STUDIES ON FUEL CELL VEHICLES AND THEIR SCOPE IN

INDIA

A Thesis

Submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirement for the award of the degree

of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

in

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

by

HARSH GUPTA

(Enrolment No.: A7626214006)

Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering

Amity School of Engineering and Technology

Amity University Uttar Pradesh,

Lucknow Campus

May, 2016

I dedicate this thesis to my mother Sangeeta Gupta, father Virender Gupta and

Sister's Jyoti Garg and Kanchan Bansal, because of whom, I am what I am

today. They motivated and encouraged me at every step. I owe immense

gratitude to shivika and my all friends who always stood by me at all times

during my master's degree, motivating me.

Page | i

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this Thesis entitled "STUDIES ON FUEL CELL VEHICLES &

THEIR SCOPE IN INDIA" submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award

of the degree of Master of Technology in Automobile Engineering is my original work and

has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or any other

similar titles.

The work was done under the guidance of Professor (Dr.) A.K. Jouhari, at Amity School of

Engineering & Technology, Amity University.

Place: Lucknow Harsh Gupta

Date: (A7626214006)

Page | ii

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled "Studies on Fuel cell Vehicles & their Scope in

India" is a bonafide work carried out by HARSH GUPTA, Enrolment No. A7626214006,

is submitted, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Master

of Technology in Automobile Engineering, to Amity University Uttar Pradesh and that

the thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship,

fellowship or any other similar title.

Place: Lucknow

Date:

Prof. (Dr.) A.K. Jouhari Wg. Cdr. (Dr.) Anil Kumar

(Thesis Guide) Director, ASET

Professor & Head Amity University Uttar Pradesh,

Department of Mechanical and Lucknow Campus

Automation Engineering

Page | iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis becomes a reality with the kind support and helps of many individuals and would

like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.

Foremost, I want to offer this endeavour to our GOD ALMIGHTY for the wisdom he

bestowed upon me, the strength, peace of my mind and good health in order to finish this

research.

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my Guide Professor (Dr.) A.K. Jouhari,

who has the attitude and the substance of a genius he continually and convincingly conveyed

a spirit of adventure in regard to teaching without his guidance and persistent help this

dissertation would not have been possible.

I am highly indebted to Mr. Vivek Verma for his esteemed guidance and constant supervision

as well as for providing necessary information regarding the thesis.

I am also thankful to distinguished faculty members and staff of the Department of

Mechanical & Automation Engineering, Amity University, and Uttar Pradesh.

Page | iv

ABSTRACT

Today, the world is confronted with the crises of petroleum products like petrol and diesel,

which are mainly used as fuel in the present day automobiles. Also, the products of

combustion of conventional fuels result in environmental problems. So, one of the major aim

of the automobile industry is to improve vehicle fuel efficiency and performance with much

lesser harmful emissions. In this regard fuel cell vehicle (FCV), has various advantages such

as simplicity, low pollution, quietness and reliability. The Energy conversion efficiency of

fuel cell is 2-3 times higher than IC Engines. Hydrogen, being a clean fuel may find intensive

use as fuel in the days to come. Hydrogen can be used directly in the engine and the products

of combustion will be water in either liquid or in gaseous form. In this way the oxides of

carbon are totally avoided in the environment. Hydrogen can also be used in a fuel cell to

generate electrical energy, which in turn can be used in automobile. In this way, probably fuel

cells are considered to be the most promising and futuristic source of energy. A brief

description of fuel cell operating principle and its advantages are discussed and how it can be

implemented in the automobiles. Here in this thesis a design of fuel cell three wheeler auto is

also proposed.

Page | v

Contents

Declaration.................................................................................................................................i

Certificate.......................................................................................................................... ........ii

Acknowledgement...................................................................................................................iii

Abstract....................................................................................................................................iv

Contents..................................................................................................................... ................v

List of Figures.................................................................................................. .......................vii

List of Tables............................................................................................................... ..........viii

1. Introduction..................................................................................................................... .....2

1.1 Background.............................................................................................................2

1.2 Energy Demand and Supply..................................................................................3

1.3 Emissions.................................................................................................................4

1.4 Indian Emission Standards....................................................................................4

2. Literature Review.................................................................................................................6

2.1 Fuel Cell..................................................................................................................6

2.2 Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCEV)......................................................................................7

2.3 Fuel Cell System.....................................................................................................8

2.3.1 Water Management...............................................................................10

2.3.2 Air Management....................................................................................10

2.3.3 Heat Management.................................................................................10

2.3.4 Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle......................................................................10

2.4 Status of Fuel Cell Vehicles.................................................................................11

2.5 Fuels for Fuel Cell Vehicles.................................................................................14

2.5.1 Hydrogen as Fuel...................................................................................15

2.5.1.1 Safety.......................................................................................15

2.5.2 Onboard Hydrogen Storage.................................................................16

2.5.2.1 Compressed Gas Storage.......................................................16

2.5.2.2 Liquid Hydrogen Storage......................................................17

Page | vi

2.5.3 Requirement for Implementation of Fuel Cell Vehicle.....................17

3. Design of Fuel Cell Vehicle................................................................................................19

3.1 Design of a Vehicle...............................................................................................19

3.1.1 Background and Motivation................................................................19

3.2 Design....................................................................................................................19

3.2.1 Design of a Fuel Cell..............................................................................19

3.2.2 NI-MH Battery......................................................................................20

3.3 Specifications of Bajaj Three Wheeler...............................................................20

3.4 Proposed Installation of Fuel Cell System.........................................................21

3.5 Simulation & Results...........................................................................................23

4. Economical and Environmental Aspects..........................................................................25

4.1 Economical Aspects..............................................................................................25

4.1.1 Parameters taken into Account............................................................25

4.2 Environmental Aspects........................................................................................25

5. Conclusion...........................................................................................................................27

References...............................................................................................................................28

Bibliography...........................................................................................................................29

Annexure

Page | vii

List of Figures

FIGURE 1. ESTIMATE OF CONVENTIONAL OIL CONSUMPTION AND DISCOVERY ...................... 03

FIGURE 2. ENERGY SUPPLY FORECAST ................................................................................. 03

FIGURE 3. SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF PEM FUEL CELL ................................................... 07

FIGURE 4. THE EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES AS FUNCTION OF LOAD ................. 08

FIGURE 5. DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF SIMPLE FUEL CELL POWERTRAIN ................ 09

FIGURE 6. FUEL CELL WITH ITS AUXILIARY COMPONENTS .................................................... 09

FIGURE 7. EXAMPLE OF FUEL CELL VEHICLE ........................................................................ 14

FIGURE 8. EXPLOSION LIMITS OF STOICHIOMETRIC HYDROGEN OXYGEN MIXTURE ............... 15

FIGURE 9. DIFFERENT METHODS FOR ONBOARD HYDROGEN STORAGE .................................. 16

FIGURE 10. PREHEATING REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FUEL SUPPLIED FROM LIQUID HYDROGEN

TANK IN K .................................................................................................................... 17

