The Dynamics of Opportunity in America

Irwin Kirsch • Henry Braun Editors

The Dynamics of Opportunity in America Evidence and Perspectives

ISBN 978-3-319-25989-5 ISBN 978-3-319-25991-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-25991-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015955136

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London © Educational Testing Service 2016 Open Access This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 2.5 License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.5/ ) which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the work’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if such material is not included in the work’s Creative Commons license and the respective action is not permitted by statutory regulation, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to duplicate, adapt or reproduce the material. This work is subject to copyright. All commercial rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media ( www.springer.com )

Editors Irwin Kirsch Educational Testing Service Princeton , New Jersey , USA

Henry Braun Lynch School of Education Boston College Chestnut Hill , Massachusetts , USA

This book is dedicated to our colleague and friend Andy Sum. Andy worked closely with us on the America’s Perfect Storm report and helped to inspire this initiative with his commitment to understanding the factors infl uencing opportunity in America and his passion for sharing what was learned to inform the public discourse.

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Pref ace

Opportunity has long played a central role in the American experience. Although the playing fi eld has never been entirely level, most Americans still believe that with hard work, some intelligence, and a little luck, it is possible to make a better life for oneself and one’s family. That is, the American Dream is alive and well. This was certainly the case in the decades following World War II, when the American econ-omy grew strongly and, to a reasonable extent, prosperity was shared among all income groups. However, after 1980 things began to change. For one thing, the productivity gains recorded by the economy since then have not been shared equally, resulting in greater inequality in both income and wealth. For another, economic restructuring, due in part to the forces of technology and globalization, has increased the premium to high skills, while those with weaker skills have lost ground in real terms. In addition, policy choices at various levels of government, as well as chang-ing business practices, have generally contributed to the growing divergence in eco-nomic outcomes.

One question many are asking is: Does this really matter? In fact, recent data tells us it matters a great deal. There is strong evidence that a family’s circumstances are increasingly predictive of the human and social capital that will be accumulated by its children and, consequently, their own prospects as adults. Today, a large propor-tion of a new birth cohort will grow up in circumstances that will give them a small, if not negligible, chance of following a trajectory that will lead them to a markedly better place than where they started. In other words, the playing fi eld has tilted sharply, making it more diffi cult for many to have a decent chance of realizing the American Dream. The devastation wrought by the Great Recession of 2007–2009, along with the slow recovery that followed, has only added to the pessimism of the general public regarding the future.

It is in this context that, in 2013, Kurt Landgraf, then President and CEO of Educational Testing Service (ETS), decided, with the full support of the ETS Board of Trustees, to fund an initiative now titled Opportunity in America , which builds on

viii

a report issued by ETS in 2007 titled America’s Perfect Storm . 1 That report exam-ined the likely impact of three powerful forces on the prospects for the future. Those forces were (i) wide gaps in literacy and numeracy among both school-age and adult populations, (ii) seismic changes in economic activity and the restructuring of labor markets, and (iii) demographic trends leading to a population that, over a genera-tion, would be somewhat older and much more diverse. The authors argued that, left unchecked, the convergence of these forces would drive the country on a path lead-ing to lower average cognitive skills and greater polarization, economic and other-wise, with grave implications not only for millions of individual lives, but also for society as a whole.

Under the direction of a national advisory panel, this initiative looks more deeply into the dynamics of how human and social capital are developed, along with their growing infl uence not only on adult outcomes but also on the transmission of oppor-tunity to the next generation. An overarching goal of the initiative is to contribute to public understanding of how these dynamics drive inequality of opportunity where, by opportunity, we mean pathways to the accumulation of human and social capital.

This volume is one of several products planned for the Opportunity in America initiative. It contains 14 chapters, including an epilogue, written by leaders across a range of fi elds including education, economics, demography, and political science. They bring a variety of historical, theoretical, and research perspectives to the dis-cussion of inequality of opportunity. As a set, these chapters not only illuminate key aspects of the problem but also offer suggestions of what policies, programs, and/or changes in practices could begin to reverse the trends we are seeing. Written in an engaging style, this volume constitutes an essential foundation for informed discus-sion and strategic analysis.

