. legislation which attempted to increase economic competitiveness. The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 made it illegal for companies to seek a monopoly on a product or service, or form cartels.

Impact of Antitrust Laws

Antitrust laws affect business and decision making by managers. Business activities are often influenced by its competitors and customers. So as not to raise suspicions of violating antitrust laws it is important for a business to keep in mind the following with regards to dealing with its competitors ( Abbott Laboratories, 2005):

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Forming agreements or understanding that could wrongly restrict competition such as price fixing, market allocation, group boycott, and bid rigging.

Discussing competitive information such as pricing policies, distribution policies, supplier pricing or selection, customer selection or classification, credit policies, advertising policies and other critical information is strictly prohibited.

Meeting with competitors to agree or discuss competitive information is not allowed.

With regards to a business dealing with customers, antitrust laws, generally, prohibit the following:

1. Selection of customers – an effective example of this would be a company who does not cater to customers that also deal with competitors.

2. Non-Price Restrictions – restrictions that do not involve price e.g., a customer can resell the company's products only to approved or designated persons. Of course, the ‘rule of reason’ applies to this restriction. So it is up to the company to determine if the restriction is within required limits approved by law.

3. Resale Price Maintenance – it is unlawful for the company’s customer to set the resale price of the product. But this rule again is subject to ‘rule of reason’. This practice may be legal but up to a certain degree or within reasonable bounds.

4. Price discrimination – seller must treat all buyers without discrimination in price.

Exceptions to this rule are:

Meeting competition rule – that is a seller is allowed to lower the price set to a particular customer to counter competitor’s low price.

Cost justification – proper documentation is necessary for proof

Services, Facilities and Promotional Allowances – all of these must be available all purchasers.

Exclusive Dealing Arrangements – commits the buyer to buy most or all of its products from a particular seller.

Tying arrangements – this practice conditions the sale of a product to purchase a different product or service from the same company (Keeley, et al. 2005).

It is important for a company to consider the above prohibitions before going into business with a customer or in dealing with its competitors. Management decisions must take the antitrust laws into account in order to prevent sanctions or other grave penalties should violations occur.

On the part of the customers, the introduction of antitrust legislation enables the consumers to enjoy lower prices, better product diversity, giving them more choices. Since the influence of large cartels is decreased, they need to compete effectively by catering to the customers’ needs.

Businesses, on the other hand, especially those that are just starting are assured that large businesses could not put them out of business. In the long run, this would provide ample opportunities for the business to grow.

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Antitrust does not only favor the customers. In a way, it helps the competing companies too because it enables them to use resources available to them in the most efficient way. They make profits by offering the products consumers are looking for at the price consumers are willing to pay for the amount they need to buy.

Tax Law

Definition: Tax law refers to the rules constituting the law applicable to taxation. In the United States, these rules include the Internal Revenue Code and other statutes, regulations, the Constitution and common-law court decisions. Tax law also refers to the area of legal study regarding these rules.

Impact of Tax on Investment and Business Decisions

Every individual and corporation within the United States is taxed on income earned. Taxes must be filed by April 15 of every year, and failure to file or pay taxes can subject you or your company to penalties including fines, interest and even possible jail time. For most companies and businesses, paying taxes is a necessary evil and the aim is to reduce the amount of taxes owed as much as possible. Thus, the impact of tax on investment and business decisions usually comes down to how to reduce taxes as much as possible on income earned.

Income of Tax on Investment Decisions

The taxes pay on your investments can reduce the amount of money actually make from a given investment. For example, if you invest in a stock and make 15 percent on money, may be taxed on those gains. If taxed on the investment at 10 percent, then really only made 13.5 percent on money.

How are Investments Taxed

In reality, most people pay more than 10 percent on their gains. The rate a person pays on an investment depends on whether the investment is taxed as ordinary income or not. If the investment is taxed as ordinary income, the amount you pay in taxes depends on your tax bracket. For example, you may be in the 10 percent, 15 percent, 25 percent, 28 percent, 33 percent and 35 percent tax bracket. Investments taxed as ordinary income include stocks you have held for less than one year.

How This Impacts Your Investment Choices

The different tax rates can have an impact on how you choose to invest. For example, you may decide not to hold a stock because you do not want to be subject to capital gains taxes, or you may on the other hand opt to avoid day trading to avoid income from your trades being taxed as

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ordinary income. You may also prefer to consider real estate investments, if you want a more tax-free way of earning income.

Other individuals may also try to take advantage of tax deferred investments or investments that offer certain tax advantages. For example, you may opt to open an IRA, which allows you to invest tax free, or a Roth IRA, which allows you to enjoy tax free gains, depending on whether you believe your tax bracket is likely to rise or fall.

The impact of taxes on investments generally depends on how much have to invest and how sophisticated an investor. You should consider speaking to a financial planner or accountant or tax attorney, if you have a lot of money to invest and are concerned about how taxes will affect your gains.

Labor training law

Labor law concerns the inequality of bargaining power between employers and workers. Union labor laws offer rights and restrictions for employees

Labor law (also called labor law or employment law) is the body of laws, administrative rulings, and precedents which address the legal rights of, and restrictions on, working people and their organizations. As such, it mediates many aspects of the relationship between trade unions, employers and employees. In Canada, employment laws related to unionized workplaces are differentiated from those relating to particular individuals. In most countries however, no such distinction is made. However, there are two broad categories of labor law. First, collective labor law relates to the tripartite relationship between employee, employer and union. Second, individual labor law concerns employees' rights at work and through the contract for work. The labor movement has been instrumental in the enacting of laws protecting labor rights in the 19th and 20th centuries. Labor rights have been integral to the social and economic development since the Industrial Revolution. Employment standards are social norms (in some cases also technical standards) for the minimum socially acceptable conditions under which employees or contractors will work. Government agencies enforce employment standards codified by labor law (legislative, regulatory, or judicial).