FIGURE 11. REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION OF FUEL CELL VEHICLES..... 17

FIGURE 12. PEM EFFICIENCY VS. CURRENT DENSITY ........................................................... 19

FIGURE 13. BAJAJ RE 4S THREE WHEELER AUTO ................................................................. 21

FIGURE 14. PROPOSED PLACEMENT OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF FUEL CELL SYSTEM ....... 21

FIGURE 15. POWER TRAIN DIAGRAM OF THE SYSTEM IN PSAT ............................................. 22

FIGURE 16. THE THREE WHEELER SPEED DEMAND FROM HWFET .......................................... 23

FIGURE 17. THE THREE WHEELER POWER DEMAND UNDER HWFET ........................................ 23

FIGURE 18. THE FUEL CELL OUTPUT POWER .......................................................................... 23

Page | viii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1. MAIN EMISSIONS, CAUSES AND THEIR EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH .......................... 04

TABLE 2. INDIAN EMISSION STANDARDS (4-WHEEL VEHICLE) .............................................. 04

TABLE 3. LIST OF MODEL PRODUCED ................................................................................... 14

TABLE 4. SHOWS THE PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN, METHANOL, GASOLINE AND DIESEL ......... 15

TABLE 5. SHOWS THE TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF THE BAJA RE 4S THREE WHEELER AUTO

.................................................................................................................................... 20

Page | 1

≈

Chapter One

≈

Page | 2

1. Introduction

Global air pollution is a serious problem and a challenge that humanity has to take seriously.

A major contributor to the air pollution is the automotive sector due to the heavy and

increasing traffic and use of fossil fuels, in spite of ongoing activities to promote efficiency,

the automobile sector is generating a significant increase in emissions. As transport levels are

expected to rise, especially in developing countries the dwindling supply of fossil fuels will

sooner or later become a limiting factor. Therefore, automobile manufacturers are looking for

a more promising and non-polluting source of energy which provides sufficient power while

being safe for the environment. At the same time a great deal of research and development on

fuel cell has taken place in finding an appropriate source of energy.

1.1 Background

The automobile is a vehicle that carries its own motor. These are designed to run primarily on

roads, to have seating for one to six persons, typically have four wheels and are constructed

principally for the transport of people and goods.

Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is credited for creating a world first steam powered tricycle in 1769

whereas Karl Benz is acknowledged as the inventor of modern car in 1879. On the other

hand, first mass production car was a Ford Model T which was introduced in the year of

1908.

Now, we come to modern vehicle which are Electric Vehicle and are currently in trend. An

electric vehicle is an electric drive vehicle which uses one or more electric motors or traction

motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a battery or generator to

convert fuel chemical energy into electrical energy. They are also around three times as

efficient as cars with an internal combustion engine.

The first electric car was produced in the year 1880 but initially electric vehicles were not

entertained by the people. After 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle has occurred as the

need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions were realised by people and the authorities due to

the severe effects of Global warming. But later a need of another source of power is realised

by automotive sector because of the emissions released in the air by the electricity generation

therefore fuel cell technology is introduced which proves to be a promising and long lasting

solution for the global warming occurred due to vehicular emissions.

As of 2010, study of CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board, India) shows that motor

vehicle use 50% of the fuel used in India and produce over 70% of CO emissions in Indian

metropolitan cities [1], therefore, a new source of energy is very essential to fulfil the future

energy demand and helps in CO emission reductions.

Page | 3

1.2 Energy demand and Supply

Figure 2 gives fuel oil consumption and discovery.

Figure 1. Estimate of Conventional Oil Consumption and Discovery

The above figure depicts that demand of conventional fuel has which already exceeded that

of discovery. Today most vehicles rely on fossil fuels whereas a new source of energy is

needed to meet the future energy need and for sustainable vehicle mobility.

Figure 3 shows the future energy supply forecast with all the sources together.

Figure 2. Energy Supply Forecast

Page | 4

1.3 Emissions

Table 1, shows the main emissions, their impact and effects caused by vehicles. Due to these

pollutants. The human health and environmental issues have forced many countries to create

some regulations. Emission damage both human health and the environment. Australia,

Sweden, Japan, California, USA were the first to implement the regulations. Nowadays, all

countries have started following these regulations or had made their own regulations.

Types of Pollutants Cause Symptoms

C (Carbon) Partially burnt fuel Smoke and odour

(Carcinogenic in nature)

CO (Carbon Monoxide) Incomplete combustion Drastic poisoning to the point

of death.

Cardiovascular diseases

HC (Hydrocarbon) Unburnt fuel Irritates eyes and nose

NOx (Oxide of Nitrogen) Very high flame temperature Toxic for Human

Pb (Lead) Petrol additives to raise

octane rating

Toxic to Human

Causes Physical and Mental

Disorder

Table 1. Main emissions, Causes and their effect on human health

1.4. Indian Emission Standards

Indian emission standards are named as Bharat stage Emission Standards instituted by

Government of India to regulate output emissions from motor vehicles. These Standards and

their Time of implementation is decided by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in

collaboration with Ministry of Environment and Climate Change. [2]

Standard Reference YEAR Region

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide

Bharat Stage II Euro 2

2001 NCR*, Mumbai,

Kolkata, Chennai

2003.04 NCR*, 13 Cities†

2005.04 Nationwide

Bharat Stage III Euro 3 2005.04 NCR*, 13 Cities†

2010.04 Nationwide

Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.04 NCR*, 13 Cities†

Bharat Stage V Euro 5 (to be skipped)

Bharat Stage VI Euro 6 2020.04 (proposed) Entire country

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide

* National Capital Region (Delhi)

† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur,

Lucknow, Sholapur, Jamshedpur and Agra.

Table 2 Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicle)

Page | 5

≈

Chapter Two

≈

Page | 6

2. Literature Review

2.1 Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is a static energy conversion device that converts chemical energy of fuels directly

into electrical energy with some heat and water as its by-product [3].

There are basically five types of fuel cells:-

1. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

2. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

3. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

4. Hydrogen Oxygen Fuel Cell

5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

Out of all the above, only Proton exchange membrane fuel cells are the most suitable for the

automobile applications as they operate at lower temperature/pressure ranges.

A PEM fuel cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes, the anode and the cathode,

separated by a polymer electrolyte, the ion-conducting proton exchange membrane (PEM).

Integrated between each electrode and the membrane is a thin layer of a catalyst. The

electrodes, catalyst and membrane together form the membrane electrode assembly (MEA)

and bipolar flow field plates, with gas channels grated into their surface, are placed on each

side of the MEA. The electrodes are connected to an external load circuit, e.g. an electric

motor in a vehicle.