* * * We extend our deep appreciation to those who contributed to the ETS initiative

now known as Opportunity in America. We especially wish to thank the authors who contributed to the development of this volume and to acknowledge the guid-ance provided by the members of our National Advisory Panel, whose names appear in the appendix. We enjoyed the opportunity to collaborate with all of them. In addi-tion to Kurt Landgraf, who, with the full backing of the Board of Trustees, provided the funding and support necessary to conduct this phase of the work, we also wish to thank Walt MacDonald, the current president and CEO of ETS, and Ida Lawrence, Senior Vice President for Research and Development, for their continued interest and support of the initiative.

Special thanks also go to our colleagues at ETS for their excellent work on vari-ous aspects of the project including contacting and supporting the national advisory panel members and the authors, arranging their travel and contracts, as well as for their planning and supporting the meetings and seminars that were held in Washington, DC, and at Educational Testing Service in Princeton, NJ. These

1 Irwin Kirsch, Kentaro Yamamoto, Henry Braun, and Andrew Sum, America’s Perfect Storm (Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 2007).

Preface

ix

individuals include Marylou Lennon, Judy Mendez, Anita Sands, and Judy Shahbazian. We also wish to extend our gratitude to Larry Hanover for his careful handling of the review and editing process for each author and to Clara Sue Beym for her watercolor that graces the cover of this volume.

Princeton , NJ , USA Irwin Kirsch Chestnut Hill , MA , USA Henry Braun

Preface

xi

In December 2015, just before this book went to press, the Every Student Succeeds Act, the successor to No Child Left Behind, was passed by Congress and signed by the President. Although it continues some of the testing requirements and disaggre-gated reporting of NCLB, it severely curtails federal oversight of state accountabil-ity systems. We offer this note to provide context when reading certain chapters, written several months earlier, that address NCLB and related issues. For a detailed summary, see http://edworkforce.house.gov/uploadedfi les/joint_esea_conference_framework_short_summary.pdf .

Editors’ Note

xiii

Contents

1 Introduction: Opportunity in America—Setting the Stage................. 1 Henry Braun and Irwin Kirsch

Part I Understanding Where We Are Today

2 Segregation, Race, and the Social Worlds of Rich and Poor .............. 13 Douglas S. Massey and Jonathan Tannen

3 Federalism and Inequality in Education: What Can History Tell Us? .................................................................... 35 Carl Kaestle

4 The Changing Distribution of Educational Opportunities: 1993–2012 ...................................................................... 97 Bruce Baker , Danielle Farrie , and David G. Sciarra

5 The Dynamics of Opportunity in America: A Working Framework ........................................................................... 137 Henry Braun

Part II The Labor Market

6 Wages in the United States: Trends, Explanations, and Solutions ........................................................................................... 167 Jared Bernstein

7 The Widening Socioeconomic Divergence in the U.S. Labor Market ....................................................................... 197 Ishwar Khatiwada and Andrew M. Sum

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Part III Education and Opportunity

8 Gates, Gaps, and Intergenerational Mobility: The Importance of an Even Start .......................................................... 255 Timothy M. (Tim) Smeeding

9 Quality and Equality in American Education: Systemic Problems, Systemic Solutions ................................................ 297 Jennifer A. O’Day and Marshall S. Smith

10 Restoring Opportunity by Expanding Apprenticeship ........................ 359 Robert I. Lerman

11 Improving Opportunity Through Better Human Capital Investments for the Labor Market ........................................... 387 Harry J. Holzer

Part IV Politics and the Road Ahead

12 Political and Policy Responses to Problems of Inequality and Opportunity: Past, Present, and Future ........................................ 415 Leslie McCall

13 How Will We Know? The Case for Opportunity Indicators ............... 443 Richard V. Reeves

Part V Seeking Inclusive Prosperity

14 Epilogue: Can Capitalists Reform Themselves? .................................. 467 Chrystia Freeland

Appendix: Members of the Opportunity in America Advisory Panel....................................... ...................................... 475

Index....................................... .......................................................................... 477

Contents

xv

Editors

Irwin Kirsch is Tyler Chair in Large-Scale Assessment and Director of the Center for Global Assessment at Educational Testing Service (ETS). He also serves as Project Director of ETS’s Opportunity in America initiative.

