the eastern arc mountains of tanzania and kenya

8/6/2019 The Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania and Kenya

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The phrase Eastern Arc Mountains, describing a chain of mountains starting in southern Kenya and

progressing through eastern Tanzania.

The Eastern Arc is defined as a chain of ancient crystalline Precambrian basement mountains, stretching

from the Taita Hills in Kenya to the Udzungwa Mountains in south-central Tanzania, which were uplifted at

least 30 million years ago and which are under the direct climatic influence of the Indian Ocean.

The Eastern Arc Mountains range up to 2635m in altitude (Lukwangule Plateau and Kimhandu Peak in the

Ulugurus) and contain a diverse assemblage of habitats. It is expected that prior to major human influenceon the landscape, the wetter (eastern and south-eastern) slopes supported a continuous forest cover

throughout all elevations, while the drier (western and north-western) slopes supported deciduous woodland

at lower elevations and evergreen forest only at higher elevations. Tall evergreen forest was found on the top

plateaus well away from the rain-capturing scarps, as a consequence of persistent fog over the highlands

during the night. In other parts of the highlands, montane grassland and heathland dominated. A desiccation-

adapted flora occurred on rocky outcrops.

There are 13 separate mountain blocks in the Eastern Arc. The East Usambaras, Ulugurus and Udzungwas

consistently being assessed as the most important areas. The Eastern Arc is also home to four endemic or

near-endemic species of primates the Sanje Mangabey Cercocebus sanjei, Iringa Red Colobus Procolobus

gordonorum, the Mountain Galago Galagoides orinus and the new Kipunji monkey Rungwecebus kipunji

that is the sole representative of its genus (Davenport et al., 2006)

Udzungwa Mountains are one of the most important areas in Africa for primate diversity and conservation,

with two endemic monkeys (Udzungwa red colobus Procolobus gordonorum and Sanje mangabey

Cercocebus [galeritus] sanjei), and the near-endemic kipunji monkey Rungwecebus kipunji, a new genus

and species discovered in 2004 and found in Udzungwa and Southern Highlands. With six species of

galagos, or bushbabies, the area is also of exceptional importance for nocturnal primates.

form of Mountain galago Galagoides orinus occurring in the Udzungwa Mountains appears to be distinct on

the base of vocalizations, and further work will be required to assess its taxonomic status.

primate community reflects the overall, exceptional biodiversity of these isolated and ancient mountains.

Udzungwa are part of the Eastern Arc mountain chain, a centre of global importance for biodiversity and

endemism. Of all the Eastern Arc Mountain blocks, the Udzungwa have the largest forested area, widest

altitudinal gradient and greatest habitat diversity.

Within the Eastern Arc Mountains, the Udzungwa Mountain stands-out for containing the largest forest

blocks, with the largest altitudinal gradient of continuous forest cover. Most forests of the Eastern Arc do

not exceed 50 to 100 km2 and occur only on the highest slopes (generally between 1500 and 2000 m of

altitude). Instead, the eastern-facing escarpment slopes of the Udzungwa Mountains have maintained

continuous forest cover from the Kilombero valley at 250 m a.s.l. to the highest ridges above 2000 m. Thisis probably due to the relative remoteness from the coast and the poor farming suitability of its landslide-

prone slopes that delayed human colonization and prevented the area from deforestation, in comparison with

other blocks such as the Usambara and Uluguru Mountains (J. Kingdon, personal communication). It is only

during the 1950s, with the construction of the railway to Zambia that runs all along the eastern escarpment,

that logging in the lower zones of the eastern forests was initiated. This opened the way to the development

of villages and small towns such as Ifakara. Moreover, between 1929 and 1958, most of these forests were

legally gazetted as Forest Reserves (e.g. Mwanihana, Nyanganje, Iyondo and Uzungwa Scarp), thus

ensuring long-lasting protection.


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Yellow Baboon

Range Description: This species ranges from Somalia, coastal Kenya, and northern Tanzania southwards to

the Zambezi valley, and across south-central Africa to central Angola (Benguela). There are hybrid zones

with Papio anubis near Sultan Hamud, Kenya (202'S, 3723'E), Amboseli National Park (Kenya) and

Mkomazi Reserve in Tanzania. There is a broad clinal hybrid zone between Laikipia District, just to the

north-east and east of Mt. Kenya, and the Lower Tana River, Kenya coast. Baboons in this >200-km wide

region are intermediate and cannot be readily allocated to either P. anubis or P. cynocephalus (baboons

become increasingly yellow-like in their phenotypes towards the Kenya Coast.