Figure 3 shows a schematic presentation of a PEM fuel cell. In operation, the anode is

supplied with hydrogen and the cathode with air. In the presence of the catalyst at the anode,

hydrogen molecules dissociate into free electrons and protons. The electrons are conducted as

usable current through the external circuit, while the protons migrate with water molecules

through the membrane electrolyte to the cathode. On the cathode side, oxygen from the air,

electrons from the external circuit and protons combine to form water and heat, thus

completing the total reaction.

Anode Reaction : H2 2H+ + 2e

-

Cathode Reaction: 1/2O2 +2H+

+ 2e- H2O

Total Reaction : H2 + 1/2O2 H2O

Page | 7

Figure 3. Schematic Presentation of PEM Fuel Cell

2.2 Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCEV)

As a highly efficient and modular power generator, the PEM fuel cell can be applied in

various fields, both in traction applications, such as vehicular powertrains or auxiliary power

units (APUs), in stationary applications, e.g. backup power in telecommunications, power

units for residential power and heat purposes, and, finally, military and portable applications.

With features such as compactness, ability to use air as oxidant, and fast start-up, the PEM

has during the past decade been the leading fuel cell technology for transportation

applications. These and other features make direct hydrogen fuel cells in electric vehicles,

referred to as FCVs, an interesting alternative to internal combustion engine vehicles

(ICEVs), both gasoline (spark- ignition) and diesel. Below, the most important features are

presented and compared to the ones of ICEVs.

As fuel cells convert the chemical energy of the fuel directly into electrical energy, they may

exhibit tank-to-wheel (TTW) electric efficiencies up to 60 %. The conventional engines on

the other hand are limited to efficiencies of up to 40 % (diesel) or about 30 % (gasoline).

Depending on the hybrid configuration, the efficiency of a hybrid ICE/electric engine is

somewhere between that of a fuel cell and of a diesel engine [4]. Hence, a major potential of

fuel cell powertrains is their high efficiency at full and part load, as well as at idling, see

Figure 4. (The figure is based on generalized data, and intended as a schematic overview of

the differences between FCVs and standard ICEVs.) Since the traction power demand of

most urban vehicles is usually at 10-20% of the load, see the “window” in the figure, FCVs

are able to economize on fuel in “stop and go” situations in urban traffic.

Fuel cell vehicles have low emissions of pollutants. Direct hydrogen FCVs, emit only water

vapour. This feature and that of high efficiencies at part load make urban FCVs such as

delivery trucks and buses an alternative to corresponding urban ICEVs, especially diesel

buses.

Page | 8

Figure 4. The Efficiency of different Technologies as function of load

Fuel cells Exhibits high power densities. This means that the fuel cells can be made compact

and thus improve the powertrains packaging in a vehicle. In addition, the fuel cell concept is

quite simple and fuel cells contain only a few moving parts. This means that the cost for mass

production and maintenance has a potential to be reduced over time.

Fuel cells have a modular design, which entails that, without appreciably affecting the

electric efficiency; the power output of the fuel cell stack can vary from a few Watts up to

MW-size. While the stack size is easily changed, it should be noted that the size of the

auxiliary system is not as easily changed, typically requiring completely new components.

In contrast to ICEs, the fuel cell technology enables low noise and vibration operation, even

in high power demand situations such as rapid acceleration.

2.3 Fuel Cell System

A successful operation of a fuel cell stack requires finely tuned conditions provided by an

auxiliary system. The power load of the auxiliary system can be significant, up to 20 % of the

fuel cell system gross power output, where the main parasitic load usually is the air

management system. Figure 5 shows a simplified example of a fuel cell powertrain where the

main components are:

Fuel cell stack

Air management system with a compressor or blower

Water management system with humidifiers

Heat management system with a cooling circuit connected to heat exchangers and

vehicle cabin radiator

Electrical power conditioners

Page | 9

Control system

Figure 5. Diagrammatic representation of simple Fuel Cell Powertrain

Whereas figure 6. Shows the detailed representation of auxiliary components in fuel cell.

Figure 6. Fuel Cell with its Auxiliary Components

Page | 10

A typical fuel cell stack operates in the temperature range of 60 - 80 °C. Higher operating

temperatures, above 100 ° C, would facilitate heat transfer, i.e. simplifying the cooling of the

stack, and reduce the CO poisoning risk, but currently there are material limitations that

prevent it.

2.3.1 Water Management

A water management system is needed to humidify the reactants for fuel cells operating

temperature above 60 °C. To ensure adequate conductivity and long life of the membrane

must be supplied in sufficient amounts and distributed in a homogeneous way. There must be

an appropriate approach to avoid the flooding or water blocking the pores of the electrodes.

A water balances, i.e. the amount of condensed water equals the amount of water needed for

humidification, is an important feature in automotive applications. In order for fuel cell

system to be water self-sustaining, therefore, the water management system also contains

equipment to condense the exhaust flows and collect and re-use the water.

The way the humidification is performed varies, ranging from external humidification, e.g.

direct water injection and enthalpy wheels, internal humidification such as using wicks or self

humidification, to no humidification at all. Removing or minimizing the external

humidification would simplify the fuel cell system in terms of space and heat supply.

However, the control of internal humidification has proven to be difficult and then no

humidification is also reported to increase the fuel cell system weight and consume more

power.

2.3.2 Air Management

The fuel cell stack is supplied with intake air by a blower or a compressor, depending on the

desired operating pressure. Pressurised system allows a smaller and more efficient fuel cell

stack, although to the cost of the compressor power requirements. Also, the efficiency at low

speeds and the compressor may behave abnormally. The operating pressure of a fuel cell

stack is normally between atmospheric pressure to 3 bars. The turbocharger can also be

effective as compared to normal compressor.

2.3.3 Heat Management

The electric efficiency of fuel cell is up to 60% which means the remainder of the input

energy is lost as heat. In order to regulate the constant temperature and stability of fuel cell

stack, the waste energy developed in the fuel cell is moved to a cooling point. The heat

rejected to the cooling circuit can be used within the system. Proper size of heat exchanger is

important as this system tends to be bulky.

2.3.4 Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle

As appeared in Figure 5, the fuel cell conveys energy to the electric drive by means of a

DC/AC inverter. In an arrangement fuel cell hybrid powertrain, a vitality support in addition

to a DC/DC converter is actualized into the energy unit powertrain. This additional power

source can be a battery, flywheel or supercapacitor. In this work, just arrangement of fuel cell

hybrid vehicles utilizing lithium-ion battery packs as power source is considered.