Henry Braun is Boisi Professor of Education and Public Policy in the Lynch School of Education and Director of the Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Education Policy at Boston College. He also serves as Project Co-Director of ETS’s Opportunity in America initiative.

Contributors

Bruce Baker is Professor at the Graduate School of Education at Rutgers University and maintains blogs on school fi nance and educational policy.

Jared Bernstein is a Senior Fellow at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. He previously served as Chief Economist and Economic Adviser to Vice President Joe Biden.

Danielle Farrie is Research Director of the Education Law Center in Newark, New Jersey.

Chrystia Freeland is the Canadian Minister of International Trade and Member of Parliament for University-Rosedale, Toronto, author of Plutocrats: The Rise of the New Global Super-rich and the Fall of Everyone Else , and journalist.

About the Editors and Contributors

xvi

Harry J. Holzer is Professor at the McCourt School of Public Policy at Georgetown University and is an Institute Fellow at the American Institutes for Research. He previously served as Chief Economist at the U.S. Department of Labor.

Carl Kaestle is University Professor of Education, History, and Public Policy emeritus at Brown University.

Ishwar Khatiwada is a Labor Economist at the Center for Labor Markets and Policy at Drexel University.

Robert I. Lerman is an Institute Fellow at the Urban Institute, Emeritus Professor of Economics at American University, and a Research Fellow at IZA in Bonn, Germany. He is also the Founder of the American Institute for Innovative Apprenticeship.

Douglas S. Massey is the Henry G. Bryant Professor of Sociology and Public Affairs at Princeton University’s Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs.

Leslie McCall is a Professor in the Department of Sociology and Faculty Fellow at the Institute for Policy Research at Northwestern University.

Jennifer A. O’Day is an Institute Fellow of the American Institutes for Research and is the Founder and Chair of the California Collaborative on District Reform.

Richard V. Reeves is a Senior Fellow in Economic Studies, Co-Director of the Center on Children and Families, and Editor-in-Chief of the Social Mobility Memos blog at the Brookings Institution.

David G. Sciarra is Executive Director of the Education Law Center in Newark, New Jersey.

Timothy M. (Tim) Smeeding is the Arts and Sciences Distinguished Professor of Public Affairs and Economics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He was pre-viously Director of the Institute for Research on Poverty at Wisconsin-Madison.

Marshall S. Smith is a Senior Scholar at the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, a former Dean and Professor at Stanford, and a former Under Secretary and Acting Deputy Secretary at the U.S. Department of Education in the Clinton administration. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Education.

About the Editors and Contributors

xvii

Andrew M. Sum is Professor Emeritus of Economics at Northeastern University in Boston. He was previously the Director of the Center for Labor Market Studies.

Jonathan Tannen is a Doctoral Candidate in the Urban and Population clusters of the Woodrow Wilson School and the Offi ce of Population Research at Princeton University.

About the Editors and Contributors

xix

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Black-White residential dissimilarity and Black and White poverty rates in metropolitan areas .............................. 15

Fig. 2.2 Segregation trends in the most and least segregated metropolitan areas ......................................................................... 17

Fig. 2.3 Percentage of households earning less than $30,000 in neighborhoods of metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) ...................................................................... 19

Fig. 2.4 Percentage of households earning more than $120,000 in neighborhoods of metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) ...................................................................... 21

Fig. 2.5 Percentage of individuals 25 and over with a college degree in neighborhoods of metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) ................................................... 22

Fig. 2.6 Potential home wealth in neighborhoods of metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) .......................................... 23

Fig. 2.7 Relationship between racial segregation by neighborhood to racial segregation by school district across states ..................... 24