There are three subspecies: P. c. cynocephalus occurs in the central and south-eastern parts of the range

including Zambia east of the Luangwa, Malawi, northern Mozambique, and most of Tanzania; P. c. ibeanus

is found in southern Somalia, and south-east and coastal Kenya; P. c. kindae is found on the upper Zambezi

in south-western Zambia.

Habitat and Ecology: Over a great part of this species' range, it is specific to fire-climax Miombo

(Brachystegia) woodland. Both within this zone and especially to the north-east, it also occupies dry

bushland, thickets, steppes, and the coastal littoral (including mangroves); able to persist in secondary and/or

highly fragmented vegetation, including cultivated area. It is an opportunistic omnivore which primarily

feeds on the seeds, flesh, and pods of the leguminous trees including Acacia, Albizia, mopane

(Colophospermum), and tamarind, all of which are seasonal staples. In addition, Miombo fauna such as

mopane worms and various other insects are equally important at times. In addition, this species also eats

grasses, shoots, fungi, lichens, and many invertebrates. It prefers foods with an unusual chemistry, implying

that this species has acquired special digestive adaptations. This may help to explain why the boundaries of

its distribution do not follow any geographic discontinuities but coincide very closely with the distribution

of a plant community.

The Yellow Baboon typically forages in extended, well-spaced troops which can occasionally number up to

300 animals (with an average of 30-80). During the calving season, many young antelopes and hares are

caught.

Conservation Actions: It is listed as Vermin under the African Convention. It is present in many protected

areas.

Colobus Angolensis Palliatus

Range Description: The eastern subspecies, C. a. palliatus, is discontinously distributed in the Southern

Highlands and coastal and gallery forests of southern and eastern Tanzania and south-eastern Kenya.

Kenyan distribution of C. a. palliatus is solely restricted to the southern coastal forests of the Kwale District.

Habitat and Ecology: This largely arboreal species occurs in both lowland and montane primary and

gallery forests. It is generally found in small family groups, but temporary aggregations of up to 300 animals

have been reported. The eastern Colobus a. palliatus is a folivorous primate confined to the forests of

Tanzania and southern Kenya, and is forest-dependent primate.

Mountain Galago

This species is present in many of the Eastern Arc Mountains of Kenya and Tanzania. It has been recorded

from the West and East Usumbara Mountains, the Uluguru Mountains, the Udzungwa Mountains, and

Rubehos (all Tanzania). Similar forms have been recorded from the Taita Hills, Kenya (Perkin et al. 2002),


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and from Rungwe Mountain in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania (A. Perkin and S. Bearder pers. comm.).

Appears to occur at elevations from 1,200 to 2,000 m. Sympatric with G. zanzibaricus and Otolemur

garnettii.

Population: Widespread, but fragmented range, and present at low densities.

Population Trend: Decreasing

Major Threat(s): The main threat to this species is habitat loss through deforestation for timber, and

conversion to agricultural land. It is present in a number of protected areas throughout the range, including

the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve, both in Tanzania, and Taiti

Hills Forest Reserve, Kenya.

Habitat and Ecology: It is found in the mid- to high canopy of submontane and montane tropical forest. It is

presumed to give birth to one or two young per year.

Systems: Terrestrial

Rungwecebus kipunji

Geographic Range

Rungwecebus kipunji is endemic to Tanzania. It is found in both the Rungwe-Livingstone forest in the

Southern Highlands and the Ndundulu Forest Reserve of southwest Tanzania (Davenport et al., 2006). It

inhabits approximately 70 square kilometers in the Rungwe-Livingstone forest and approximately three

square kilometers in the Ndundulu Forest Reserve (Davenport et al., 2006; Jones, 2005). (Davenport et al.,

2006; Jones et al., 2005)

Habitat Elevation 1300 to 2450 m (4264 to 8036 ft)

The Ndundulu forest is submontane, whereas the Rungwe-Livingstone forest is upper montane withtemperatures dropping to 3C or colder from May through September (Davenport, 2005; Jones et al., 2005).