Page | 11

A hybridization of an energy component vehicle may involve a few advantages, regardless of

included multifaceted nature, weight and cost. It is demonstrated that hybridization enhances

the TTW productivity by 10-20 %. With an energy cushion, the braking energy of the vehicle

can be recuperated, and can be utilized to decrease the vehicle fuel utilization. For instance,

productivity additions of around 25 % might be expert in urban cycles with regenerative

braking for fuel cell transports. The beneficial outcomes of regenerative braking are reliant on

the obligation cycle utilized. While the advantages of hybridization are shown in duty cycles

with low power prerequisites, this is not as a matter of course the situation in duty cycles with

high power requests. It is additionally recommended that the hybridization will enhance the

FCV's snappy start-up capacity in cool atmospheres, with a energy pack giving the

underlying start-up force until the fuel cell is warmed up and completely operational.

The execution models set by ICEVs have ended up benchmarks for FCVs. The clients expect

the same execution of a FCV as an ICEV, under broadly shifting working conditions, e.g.

duty cycles, encompassing conditions, for example, nearby atmosphere with changing

temperature and humidity and elevation. To achieve these objectives, a great control

methodology, i.e. power-adjusting of the fuel cell and the energy cushion frameworks, and an

appropriate dimensioning of fuel cell and vehicle parts are fundamental.

2.4 Status of Fuel Cell Vehicles

The concern in PEM fuel cell vehicles increased in the 1990s. The giant automakers, like

GM, Ford, Nissan, Toyota, Honda, Hyundai, Mercedes, TATA, have active fuel cell

programmes. Initially, fuel cell vehicle development started in U.S.A. and later on it has been

spread worldwide including Europe, China, and India.

Today, fuel cell PEM fuel cell technology is used in many transportation mediums like

Cars

Buses

Forklifts

Motorcycle

Airplanes

Boats

Submarines

Trams

In, India TATA motors are majorly working on development on fuel cell vehicles and they

also showcased their fuel cell Bus and Light Commercial Vehicle in the 2008 and 2016,

AutoExpo, New Delhi. In the year 2016, Hyundai also showcased its fuel cell technology in

India.

The table 3, below showcases the list of fuel cell vehicle models came under production since

1990 till date.

Page | 12

List of modern fuel cell automobiles, pickups, vans and SUVs

commercially produced

(1990–2015)

Model Production Range Comments

Models out of production

Honda FCX-V4

2002-2007 260 km[5]

310 km[6]

First fuel-cell vehicle

to be approved for American roads by the

Environmental

Protection Agency and the California Air

Resources Board, with

subsequent leasing in California. Also

approved for Japanese

roads by Japan's

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and

Transport.[7]

Approximately 30 leased in the Los

Angeles area and

Tokyo, Leasing later

expanded to 50 states.[6]

Ford Focus FCV

2003-2006 320 km[8]

Initially planned to be

leased across 50

states,[5] it was eventually only leased

in California, Florida

and Canada.[6]

Nissan X-Trail FCV

04

2003-2013 366 km[9]

Leased to businesses and government

entities in Japan and

California.[10][11]

Page | 13

Mercedes-Benz F-

Cell (A-Class based)

2005-2007 160 km[8]

to 180 km[12]

100 leased around

the world.[13]

Chevrolet Equinox

FC

2007-2009 310 km[14]

Leased in the

California and New

York.

Honda FCX Clarity

2008-2015

450 km[15]

later 390 km[16]

and 231 km[17]

Leased in the USA,

Europe and Japan.

Mercedes-Benz F-

Cell (B-Class based)

2010-2014 310 km[16] Leased in southern

California.[16]

Models in production

Hyundai Tucson

FCEV

2014-present 426 km[18]

Leased in South

Korea, California,

Europe and

Vancouver.

Page | 14

Toyota Mirai

2015-present 502 km[18]

Sold and leased in

Japan, California and

Europe.

Honda Clarity

2016-present 480 km[19] On sale in Japan.[19]

Table 3. List of Model Produced

Figure 7. Example of Fuel Cell Vehicle

2.5 Fuels for Fuel cell Vehicles

Fuel choice for FCV is always challenging since the discovery of fuel cell system, fuel

production, storage, infrastructure and distribution. Many fuels have been taken into the

consideration like ammonia, carbon, Hydrogen, etc among which hydrogen is proven to be

the most suitable and effective fuel.

Gasoline has also been proposed as a fuel for fuel cell vehicles as the infrastructure for the

gasoline is already exist and the initial introduction of the fuel cell vehicle can be kept low.

Another suggestion for the fuel was methanol, as liquid fuel can be easily transported and can

be introduced into the current infrastructure through minimal modifications. Whereas,

gasoline and methanol fuel system have drawbacks, like lower system efficiency and poor

performance of fuel cell as well as it will also increase the risk of CO poisoning. The table

given below shows the different properties of hydrogen, methanol, gasoline and diesel.

Page | 15

Fuel Hydrogen Methanol Gasoline Diesel

Chemical formula (phase) H2(g, l) CH3OH(l) CnH1.87n(l) CnH1.8n(l)

Molecular

weight 2.02 32.0 ~110 ~170

Energy per unit mass [MJ/Kg] 120.0 20.0 44.0 42.5

Energy per unit

mol [MJ/mol] 241.8 640.8 4840 7225

Energy per unit volume [MJ/m

3] 10.8 15.8 33.0 36.5

Density [kg/m3] 0.09

2 (g), 790 720-780 840-880

Diffusion coefficient

[cm2/s] 0.61 0.0042 0.05 -

Flammability limits 4-75 6-36.5 1-7.6 -

Table 4. Shows the properties of Hydrogen, Methanol, Gasoline and Diesel

2.5.1 Hydrogen as Vehicle Fuel

The best alternative for ammonia, gasoline, diesel, etc. is to use Hydrogen as a fuel in fuel

cell system. It is very convenient in terms of cost as well as system complexity of producing

hydrogen onboard. With the help of this hydrogen can be produced at a central processing

station from where it can be supplied to different hydrogen filling stations.

2.5.1.1 Safety

Hydrogen is generally considered as a dangerous fuel. This somehow true; unlike

other fuels it is safe in very narrow limits. As Figure 8 shows the explosion limits of

hydrogen oxygen mixture.

Figure 8. Explosion Limits of Stoichiometric Hydrogen Oxygen Mixture

Page | 16

Whereas, hydrogen is very light gas which increases the risk of accumulation of gas

among the roof in case of leaks. Therefore, slow leaks in enclosed area are greatest

risks. Odorant can be added as in natural gases but it will lead to introduction of

sulphur in the system which can choke the supply of fuel into the system.

2.5.2 Onboard Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen can be stored physically as either a gas or a liquid. Storage of hydrogen as a gas

typically requires high-pressure tanks (350–700 bar [5,000–10,000 psi] tank pressure).

Storage of hydrogen as a liquid requires cryogenic temperatures because the boiling point of

hydrogen at one atmosphere pressure is −252.8°C. Hydrogen can also be stored on the

surfaces of solids (by adsorption) or within solids (by absorption). [20]

Below figure 9 shows the different methods for onboard hydrogen storage.