Fig. 2.8 Relationship between racial segregation and gap in percentage affl uent between poor Black and affl uent White neighborhoods .................................................................... 25

Fig. 2.9 Relationship between racial segregation and gap in potential home wealth between poor Black and affl uent White neighborhoods ................................................ 26

Fig. 2.10 Percentage of households earning less than $30,000 in neighborhoods of hypersegregated metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) ................................................... 27

Fig. 2.11 Percentage of households earning more than $120,000 in neighborhoods of hypersegregated metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) ................................................... 28

xx

Fig. 2.12 Percentage of individuals 25 and over with a college degree in neighborhoods of hypersegregated metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) .......................................... 29

Fig. 2.13 Potential home wealth in neighborhoods of hypersegregated metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) .................... 30

Fig. 4.1 Conceptual map of fi scal inputs & real resources ......................... 108 Fig. 4.2 Input price adjusted revenue and spending ................................... 114 Fig. 4.3 Predicted state and local revenues over time by state ................... 115 Fig. 4.4 Relationship between effort and revenue ...................................... 117 Fig. 4.5 Spending levels and staffi ng levels 2011–2012 ............................ 124 Fig. 4.6 Relating total staffi ng and class size ............................................. 125 Fig. 4.7 Spending levels and competitive wages ........................................ 126 Fig. 4.8 Spending fairness and staffi ng fairness 2011–2012 ...................... 126 Fig. 4.9 Change in class size for 1 unit change in relative

spending and relative poverty ....................................................... 128 Fig. 4.10 Change in salary competitiveness for 1 unit change

in relative spending ....................................................................... 128

Fig. 5.1 Distribution of real wage and salary earnings for full-year, full-time males workers aged 18–64 as compared to 1961–2000 ........................................................... 139

Fig. 5.2 Distribution of real wage and salary earnings for full-year, full-time male workers aged 16 and over, as compared to 2000 ..................................................................... 140

Fig. 5.3 Cumulative change in real annual wages, by wage group, 1979–2010 ........................................................... 141

Fig. 5.4 Changes in real wage levels of full-time U.S. workers by sex and education, 1963–2012 ................................................. 142

Fig. 5.5 Problem-solving profi ciency among younger adults (age 16–24) and older adults (age 55–65) (OECD 2013) ............. 143

Fig. 5.6 Underutilization rates among U.S. workers (16 and over) by educational attainment, January 2012–August 2013 averages (in %) .............................................................................. 154

Fig. 6.1 Real hourly wage trends by decile, 1979–2013 ............................ 170 Fig. 6.2 Real hourly wage trends: men ....................................................... 171 Fig. 6.3 Real hourly wage trends: women .................................................. 171 Fig. 6.4 Changes in real wage levels of full-time U.S. workers

by sex and education, 1963–2012 ................................................. 173 Fig. 6.5 Real annual earnings by wage percentile, 1979–2012 .................. 174 Fig. 6.6 First principal component: Five series, nominal growth ............... 177 Fig. 6.7 Compensation as share of national income, 1959–2013 ............... 179 Fig. 6.8 Percent of time unemployment has been “Too High” ................... 185 Fig. 6.9 Change in real wages by wage level given 30 % decline

in unemployment rate ................................................................... 185

List of Figures

xxi

Fig. 6.10 Trade defi cit/GDP and manufacturing compensation, 1949–2013 ..................................................................................... 186

Fig. 6.11 Growth of the top 1 % income advantage and the college wage premium, 1979–2011 .................................. 188

Fig. 7.1 Measuring the unemployed, underemployed, the hidden unemployed, and the underutilized labor force ............................. 199

Fig. 7.2 Unemployment rates among workers (16 and over) by educational attainment, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ............... 202

Fig. 7.3 Unemployment rates among workers (16 and over) by household income, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ...................... 203

Fig. 7.4 Unemployment rates among workers (16 and over) by educational attainment and household income, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ........................................................... 204