Rungwecebus kipunji is primarily arboreal, only occasionally descending to feed or evade intragroup

conflict or predators (Davenport et al., 2006). In the Rungwe-Livingstone forest, kipunji are found at

elevations ranging from 1750 to 2450 meters and in the Ndundulu Forest Reserve, they are found between

1300 and 1750 meters (Davenport, 2005; Davenport et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2005). Rungwe -Livingstone

forest is severely degraded with just a narrow strip of trees connecting the forests of Mounts Rungwe and

Livingstone. (Davenport et al., 2006; Davenport, 2005; Jones et al., 2005)

Physical Description

Mass 10 to 16 kg Length 85 to 90 cm

Adult males are estimated to be 85 to 90 cm in length, excluding the tail. The tail has smooth pelage, islonger than the body, and is usually curled up and backward. An average adult male is estimated to have a

weight between 10 and 16 kg. Sexual dimorphism is not apparent when observing the pelage color of adults.

Overall, the pelage is relatively long, which may be an adaptation to the cold temperatures of the Rungwe-

Livingstone forest. The dorsum is light to medium brown in color, whereas the center of the ventrum is off-

white. Half of the tail is off-white as well, on the terminal end. The lower forelimbs are dark brown to black

and the hands and feet are black. One distinguishing characteristic is the long, broad crest of hair along the

crown of the head. The eyes are brown, but the eyelids are black along with the rest of the face. The muzzle

is relatively long with elongated cheek whiskers. Rungwecebus kipunji is distinguished from mangabeys


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(Cercocebus andLophocebus ) by different coloration, a crest on the crown of its head, the off-white coloredtail and ventrum, and its loud distinct call, referred to as a honk-bark (Davenport, 2005; Davenport et al.,

2006; Jones et al., 2005). (Davenport et al., 2006; Davenport, 2005; Jones et al., 2005)

Reproduction

Currently, information on the reproductive behavior of R. kipunji is limited. Genital swelling has been

observed, which is characteristic of other female monkeys in oestrus as a means of communicating the

fertility of a female to potential mates (Davenport et al., 2006; Loy, 1987). (Davenport et al., 2006; Loy,

1987)

Although there is limited information on kipunjis, two of their close relatives, geladas Theropithecus andbaboons Papio, may share similar reproductive behaviors. Considering their close phylogenetic relationship

to these species, it is likely kipunji have similar reproductive characteristics. Theropithecus and Papioaverage one offspring per pregnancy and twinning in general is rare among monkeys (Altmann, 1970;

Nowak, 1991; Simonds, 1987; van Hooff, 1990). The gestation period in these taxa is about 180 days (vanHooff, 1990). Sexual maturity is reached around five years of age forPapio and at 3.5 years for females and

eight years for males among Theropithecus (Nowak, 1991; van Hooff, 1990). (Altmann and Altmann, 1970;

Nowak, 1991; Simonds, 1974; van Hooff, 1990)

Lifespan/Longevity

There is no information on the approximate lifespan of R. kipunji. Although, to give an estimate of the

general range of possibilities for lifespan, Papio and Theropithecus have been known to reach ages of 20

and 45 years (Nowak, 1991; van Hooff, 1990). (Nowak, 1991; van Hooff, 1990)

Behavior

Rungwecebus kipunji is a social species, found in groups estimated at 30 to 36 males and females, with amaximum of two infants. There is no evidence of an animal traveling alone. To date, three groups have been

found in the Ndundulu Forest Reserve and 16 groups have been found in the Rungwe-Livingstone forest. A

head-shaking behavior exhibited by males has been observed just before the animal flees. Kipunji are active

during the day and primarily restrict their activity to the trees, rarely coming to the ground. Kipunji seem tobe shy of humans (Beckman, 2005; Davenport et al., 2006). (Beckman, 2005; Davenport et al., 2006)

Communication and Perception

Kipunji have been described as very vocal, with a unique call referred to as a honk-bark (Beckman, 2005;Davenport, et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2005). Visual, chemical, and tactile forms of communication, such as

grooming, are common among most primates, and therefore are probably used by R. kipunji as well(Simonds, 1974). (Beckman, 2005; Davenport et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2005; Simonds, 1974)

Food Habits

Rungwecebus kipunji is omnivorous, eating a variety of foods, including young and mature leaves, shoots,flowers, bark, ripe and unripe fruits, lichen, moss, invertebrates, and farm crops (e.g. maize, beans, and

sweet potato) (Davenport et al., 2006). (Davenport et al., 2006)

Predation

Crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus) are common predators and leopards ( Panthera pardus) arepossible predators.Rungwecebus kipunji is often hunted by humans because of their crop raiding habits and

for food (Davenport et al., 2006). (Davenport et al., 2006)

Ecosystem Roles


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Kipunjis likely aid the reproductive success of some plants by distributing seeds via fruit consumption. It ispossible that leopards and crowned eagles could be negatively impacted if kipunji were not a diet component.