Effects of Labor training Laws

Training Impact on the Firm’s Productivity and EfficiencyThe goal of the program is to teach entrepreneurial skills. However, if the entrepreneurial “spirit” is more about personality than skills, teaching an individual to engage in activities similar to a successful entrepreneur may not actually lead to improved business outcomes. The training aims to improve basic business practices such as how to treat clients, how to use profits, where to sell, the use of special discounts, credit sales, and the goods and services produced. These improvements should lead to more sales, more workers, and could eventually provide incentives to join the formal sector. We also examine the impact on two sets of household outcomes: household decision-making and child labor. The link to household decision-making is straightforward and one of the oft-cited motivations of such training: improved business success could empower female micro

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entrepreneurs with respect to their husbands/partners in business and family decisions by giving them more control of their finances. The link to child labor is ambiguous, however. Since many children work in family enterprises, this is an important outcome to observe. The training may lead to changes in the business which either increase or decrease the marginal product of labor, hence increase or decrease child labor through a substitution effect. If the training increases business income, then we expect increased wealth to lead to a decrease in child labor and an increase in schooling.

Furthermore, an indirect effect may occur in which the training inspires the mother to value education more and thus invest more in schooling of her children.

In addition to impact on the clients R businesses and households, the training could impact important outcomes for the microfinance institution (MFI). If clients’ businesses improve, they are more able to repay their loans. The training also may engender goodwill and sentiments of reciprocity, also leading to higher repayment rates. Loan sizes and savings volumes are more ambiguous: if clients learn how to manage their cash flows better, they perhaps will need less debt. On the other hand, the business training may lead them to expand their business, and thus also demand more financial capital. Although much of the academic literature focuses on repayment rates for microfinance, many are more concerned with client retention. The expected effects here are ambiguous. If clients like the training, they may be more likely to remain in the program in order to receive the training, whereas obviously if they do not like the training they may be more likely to leave. The net effect is critical for the microfinance institution, since maintaining a stable client base is important for the sustainability of the organization.

Philosophy of education

Philosophy of education can refer to either the academic field of applied philosophy or to one of any educational philosophies that promote a specific type or vision of education, and/or which examine the definition, goals and meaning of education.

As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems...its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy". The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be meta disciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline."

The Impact of Philosophical & Educational

IMPACT was launched in 1999 as an initiative of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain (PESGB). Written by leading general philosophers and philosophers of education, IMPACT provides a unique forum for the analysis of education policy and practice from a

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philosophical perspective, and will be of interest to policy-makers, politicians, practitioners, academics and students alike.

The launch of each pamphlet has been accompanied by a symposium for policy makers and others at which issues raised in the pamphlets have been further explored. These have been attended by Government ministers, Shadow ministers and other MPs, by members of a wide range of organizations including the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, the Institute of Directors, the Trades Union Congress, the General Teaching Council, the National Union of Teachers, the National Society, Polities, Civitas and Demos, and by leading educational journalists and academics.

IMPACT pamphlets express the ideas of their authors and do not represent the views of the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain. The Society has several hundred members whose views are widely disparate.

Part of the explanation for this diffuse state-of-affairs is that, quite reasonably, most philosophers of education have the goal (reinforced by their institutional affiliation with Schools of Education and their involvement in the initial training of teachers) of contributing not to philosophy but to educational policy and practice. This shapes not only their selection of topics, but also the manner in which the discussion is pursued; and this orientation also explains why philosophers of education—to a far greater degree, it is to be suspected, than their “pure” cousins—publish not in philosophy journals but in a wide range of professionally-oriented journals. Some individuals work directly on issues of classroom practice, others identify as much with fields such as educational policy analysis, curriculum theory, teacher education, or some particular subject-matter domain such as math or science education, as they do with philosophy of education. It is still fashionable in some quarters to decry having one's intellectual agenda shaped so strongly as this by concerns emanating from a field of practice; but as Stokes (1997) has made clear, many of the great, theoretically-fruitful research programs in natural science had their beginnings in such practical concerns—as Pasteur's groundbreaking work illustrates. It is dangerous to take the theory versus practice dichotomy too seriously. However, there is another consequence of this institutional housing of the vast majority of philosophers of education that is worth noting—one that is not found in a comparable way in philosophers of science.

Deregulation Philosophies

Deregulation Philosophies -as a linchpin of economic structure reform-

Deregulation will -

1) Enable improvement of the level of the quality of life of citizens by reducing price differences between Japan and foreign nations and by providing larger choices for products and services,

2) Open a way for reform of economic structures propelled by the entrepreneurship through eliminating, as much as possible, government interference in private sector business activities,

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3) Enable government sector get over their financial difficulties by streamlining their operations and make it possible to distinguish between function of the government and function of private sector, and

4) Contribute to improve relationship with foreign

Impact of deregulation Philophies

As stated above, the effect of deregulation is expected to spread to a large area. In addition to the effect, what is most important today is the effect of deregulation on economic structural reform. Though Japan's efforts to catch up with advanced nations in the past half century since the end of the World War II has been completed, society is faced with ordeals such as rapidly aging society and the age of head-to-head competitions, which heightens a need for urgent and drastic reform of the economic structure .