Fig. 7.5 Underemployment rates among employed workers (16 and over) in 2013–2014 by educational attainment, annual averages (in %) .................................................................. 206

Fig. 7.6 Underemployment rates among employed workers (16 and over) in 2013–2014 by household income, annual averages (in %) .................................................................. 207

Fig. 7.7 Underemployment rates among workers (16 and over) by educational attainment and household income, 2013–2014 annual averages (in %) ............................................... 208

Fig. 7.8 Hidden unemployment rates among workers (16 and over) in 2013–2014 by educational attainment, annual averages (in %) .................................................................. 210

Fig. 7.9 Hidden unemployment rates among the adjusted labor force (16 and over) by household income, 2013–2014annual averages (in %) .................................................................. 211

Fig. 7.10 Hidden unemployment rates among workers (16 and over) by educational attainment and household income, 2013–2014, annual averages (in %) .............................................. 211

Fig. 7.11 Numbers of underutilized workers (16 and over), all and by type of labor market problem, 2013–2014 averages (in millions) .................................................................... 212

Fig. 7.12 Labor force underutilization rates among workers (16 and over) by educational attainment, 2013–2014 annual averages (in %) .................................................................. 213

Fig. 7.13 Labor force underutilization rates among workers (16 and over) by household income, 2013–2014 annual averages (in %) .............................................................................. 215

Fig. 7.14 Labor underutilization rates among workers (16 and over) by educational attainment and household income, 2013–2014 annual averages (in %) ............................................... 215

List of Figures

xxii

Fig. 7.15 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates of low-income, high school dropouts and affl uent adults with a master’s degree or higher by race-ethnic group, 2013–2014 annual averages (in %) .................................... 217

Fig. 7.16 Trends in the employment/population ratios of teens and young adults (20–24, 25–29) in 1999–2000 and 2013–2014 (in %) ................................................................... 220

Fig. 7.17 Percentage point increases in labor underutilization rates among selected educational and household income groups of workers, 1999–2000 to 2013–2014 .............................. 223

Fig. 7.18 Poverty rates of persons 16 and older in 2012–2013 by labor underutilization status in March 2013–March 2014 ................................................................................... 227

Fig. 7.19 Poverty rates of underutilized U.S. workers (16 and over) by educational attainment, March 2013–March 2014 (in %) ........................................................................ 227

Fig. 7.20 Poverty rates of workers (16 and over) by underutilized status and educational attainment, March 2013 and March 2014 (in %) ................................................................................... 228

Fig. 7.21 Poverty/near poverty rates of workers (16 and over) in 2012–2013 by labor underutilization status, March 2013–March 2014 .............................................................. 230

Fig. 7.22 Poverty/near poverty rates of underutilized U.S. workers (16 and over) by educational attainment, March 2013–March 2014 (in %) ........................................................................ 230

Fig. 7.23 Poverty/near-poverty rates of selected groups of workers (16 and over) by underutilized status and educational attainment, March 2013–March 2014 (in %) ................................ 231

Fig. 7.24 Low-income rates of workers (16 and over) in 2012–2013 by labor underutilization status, March 2013–March 2014 .............................................................. 232

Fig. 7.25 Low-income rates of underutilized workers (16 and over) by educational attainment, March 2013–March 2014 (in %) ................................................... 233

Fig. 7.26 Low-income rates of selected educational attainment/labor underutilized groups of workers (16 and over), March 2013–March 2014 (in %) ................................................... 234

Fig. 8.1 A model of intergenerational transmission of advantage by life stage .............................................................. 260

Fig. 8.2 After-tax and transfer disposable income for households with children: mean income in bottom, middle, and top quintiles, 1979–2010 ........................................... 269

Fig. 8.3 Changes in real wage levels of full-time U.S. workers by sex and education, 1963–2012 ................................................. 271

List of Figures

xxiii

Fig. 8.4 Never-married mothers by education attainment .......................... 277 Fig. 8.5 Unmarried mothers by mothers’ education ................................... 278 Fig. 8.6 Racial and ethnic cognitive disparities at ages