In the Rungwe-Livingstone forest, groups of R. kipunji have been observed in association with Angolancolobus (Colobus angolensis), and blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis), which can be beneficial in evading

predators and improving foraging success (Davenport et al., 2006). (Davenport et al., 2006)

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Kipunji are known to raid farm crops (Davenport et al., 2006). Nonhuman primates can be a disease vector,

creating a potential threat to human health (Daszak et al., 2000). (Davenport et al., 2006)

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Residents of the Rungwe District have been known to occasionally eat kipunji (Davenport et al., 2006).(Davenport et al., 2006)

Conservation Status

Assessment for the IUCN Red List has yet to be completed, butRungwecebus kipunji will likely be listed as

critically endangered. Logging, hunting/poaching, charcoal-making, and unmanaged resource extraction

are all known threats to this species. The narrow Bujingijila Corridor, which links the forests of MountRungwe and Livingstone, is severely degraded. If no action is taken, it is likely the two forests will become

separated. The population ofR. kipunji in the Rungwe-Livingstone area is currently estimated to consist of500 to 1000 individuals. The Ndundulu population is estimated at less than 500 individuals (Davenport et al.,

2006). (Davenport et al., 2006)

Iringa red colobus (Udzungwa red colobus) Piliocolobus gordonorum

Key identification features

Red colobus monkeys have big bodies with a big pot-belly and relatively small heads. Their long backsslope forwards. Their limbs are long and they have moderately long tails without tufts. All colobus monkeys

lack a thumb. The Iringa red colobus has red, black and white colouring. The colour patters can vary

individually but compared to the other red colobus it has a tendency for darker tones. The coat is thin andshaggy, the face is dark and the lips are pink. Females: HB 45-62 cm, Wt 7-9kg. Males HB 45-70 cm. Wt 9-

13 kg.

Habitat and social behaviour

The Iringa red colobus occurs in riverine and montane forest patches in the Udzungwa mountains between

550 and 6000 meters. It is wholly arboreal (tree dwelling). They live in large troops with up to 100 monkeys.

They feed mainly in the morning and afternoon and they have a long midday rest to allow for digestion.

Origin and distribution: The Iringa Red zebu falls under the group of Small East-African Zebu of

Tanzania (Tanganyika zebu) and is confined to the Singida and Iringa highland regions of Tanzania [CS

1.11 by Gwakisa]. The Small East African Zebus are believed to have descended from the recent

introductions of zebu into Africa from Asia, and some may have ancestral linkages with cattle of the Large

East African Zebu group. The breeds or strains that belong to Tanganyika Zebu have broad genetic and

phenotypic diversity, and are dispersed throughout mainland Tanzania, but mainly in the Dodomo area of

central Tanzania. They are named after tribal groups or locations. The Iringa Red was created by a tribal

chief who insisted that his people should only keep red-coloured cattle (Rege and Tawah, 1999).


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Physical characteristics: They are more or less deep red in colour. All the cattle in Iringa, Uhehe and

Njombe were of a uniform blood-red colour, and recent importations of other cattle from Ugogo have led to

admixtures of the dominant red coat. They are large-framed animals (Epstein 1971).

Peculiarity: Nearly all cattle are more or less deep red in colour (Epstein 1971).They inhabit cold bleak

uplands of the southern area and have proven to survive long hard months of the dry season. They are found

in areas where East Coast Fever is endemic of and the breed may be genetically tolerant to the disease.

Breed status: Iringa Red breed is at the verge of extinction (DAD-IS 2005). Rege (1999) categorised this

breed as endangered because of interbreeding with Ugogo Grey cattle. Efforts have to be made to conservethe breed.

Utility: They are kept for milk and meat.