Figure 9. Different Methods for Onboard Hydrogen Storage

Among all the above mentioned hydrogen storage methods compresses gas and liquid

hydrogen storage is the best suitable methods.

2.5.2.1 Compressed Gas Storage

Compressed hydrogen is stored at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) to

increase the storage density of hydrogen gas. Another drawback for compressed

hydrogen gas storage is that to refill the cylinder at such pressure amount of work

done is very high which decreases the overall efficiency by 5-10% and at last while

Page | 17

filling up the cylinder the temperature will also rise due to which an additional

cooling system is also required which also reduces the efficiency of the vehicle.

2.5.2.2 Liquid Hydrogen Storage

Cryogenic as well as very expensive technology is required to store the hydrogen in

liquid state as hydrogen comes to liquid state at a temperature of 20 K which requires

very highly insulated tanks. Another drawback of liquid storage is that if the car is left

unattended for a long period it will lose all its hydrogen as creating a completely

insulated tank is very difficult. As well as some preheating of hydrogen is required to

supply it into the fuel cell. Preheating of hydrogen can be achieved by using ambient

air or using this hydrogen into the air conditioner heat exchanger. The below

mentioned graphs shows the preheating requirements for the fuel released from the

liquid hydrogen tank.

Figure 10. Preheating Requirements for the fuel supplied from liquid hydrogen tank in K

2.5.3 Requirement for Implementation of Fuel Cell Vehicle

Figure 11 shows all the requirement for the successful implementation of fuel cell vehicle and

the picture is itself self explanatory.

Figure 11. Requirements for successful Implementation of Fuel Cell Vehicles

Page | 18

≈

Chapter Three

≈

Page | 19

3. Design of Fuel Cell Vehicle

3.1 Design of Vehicle

Here we are trying to design of the FCHEV three wheeler by taking the reference of Bajaj RE

4S three wheeler auto. According to the initial analysis it is came into the knowledge that an

8 HP motor is required to drive the three wheeler and to fulfil its power requirement an 6 kW

fuel cell energy system is required.

3.1.1 Background and Motivation

3- Wheelers play a very important role in developing countries like India. As they are

considered as the major contributor to the public transportation system in congested

cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, etc. They are the most economical source of

transport in comparison to the taxis. Therefore, they also play an major role in

pollution. As the oil prices are also rising, it is an appropriate time to introduce a

cleaner and economical alternative source of these vehicles.

3.2 Design

3.2.1 Design of Fuel Cell

For the above mentioned vehicle the size of the fuel cell were calculated to be 12 x 14

x 40 cm. The above dimensions were calculated with help of Dr. Romesh Kumar from

Argonne National Lab, a scientist working on fuel cells. The Current Density of

membrane was calculated to be 0.4 A/cm2. These numbers were derived from the

graph given below with the detailed calculation.

Figure 12. PEM Efficiency Vs. Current Density

Page | 20

The required power is estimated to be 6 kW and charge density of 0.4 A/cm2. On

choosing the appropriate size of 7 x 9 cm leads to current, I = .04 x 63 = 25 A. Now,

V = P/I i.e. V = 6000/25, V = 240. Assuming 100 cells of 2.4 V each. For 100 cell

stack, a volume of 12 x 14 x 40 cm3 is obtained.

3.2.2 NI-MH Batteries

Currently available nickel metal hydride batteries with specific energy and power

levels intermediate to those required for power assist hybrid electric vehicles and pure

battery electric vehicles respectively, come close to meet the performance of

conventional vehicles[21-22].NI-MH battery can discharge rapidly and oftenly due to

which it is best suitable for congested traffic of Indian cities.

For 6 KW, 48 V is determined as the appropriate voltage for the motor and the

maximum amount of current calculated is IMax = P/V, = 6000/48, IMax = 120 A.

according to the above mentioned voltage and the cell voltage calculated in the

previous section then total 20 cells are required in series and above all NI-MH battery

can generate so much current that it can satisfy the need incase of peak power

requirement of 6 KW.

3.3 Specifications of Bajaj Three Wheeler [23]

Power 6.00Kw@5000rpm

Torque 16.7 N.m@4500rpm

Cubic Capacity 198.88 cc

Transmission 4 forward + 1 reverse gear

Clutch Wet multidisc type

Kerb weight 337 kg

Wheel Base 2000 mm

Overall width 1300 mm

Overall length 2635 mm

Overall Height 1704 mm

Gradeability 19%

Table 5. Shows the technical specification of the Baja RE 4S Three Wheeler Auto

Page | 21

Figure 13. Bajaj RE 4S Three Wheeler Auto

3.4 Proposed Installation of Fuel Cell System

As the fuel cell system need a quiet lot of space we decided to arrange the system beneath the

passenger seat and the hydrogen tank in the free space behind the passenger seat and the

batteries and hybrid controller beneath the driver seat and the electric motor at the rear

wheels. The Proposed design is shown in figure 14.

Figure 14. Proposed placement of Different components of Fuel Cell System

Page | 22

The volume of each component behind the passenger seat was calculated by the given

dimension. After the calculations the hydrogen tank, fuel cell and battery accumulate approx.

15 litre (915.36 in3), 6.5 litre (397.61 in

3), 57 litre (3,468.71 in

3)

respectively. So, the total

space required is 78.35 litre (4,781.68 in3)

and the total space calculate behind the passenger

seat is 259 litre (15,819.51 in3). After considering the packing factor and space requires for

other equipments the total space left will be 15,819.51- (4,781.68 x 3) = 24 litre (1,474.47

in3). Hence it shows that there is an appropriate space left for passenger's luggage.

3.5 Simulation & Results

Developing fuel cell and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) requires accurate, flexible

simulation tools. Argonne National Lab undertook a Collaborative effort to further develop

the power train system analysis toolkit (PSAT) under the direction of and with contributions

from ford, General Motors and DiamlerChrysler. [24] PSAT is simulation software that

allows users to simulate predetermined configurations of different vehicle types or design

new hybrid vehicles. It predicts fuel economy emissions and the performance of vehicle

taking into account transient behaviour and control system characteristics. [24]

The hybrid three wheeler has been preliminarily designed in PSAT. It is simulated as a fuel

cell series vehicle with power train as shown in figure 15.

Figure 15. Power Train Diagram of the System in PSAT

The outlined vehicle model is reproduced for the HWFET (Highway Fuel Economy Test)

.The HWFET cycle is a body dynamometer-driving calendar, created by the US EPA for the

determination of efficiency of light obligation vehicles. The vehicle speed follow interest is

given in Figure 16[25]. The three wheeler power request under HWFET and the energy

component yield force are given in Figure 17 and 18.