9 and 24 months ............................................................................ 279 Fig. 8A.1 Disparities in cognitive and socio-behavioral outcomes

by income level at 9 and 24 months .............................................. 286 Fig. 8A.2 Disparities in cognitive and socio-behavioral outcomes

by education of mother ................................................................. 287

Fig. 12.1 American concerns about inequality, 1987–2012 ......................... 422 Fig. 12.2 American perceptions of occupational pay

and pay inequality ......................................................................... 423 Fig. 12.3 American and international perceptions

of economic opportunity ............................................................... 424 Fig. 12.4 Changes in perceptions of economic opportunity,

1987–2012 ..................................................................................... 425 Fig. 12.5 Changes in perceptions of economic opportunity,

2001–2012 ..................................................................................... 426 Fig. 12.6 Adjusted trend in index of concerns about inequality

(scaled 0–1) ................................................................................... 427

Fig. 13.1 Absolute mobility: share of Americans who exceed their parents’ family income ......................................................... 447

Fig. 13.2 Relative intergenerational income mobility .................................. 448 Fig. 13.3 Social mobility matrix: college graduate ...................................... 449 Fig. 13.4 Social mobility matrix: less than high school education .............. 449 Fig. 13.5 Social mobility matrix: Black Americans ..................................... 450 Fig. 13.6 Social mobility matrix: White Americans .................................... 451 Fig. 13.7 Social mobility matrix: children of never-married mothers .......... 451 Fig. 13.8 Social mobility matrix: children of continuously

married mothers ............................................................................ 452

List of Figures

xxv

List of Tables

Table 3.1 Trends in desegregation, 1950–2000: percentage of Black students in 90–100 % non-White schools, by region ............... 48

Table 3.2 Funding of special education costs, percent shares, 1983 through 2010 .................................................................... 59

Table 3.3 Main NAEP reading scores, 1992–2013: White/Black and White/Hispanic gaps .......................................................... 79

Table 3.4 Main NAEP mathematics scores, 1992–2013: White/Black and White/Hispanic gaps .......................................................... 79

Table 3.5 Federal, state, and local share: public elementary and secondary school budgets .................................................. 88

Table 4.1 Numbers of states where funding fairness ratio has improved ............................................................................. 117

Table 4.2 Spending fairness indices for select years ................................ 119 Table 4.3 Summary of changes in wage competitiveness ........................ 120 Table 4.4 Teacher/nonteacher wage ratios for select years ...................... 121 Table 4.5 Summary of staffi ng level changes over time ........................... 122 Table 4.6 Predicted staffi ng ratios for select years ................................... 123 Table 4.7 Fixed effects model of pupil-to-teacher ratio fairness .............. 127 Table 4A.1 Data sources, years, and measures ........................................... 131 Table 4A.2 Summary data by state .............................................................. 132

Table 5.1 Percent of 24- to 28-year-old adults in the U.S. in 2008 without a high school diploma or GED by ASVAB test score quintile and family’s income in their teenaged years in 1997 ................................................. 143

Table 5.2 Comparisons of the unemployment rates of U.S. adults 16 and older by educational attainment, 2000 and 2012–2013 (in %) ..................................................................... 155

Table 5.3 Wages for full-time employment by educational attainment, 1979–2009 ............................................................. 156

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Table 6.1 Real annual earnings, 1947–2012 ............................................. 175

Table 7.1 Comparisons of the unemployment rates of adults 16 and older by educational attainment, 1999–2000 and 2013–2014 (in %) .............................................................. 205

Table 7.2 Comparisons of the underemployment rates of employed adults by household income and educational attainment in 1999–2000 and 2013–2014 (in %) ....................................... 208

Table 7.3 Labor force underutilization rates of workers 16 and older by educational attainment, 1999–2000 and 2013–2014 (in %) .............................................................. 214

Table 7.4 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates of adults 16 and older by educational attainment and household income groups, by gender and race-ethnic group, 2013–2014 annual averages (in %) ............................... 216