Cercocebus sanjei

The Sanje mangabey, discovered in 1979 (Homewood and Rodgers, 1981; Groves, 1996), is endemic to the

Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania, the southern-most and largest forest block of the Eastern Arc Mountains.

The fragmented relict forests of the Udzungwas (c. 1017 km2 of forest) hold 11 species of primates. In

addition to the Endangered Sanje mangabey, there are two other threatened endemic or near-endemic

species of monkey, making these mountains arguably the most important single site in Africa for the

conservation of primate diversity.

Range Description: This species is known from the region of Mwanihana Forest and Udzwunga Scarp

Forest Reserve, on the eastern slopes of the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania. It ranges from 400-1,300 m asl.

Habitat and Ecology: This species is often found in the lower understory of submontane and montane

forest, and spends ~50% of its time foraging on the forest floor (Ehardt et al. 2005; Ehardt and Butynski

2006). It frequently moves through and utilizes disturbed areas and mosaic habitat (Ehardt et al. 2005). Diet

is strongly concentrated on fruit, nuts and seeds, as well as herbaceous material (Ehardt et al. 2005). Mean

group sizes range from 15 to >40 animals (Wasser 1993; Ehardt 2001; Ehardt et al. 2005).

Major Threat(s): It is threatened by continuing deforestation for timber and charcoal production. It is also

threatened by hunting, including with dogs.

Population: The population was originally estimated to be between 1,800 and 3,000 animals (Homewood

and Rodgers 1981; Rodgers and Homewood 1982; Dinesen et al. 2001). Current population estimate likely

does not exceed 1,300 individuals (Ehardt et al. 2005). Split into two distinct subpopulations : the largest

subpopulation (ca. 60%) occurs within the recently established Udzungwa Mountains National Park, and the

remaining ca. 40% in Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (Ehardt 2001; Ehardt et al. 2005). Until recently, a

third subpopulation was believed to exist in Ndundulu Forest Reserve, but surveys in 2004 confirm that the

earlier reports by ornithologists (Dinesen et al. 2001) were based on misidentification of the primates present

in this Forest Reserve (Ehardt and Butynski 2006).

Population Trend: decreasing.

Conservation Actions: It is present in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and Udzwunga Scarp Forest

Reserve, Tanzania (Ehardt et al. 1999; Ehardt 2001; Ehardt et al. 2005; Ehardt and Butynski 2006). Efforts

to expand the National Park boundaries to improve the level of protection in the Udzwunga Scarp Forest

Reserve have been unsuccessful. Demographic surveys are needed. There is a need to enforce laws

prohibiting hunting in forest reserves, and to increase prevention of habitat alteration.

Chlorocebus pygerythrus


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Vervet Monkey Description: The Vervet Monkey is a medium sized primate with greenish/olive or

silvery/gray coloured fur and black face, hands, feet, tip of tail and top of head. Male body length varies

from 45cm-85cm and weighs 3.5kg-7.5kg. Females range from 40cm-60cm in body length and weigh 2.5-

5.5kg. Both sexes have tail lengths of 50cm-115cm.

Vervet Monkey Habitat: Savanna, mountains up to 4000m, acacia woodlands with streams and lakes.

Commonly found in South Africa where they are classified vermin and so can be killed by human without a

permit. Distributed from the Ethiopian Rift Valley, highlands east of the Rift, and southern Somalia in the

north, through the eastern lowlands of Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia (east of the Luangwa

Valley), Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa (all provinces). This species has also

been recorded from the islands of Pemba and Mafia, Tanzania, and the Manda Islands, Lamu Archipelago,

of northern Kenya. Sympatric with Papio spp and Erythrocebus patas (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers.

comm.).

Vervet Monkey Social Structure and Behaviour: Vervets generally live in groups of 10-50 comprising

mainly of females and their offspring. There is a strict hierarchy. Young spend the first week clinging to the

mother's stomach but after the third week the young begin to move by them selves and interact with other

young monkeys.

Vervet Monkey Communication: Alarm calls, which vary depending on the type of threat to the group.

Vervet Monkey Life Cycle: Known to have a life span of up to 20 years. They have a gestation period of 7

months, which produces a single offspring.

Vervet Monkey Diet: Mainly frugvivourous but will supplement its diet with leaves seeds, insects, birds

eggs and small rodents.