Page | 23

Figure 16. The three wheeler speed demand from HWFET

Figure 17. The three wheeler power demand under HWFET

Figure 18. The fuel cell output power

Page | 24

≈

Chapter Four

≈

Page | 25

4. Economical and Environmental Aspects

4.1 Economical Aspects

The expense and time ramifications of conventional vehicle design methodologies are

critical. Be that as it may, A FCV drive framework is perfect with all vehicle models and

does not give up vehicle execution and driver pleasantries for clean air and decreased

utilization of petroleum. Eventually, the business advantages that outcome from this

methodology incorporate enhanced quality and dependability at last item, and speedier time-

to-business sector and altogether lessened prototyping costs.

4.1.1 Parameters taken into Account

The present cost for Internal burning motor based three wheelers is evaluated to be

2,50,000 Indian rupees(INR) and for the electric three wheeler is assessed to associate

with INR 3,00,000, and yearly running expense is assessed to be INR 60,000-70,000

(approx). Support expense is thought to be approx. INR 17,000 (approx). In this

manner the working expense is around INR 87,000 or more the net altered expense of

around INR 26,000 which will give the aggregate working expense to be INR 1,

13,000.For the Hybrid vehicles the yearly running expense is evaluated to associate

with INR 15,303Rs.+ 2750. Upkeep cost net altered expense every year gives

complete working expense around INR 30,740 .The information here, depends on the

suspicions that the aggregate separation went by these vehicles is around 24,000 Km

every year and cost of fuel is INR 60 for every litre and power is INR 5/KWh with the

prerequisite of the battery change each more than two years., when the vehicle is

utilized 300 days for each year. The vitality utilization for gas three wheelers is

computed as 1.39 kWh/km and the vitality utilization for a HFCV is assessed to be

0.065 KWh/km.

The main difference in the payback period of the vehicle is mainly due to the high

capital cost of the fuel cell but one thing should be kept in mind that life of fuel cell

three wheeler will be more than the internal combustion engine based three wheeler as

there are less moving parts so that low maintenance is required. This is ultimately

increase the overall profit through the vehicle and if there is a proper refilling

infrastructure for HFCV then the refuelling cost of the vehicle will also be less than

the gasoline refuelling.

4.2 Environmental Aspects

Combustion of fossil fuels in engines is considered to be one of the major source of the

polluting gases. The design and condition of engine, operating conditions and air

characteristics have considerable influence on the nature and type of emissions. The

increasing awareness of hydrogen as an future fuel due to its non polluting emissions because

hydrogen doesn't contains any carbon content due to which all greenhouse gases essentials

are eliminated.

Page | 26

≈

Chapter Five

≈

Page | 27

5. Conclusion

The fuel cell technology is an appropriate technique to reduce the energy demand of the

automobile sector. To be accepted by the end-users, fuel cell vehicles need to be more

economical and will have to perform better in comparison to ICE vehicles. The acceptance of

fuel cell vehicle also depends upon the availability of the fuel.

In, this work an effort has been made to understand, state of art of fuel cell vehicles globally

and in India. Here, a design of a fuel cell hybrid three wheeler vehicle has been carried out.

Having low or we can say no greenhouse gas emissions

Specification of the Designed Vehicle:

Motor 8 HP

Fuel Cell Power 6 kW

Size of Fuel Cell 12 x 14 x 40 cm (6.5 litre)

Battery 20 cell, 48 volt

Volume of Hydrogen Tank 15 litre

Page | 28

References

1. Report on Status of the vehicular pollution control program in India, Central Pollution

Control Board, Delhi, and March-2010.

2. "Functions of Central Pollution Control Board". Central Pollution Control Board.

3. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th Edition, by Robert H. Perry and Don W.

Green, McGraw Hill, 1997.

4. Demirdöven & Deutch, 2004.

5. https://web.archive.org/web/20040911050214/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_s

bs.shtml

6. https://web.archive.org/web/20041209034248/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_s

bs.shtml

7. http://www.honda.com/environment/our-environmental-reports?id=fcx-concept

8. https://web.archive.org/web/20051124134253/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_s

bs.shtml

9. http://www.nissan-global.com/EN/NEWS/2004/_STORY/040329-03.html

10. http://www.nissanglobal.com/EN/ENVIRONMENT/CAR/FUEL_BATTERY/DEVE

LOPMENT/FCV/

11. http://www.nissan-global.com/EN/NEWS/2009/_STORY/091124-01-e.html

12. https://web.archive.org/web/20061202085047/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_s

bs.shtml

13. http://www.easier.com/5440-mercedes-benz-a-class-f-cell-vehicle-to-visit-

london.html

14. https://web.archive.org/web/20090813020701/http://fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_sbs.sht

ml

15. https://web.archive.org/web/20081208100817/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/Feg/fcv_

sbs.shtml

16. https://web.archive.org/web/20101226074951/http://fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_sbs.sht

ml

17. https://web.archive.org/web/20150127204415/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_s

bs.shtml

18. http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fcv_sbs.shtml

19. http://insideevs.com/honda-delivers-first-clarity-fuel-cell-sedan-in-japan/

20. http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-storage

21. A. A. Pesaran, "Battery Thermal Management in EVs and HEVs: Issues and

Solutions" Advanced Automotive Battery conference Las Vegas, Nevada, February 6-

8, 2001.

22. A. A. Pesaran, et.al., "A Unique Calorimeter Cycler for Evaluating High-Power

Battery Modules" 13th

Annual Battery Conference Application and Advances, Long

Beach, California, January, 1998.

23. http://www.bajajauto.com/bajajre/re-compact-4s-tech-specs.html#

24. Description of PSAT on Argonne website.

25. http://dieselnet.com.standards/cycles/hwfet.html

Page | 29

Bibliography

1. Mohammad Farooque, and Hans C.Maru, “Fuel Cells-The Clean and Efficient Power Generators,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol.89, No.2.December 2001, pp.1819-1829.

2. Michael W. Ellis, Michael R. Von Spakovsky, and Douglas J. Nelson, “Fuel Cell Systems: Efficient, Flexible Energy Conversion for the 21st Century,” Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol.89, No.12, Dec.2001 pp.1808-1818.

3. R. Ramakumar, and P. Chiradeja, “Distributed generation and renewable energy systems,” In Proc. 2002, 37

th

4. Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., IECEC-2002, pp. 716-724.

5. M. Hashem Nehrir, Caisheng Wang, and Steven R. Shaw, “Fuel Cells: Promising Devices for Distributed Generation”, IEEE Power & Energy, Vol.4, Jan/Feb. 2006, pp.47-53.

6. Jaferson M. Correa, Felix A. Ferret, Luciane N. Canha, and Marcelo G. Simoes, “An Electrochemical based Fuel Cell Model Suitable for Electrical Engineering Automation Approach,” IEEE Trans. On Indus. Electron., Vol. 51, 2004, pp.1103-1112.

7. J. B. Jia, Y. T. Cham, Y .Wang, and Frank Lewis, “The Electrical Dynamic Response Study of PEMFC as a Backup Power Supply,” 2007 IEEE International Conference on Control and Automation, May30-June1 2007, pp. 1156-1160.

