Structuring and Analyzing Arguments:

The Classical and Toulmin, Models

Junior AP EnglishSeptember 23, 2008

Key Terms: Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning = in traditional Aristotelian logic, the process of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises; inference by reasoning from the general to the specific

Inductive Reasoning = the process of reasoning from the specific to the general, in which the premises of an argument are believed to support the conclusion but do not ensure it. Inductive reasoning is used to formulate laws based on limited observations of recurring patterns.

Inductive Reasoning, Continued

In literary and rhetorical analysis, use inductive reasoning. Base your analysis on the evidence in the text (or backpack).

In persuasive/expository argument writing, it is still a good strategy to collect evidence and see where it leads you, rather than forcing the data to fit your claim.

Classical Argument

Began in ancient Greece, approximately fifth century B.C.

Communicated orally and designed to be easily understood by listeners

Based on formal logic, including the syllogism

Six main components

Key Terms: The Syllogism

Three-part deductive argument, in which conclusion follows from two premises

A straightforward example:Major premise: All people have hearts.Minor premise: John is a person.Conclusion: Therefore, John has a

heart.

Classical Argument: Six Elements

1) Introduction: captures attention of audience; urges audience to consider your case

2) Statement of Background: narrates the key facts and/or events leading up to your case

3) Proposition: states the position you are taking, based on the information you’ve already presented, and sets up the structure of the rest of your argument

4) Proof: discusses your reasons for your position and provides evidence to support each reason

5) Refutation: anticipates opposing viewpoints; then demonstrates why your approach is the only acceptable one (i.e. better than your opponents’)

6) Conclusion: summarizes your most important points and can include appeals to feelings or values (pathos and ethos)

The Toulmin Model

Developed by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in the 1950’s

Emphasizes that real-life logic often based on probability rather than certainty

Focuses on claims that are based on evidence (inductive)

Three primary components

Toulmin Model: Three Components

Three components:Data = the evidence that leads one

to believe the claim, aka the reasons

Claim = the main point or positionWarrant = an underlying assumption

or basic principle that connects data and claim; often implied rather than explicit

Toulmin Model: An Example

Data = The parents of nearly all of the juniors at UHS have given their children permission to attend Joe Shmo’s party on Friday night.

Claim = My parents should allow me to go to Joe’s party.

Warrant = My parents should act in accordance with the other parents of juniors at UHS.

Uh-oh, a potential snag…

What if my parents don’t “buy” my warrant? What if they don’t think they should necessarily do what other parents are doing?

How can I still get permission to attend the party? Or at least have a better chance of getting permission?

Try new data and a new warrant.

What might be more convincing data for an audience of parents?

What might be a warrant that most parents will share?

Toulmin Argumentation in More Detail

ClaimData

Qualifier

Warrant

Backing

Rebuttal

since

because

; therefore,

unless