Table 7.5 Predicated probabilities for selected individuals 16 and older of being an underutilized member of the nation’s labor force in 2013–2014 (in %) ................................. 218

Table 7.6 Employment-population ratio of 16- to 24-year-old by school enrollment status, 1999–2000 and 2013–2014 averages ........................................................... 221

Table 7.7 Predicted probabilities of selected young adult labor force participants being underutilized in 2013–2014 (in %) ................................................................. 222

Table 7.8 Labor force underutilization rates of U.S. workers (16 and older) in selected educational attainment and household income groups in 1999–2000 and 2013–2014 (in %) .............................................................. 223

Table 7.9 The annual money incomes equivalent to the poverty line, the poverty/near poverty line, and the low-income threshold for selected individuals and families, 2013 .............. 225

Table 7.10 Poverty rates of persons 16 and older in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013–March 2014, total and by gender and educational attainment level (2-year averages) ............................................ 226

Table 7.11 Poverty/near poverty rates of 16 and older persons in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014, total and by gender and educational attainment level .............................................. 229

Table 7.12 Low-income rates of 16 and older persons in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014, total and by gender and educational attainment level ......................................................................... 235

List of Tables

xxvii

Table 7A.1 Labor force underutilization rates of persons 16 and older by household income level, educational attainment: 2013–2014 averages (in %) ................................... 236

Table 7A.2 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates of workers lacking a high school diploma with those holding a master’s or higher degree, all and by gender and race-ethnic group, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ................. 237

Table 7A.3 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates of workers from low- income families (under $20,000) with those from the most affl uent ($150,000 and over), all and by gender and race-ethnic group, 2013–2014 (in %) .................... 238

Table 7A.4 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates of workers from low- income families lacking a high school diploma to workers from the most affl uent families with a master’s or higher degree, all and by gender and race-ethnic group, 2013–2014 (in %) ................................ 239

Table 7A.5 Labor force underutilization rates of men 16 and older by household income level, educational attainment, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ...................................................... 239

Table 7A.6 Labor force underutilization rates of women 16 and older by household income level, educational attainment, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ................................... 239

Table 7A.7 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older by family income level, educational attainment level for Asian adults, 2013–2014 averages ...................................... 240

Table 7A.8 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older by family income level, educational attainment level for Black adults, 2013–2014 averages ...................................... 240

Table 7A.9 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older by family income level, educational attainment level for Hispanic adults, 2013–2014 averages ................................. 240

Table 7A.10 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older by family income level, educational attainment level for Native American/other adults, 2013–2014 averages .......... 241

Table 7A.11 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older by family income level, educational attainment level for White adults, 2013–2014 averages ..................................... 241

Table 7A.12 Poverty rates of 16 and older persons in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014 by selected race and educational attainment level ......................................................................... 241

Table 7A.13 Poverty/near poverty rates of 16 and older persons in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014 by selected race and educational attainment level .............................................. 242

List of Tables

xxviii

Table 7A.14 Low-income rates of 16 and older persons in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014 by selected race and educational attainment level ......................................................................... 243

Table 7B.1 Unemployment rates of workers by gender and race-ethnic group in selected educational attainment and family income groups, 2013–2014 (in %) ........................................................ 245

Table 7C.1 Defi nitions of the variables appearing in the logistic probability model of being an underutilized labor force participant ........................................................................ 247

Table 7C.2 Findings of the logistic probability model of the underutilized status of individual members of the labor force in 2013–2014 .......................................................... 248

Table 7E.1 Findings of the logistic probability model of the underutilized status of individual members of the young adult labor force under age 30 in 2013–2014 ................ 250

Table 12A.1 Support of selected policies related to inequality and opportunity ......................................................................... 439

Table 13.1 Dashboard of opportunity “Leading Indicators” in United Kingdom ................................................................... 456

Table 13.2 The Colorado opportunity framework ...................................... 457 Table 13.3 Indicators used in the U.K., Colorado, the Social

Genome Model, and Reeves’ paper on “Five Strong Starts” ............................................................. 462

List of Tables