8. Jin-Woo Jung, and Ali Keyhani, “Fuel Cell Based Distributed Generation,” 12th International Middle-East Power System Conference, March 2008, pp. 610-616.

9. Mehdi Soltani, and S.M.T. Bathaee, “A new dynamic model considering effects of

Temperature, pressure and internal resistance for PEM fuel cell power modules,” 3rd

International Conference on Electric Utility Deregulation and Restructuring and

Power Technologies, April 2008, pp. 2757-2762.

10. J.M. Correa, F.A. Farret, V.A. Popov, and M.G. Simoes, “Sensitivity Analysis of the Modeling Parameters Used in Simulation of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells,” IEEE Trans. On Energy Conv., Vol.20, 2005, pp. 211-218.

11. Goce L. Arsov, “Improved Parametric Pspice Model of a PEM Fuel Cell,” 11th

International Conference on optimization of Electrical and Electronics Equipment, May 2008, pp. 203-208.

12. X. Yu, M. R. Starke, L. M. Tolbert, and B. Ozpineci, “Fuel cell power conditioning for electric power applications: a summary,” IET Electr. Power Appli., Vol.1, No.5, 2007, pp 643-656.

13. Troy A. Nergaard, Jeremy F. Ferrell, Leonard G. Leslie, and Jih Sheng Lai, “Design considerations for a 48V Fuel Cell to Split Single Phase Inverter System with Ultra capacitor Energy Storage,” in Power Electron. Specialists Conference, 2002, pp. 2007-2012.

14. Fuel Cell Hand Book, U.S. Dept. Of Energy, Office of Fossil Fuel, 7th ed., National Energy Technology Laboratory, West Virginia, Oct. 2000.

Page | 30

15. M. Tanrioven, and M. S. Alam, “Modeling, control, and power quality evaluation of PEM fuel cell-based power supply system for residential use,” IEEE Trans. on Indus. Appl., vol.42, No.6, Nov/Dec 2006, pp. 1582-1589.

16. K.W.E. Cheng, D. Sutanto, Y.L. Ho, and K.K. Law, “Exploring the Power

Conditioning System for Fuel Cell,” In 32nd

IEEE Annual Power Electronics

Specialists Conference, 2001, pp.2197-2202.

17. Shailendra Jain, Jin Jiang, Xinhong Huhang, and Srdjan Stvandic, “Single Stage Power Electronic Interface for a Fuel Cell Based Power Supply System,” IEEE Electric Power Conference, Oct. 2007, pp. 201-206.

18. N. Mohan, T.M. Undeland, and W.P. Robbins, “Power Electronics Converters, Applications and Design,” 3rd ed. Jon Wiley & Sons, 2001.

19. B. Hasaneen, and Adel A. Elbaset Mohammed, “Design and simulation of dc/dc boost converter,” 12

th International Middle East Power System Conference, 12-15 Mar

2008, pp 335-340.

20. Frederik M.L.L. De Belie, David M. Van de Sype, Koen De Gusseme, wounter R.A.

Ryckaert, and Jan A.A. Melkebeek, “Digitally controlled boost PFC converter with

improved output voltage controller,” Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol.89, 2007,

pp. 363-370.

21. U.S. Fuel Cell Council, “Fuel cell power for vehicles,” see http://www.usfcc.com/.

22. L. E. Lesster, “Fuel cell power electronics – managing a variable-voltage dc source in

a fixed-voltage ac world,” Fuel Cells Bulletin, no. 25, 2000.

23. J. M. Miller, “Power electronics in hybrid electric vehicle applications,” in Proc. 18th

IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conf., Miami Beach, FL, Feb. 2003, vol. 1, pp. 23-

29.

24. S. S. Williamson and A. Emadi, “Fuel cell applications in the automotive industry,” in

Proc. Electrical Manufacturing and Coil Winding Expo, Cincinnati, Ohio, Oct. 2002.

25. H. Moghbelli, K. Ganapavarapu, and R. Langari, “A comparative review of fuel cell

vehicles (FCVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) – Part II,” in Proc. SAE Future

Transportation Technology Conf., Costa Mesa, CA, June 2003.

26. C. E. Thomas, B. D. James, F. D. Lomax, Jr., and I. F. Kuhn, Jr., “Societal impacts of

fuel options for fuel cell vehicles,” in Proc. SAE Fall Fuels and Lubricants Meeting

and Expo, San Francisco, CA, Oct. 1998.

27. J. F. Contandini, “Social cost comparison among fuel cell vehicle alternatives,” in Proc. 35

th IEEE Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., Las Vegas, NV,

July 2000, pp. 1341-1351.

Page | 31

28. M. Q. Wang, “GREET 1.5 – transportation fuel-cycle model: methodology, use, and

results, ANL/ESD-39, Vol. 1,” Aug. 1999.

29. N. Brinkman, “Well-to-wheel energy consumption and greenhouse gas analysis,” U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Fuel Cells Workshop, Cincinnati, OH, June

2001.

30. H. Moghbelli, K. Ganapavarapu, R. Langari, and M. Ehsani, “A comparative review

of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) – Part I,” in Proc.

SAE Future Transportation Technology Conf., Costa Mesa, CA, June 2003.

31. G. Maggetto and J. Van Mierlo, “Electric and electric hybrid vehicle technology: a

survey,” in Proc. IEE Seminar on Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, London,

UK, April 2000, pp. 1-11.

32. College of the Desert and Sunline Transit Agency, “Course manual on hydrogen fuel

cell engines and related technologies,” Dec. 2001, see http://www.ott.doe.gov/.

33. W. D. Jones, “Hybrids to the rescue,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 70-71, Jan.

2003.

34. F. A. Wyczalek, “Hybrid electric vehicles – year 2000,” in Proc. 35th IEEE

Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conf., Las Vegas, NV, July 2000, vol. 1,

pp. 349-355. 35. Hill.March 20 2003 Glendale, CA. <www.micrometals.com>.

36. IRFPS3810 Datasheet, International Rectifier Corporation. April 26 2002 El

Segunda, CA. <www.irf.com>.

37. IXDD414CI Datasheet, IXYS Corporation. Santa Clara, CA.

<http://www.ixys.com>.

38. 30EPH03 Datasheet, Intemational Rectifier Corporation. May 2001 El

Segunda, CA. <www.irf.com>.

39. Anzicek, J., Berry, K.J., Hoff, C., Lemke, B., Lerner, S., Slota, G., Thompson, M.,

Ubong, E., Van Tiem, R., and Zang, P., 2004, Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle

Development at Kettering University, EMCW2004 Technical Conference CD ROM

ISBN Number 07803-7936-5, pp. 1-6.

40. NEXA Power Module User's Guide, MAN5100078, 2003, Ballard Power Systems,

Inc., p. 67.

41. Kaiser, K.L., 2005, Electromagnetic Compatibility Handbook, CRC Press, New York,

p. 15-203.

42. Anzicek, J. and Thompson, M., Power Converter and Control Interface for a GEM

Fuel Cell Vehicle, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Fuel Cell

Science, Engineering and Technology, May 23-25, 2005, Ypsilanti, MI

43. T.Yokoyama, Y.Naganuma, K.Kuriyama, M.arimoto, "Development of the Fuel-cell

Hybrid Bus," SAE World congress 2003, 2003

44. M.Kizaki, H.Mizuno, Y.Miki, T.Takahashi, O.Oogami, "Development of Fuel-cell

Hybrid Vehicles in TOYOTA," EVS22, 2006.

Annexure A

A research Paper has been presented in the Poster Presentation of National Conference on

Carbon Materials 2015, organised by Indian Carbon Society & National Physical Laboratory.

Paper has been submitted for the publication and is pending with the organisation.

Fuel Cell Vehicle - Scope and Limitations

Harsh Gupta1*

, Vivek Verma2 and A.K. Jouhari

3

Amity School of Engineering and Technology,

Amity University Uttar Pradesh,

Lucknow Campus, Lucknow-226028

(*Correspondence E-mail: harsh.gupta1@outlook.com)

INTRODUCTION

Global air pollution is a serious problem. Most of this problem is caused by the use of fossil

fuels for transportation. Therefore, automobile manufacturers are looking for a more

promising and non-polluting source of energy which provides sufficient power while being

safe for the environment. At the same time a great deal of research and development on fuel

cells have taken place in finding an appropriate source of energy. Many researchers have

concluded that fuel cell can be an alternative source of energy for automobiles.

In this paper, we will discuss about the hybrid electric vehicles which are powered by Fuel

cell technology instead of conventional I.C. Engine which reduces the CO2 emissions. Here

we will promote Hydrogen as a fuel in fuel cell vehicles.

REVIEW

Fuel Cells

A fuel cell is a static energy conversion device that converts chemical energy of fuels directly

into electrical energy with some heat and water as its by-product [1].

There are basically five types of fuel cells:-

1. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

2. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

3. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

4. Hydrogen Oxygen Fuel Cell

5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

Out of all the above, only Proton exchange membrane fuel cells are the most suitable for the

automobile applications as they operate at lower temperature/pressure ranges.

A fuel cell consists of an anode, an electrolyte, and a cathode. On the anode, the fuel is

oxidised electrochemically to positively charged ions. On the cathode, oxygen molecules are

reduced to oxides or hydroxide ions. The electrolyte serves to transfer either the positively

charged ions or negatively charged ions from anode to cathode or cathode to anode. Figure 1

gives the schematic diagram of a PEMFC.

Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of a PEMFC

Anode Reaction : H2 2H+ + 2e

-

Cathode Reaction : 1/2O2 +2H+

+ 2e- H2O

Automobiles

Automobile is a vehicle that carries its own motor. These are designed to run primarily on

roads, to have seating for one to six persons, typically have four wheels and are constructed

principally for the transport of people.

Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is credited for creating a worlds first steam powered tricycle in 1769

whereas Karl Benz is acknowledged as the inventor of modern car in 1879. On the other hand

first mass production car was Ford Model T which was introduced in the year of 1908.

Now, we come to modern vehicle which are Electric Vehicle and are currently in trend. An

electric vehicle is an electric drive vehicle which uses one or more electric motors or traction

motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a battery or generator to

convert fuel chemical energy into electrical energy. They are also around three times as

efficient as cars with an internal combustion engine.

The first electric car was produced in the year 1880 but initially electric vehicles were not

entertained by the people. After 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle has occurred as the

need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions were realised by people and the authorities due to

the severe effects of Global warming.

DISCUSSION

Let us start with the history of fuel cell, need of fuel cell vehicles and the modifications

needed in a current hybrid vehicle for the use of fuel cell as an alternative source of energy

for charging the batteries.

As of 2010, study of CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) shows that motor vehicle use

50% of the fuel used in India and produce over 70% of CO emission in Indian metropolitan

cities[2]. Figure 2 gives fuel oil consumption and discovery.

Figure 2 Estimate of Conventional Oil Consumption and Discovery

The fuel cell was first developed by William Grove in the year of 1842, but at that time no

practical application was found whereas in the year 1959, first fuel cell of 15 kW was fitted in

Allis-Chamler farm tractor. Later in 1970's General Motors introduced a vehicle named

Chevrolet Electrovan but the project was deemed cost prohibitive. In 1990's the automobile

manufacturers started showing interest in fuel cell vehicles and Honda, Toyota and Hyundai

are leading companies who are keen to develop a fuel cell vehicle.

In 2008, production of Honda FCX Clarity was initiated and then in 2014, Toyota Mirai was

also launched in Japan. Later, Mercedes and GM also joined the race to develop fuel cell

vehicle and have successfully launched their vehicles. Fuel Cell vehicle have driven around

48 lac kilometre with around 27,000 refuelling[3].

Fuel Cell Vehicles

Figures 3 and 4 give the schematic diagram of the fuel cell vehicle general layout and

hydrogen feed system[4]. Hydrogen is made industrially by steam reforming of natural gas,

as the by-product of industrial operations such as the thermal cracking of hydrocarbons and

the production of chlorine, and , to a lesser extent, by the electrolysis of water which is a

practically inexhaustible source. Hydrogen is seen as an ultimate non polluting form of

energy. Technologies for economically producing, storing and utilising hydrogen are being

developed in the U.S., Europe and Japan.

Limitations

Hydrogen is a low density gas and requires heavy containers for storage. for automobiles we

need a hydrogen filling station network which is quite weak even in developed countries.

Hydrogen is also a highly explosive gas and is safe in very narrow limits of pressure and

temperature. Knowledge of hydrogen, Oxygen explosion diagram is essential not only for the

technical people but also for common man working at the site.

Figure 3 General Layout of Fuel Cell Vehicle

Figure 4 Detailed Diagram of a Fuel Cell Vehicle

CONCLUSIONS

While in developed countries the fuel cell vehicles have already come into existence, in India

also it is expected that fuel cell vehicle will have good future. However techno-economic

aspects will play a vital role.

REFERENCES

1. Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th

Edition, by Robert H. Perry and Don W.

Green, McGraw Hill, 1997.

2. Report on Status of the vehicular pollution control program in India, Central Pollution

Control Board, Delhi, March-2010.

3. M. Venturi, C. Mohrdieck and J. Friedrich, Mercedes Benz B-Class Fuel Cell: The

world largest hydrogen vehicle fuel cell fleet experience, EVS27 Symposium,

Barcelona, Spain, November 17-20, 2013, Pg. 1-11.

4. S. Aso, M. Kizoki and Yasuhiro Nonobe, Development of fuel cell vehicle in Toyota,

IEEE, 2007, Pg. 1606-1611