Blue Monkey

Range Description: This widespread African species ranges from Angola and the Democratic Republic of

Congo eastwards to the Indian Ocean coastline and Zanzibar Island (Tanzania); in the eastern part of its

range it is found from Ethiopia in the north to eastern South Africa in the south (Colyn and Verheyen 1987;

Lawes 1990; Colyn 1991; Gautier-Hion et al. 1999; Butynski 2002a, b). It is found from sea level up to

3,800 m asl (Rwenzori Mountains).

There are 17 subspecies:

1). C. m. albotorquatus. In Kenya, present in Kipini Conservancy, Witu Forest, Tana River forests west as

far as Meru and Kora National Parks. C. m. phylax, a synonym of C. m. albotorquatus, is present on Patta

and Witu Islands, Lamu Archipelago, Kenya. Reported to be present in the coastal forest of southern

Somalia, but this requires confirmation (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).

2). C. m. kolbi is restricted to the highlands of Kenya, east of the Rift Valley (including Nairobi). There is

no evidence that C. m. kolbi occurs in Marsabit (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong, pers comm. 2007).


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3). C. m. albogularis is present from Kilifi Creek south to northern Tanzania, and from here west to Mount

Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru, Tanzania; it also occurs on the island of Zanzibar, Tanzania. This subspecies

is possibly the subspecies that occurs from Kilifi Creek to Malindi (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).

4). C. m. francescae is known only from Mount Waller and the Vipya Plateau of Malawi.

5). C. m. moloneyi is present from Zambia west of the Luangwa River, northern-most Malawi, the Southern

Highlands of Tanzania to the Udzungwa Mountains (T. Butynski pers. comm.).

6). C. m. erythrarchus ranges from the Mlanje Plateau in southern Malawi, to Zimbabwe, much of

Mozambique (althought the coastal limits are uncertain) to Limpopo Province and northern KwaZulu-Natal

in South Africa in the south.

7). C. m. labiatus is restricted to South Africa where it is found in the Limpopo Province, Mpumalanga,

KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape.

8). C. m. heymansi ranges between the Lualaba and Lomami Rivers in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

9). C. m. opisthostictus ranges from the Province of Katanga (= Shaba) in the Democratic Republic of

Congo, north to approximately 6N on the left bank of the River Lualaba to the western shores of Lake

Tanganyika, it is found in north-western Zambia west of the Luangwa River.

10). The nominate subspecies C. m. mitis is known only from the Dundo region of Angola.

11). C. m. boutourlinii is present in southern Ethiopia, where it is found from Lake Tana southwards along

the western side of the Ethiopian Rift, but does not reach Lake Turkana.

12). C. m. stuhlmanni is widespread occurring in the Democratic Republic of Congo from the region

between the Uele River and the Congo River, east of the Itimbiri River to the Ituri and Semliki Forests

(Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda), and from here south to about 6S and east of the Lualaba

River, into southern Sudan, northern Uganda and parts of Kenya west of the Rift Valley, including Mount

Elgon and the Kakamega Forest.

13). C. m. schoutedeni is present in the Democratic Republic of Congo on the islands of Idjwi and Shushu in

Lake Kivu, and from the Virunga Volcanoes and south-west as far as Bobandana.

14). C. m. doggetti is found in the highlands of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, northern Burundi,

north-western Tanzania, through Rwanda and parts of southern Uganda (there is uncertainty in the

distribution of this subspecies and the degree of overlap with neighbouring subspecies).

15). C. m. kandti has an unclear distribution, but is generally found in the area of Virunga Volcanoes, the

contiguous Gishwati Forest, and higher part of Nyungwe.

16). C. m. zammaranoi (treated by some as a synonym of C. m. albotorquatus) has a very restricteddistribution in southern Somalia along the Jubba and Webi-Shebeli Rivers. See Gippoliti (2006) for a review.

17) C. m. monoides ranges through the Selous Game Reserve and Kichi Hills west to the foot of the

Udzungwa Mountains, south into Newala District.

Habitat and Ecology: This species is present in many different forest types including lowland and montane

tropical moist forest, riverine and gallery forest, delta forest and bamboo forest (Lawes et al. 1990). Also

found in sand forest. It can occur in secondary forest, logged forest and thickets. Group size ranges from 2 to

more than 40 individuals. The gestation period is around 176 days after which a single young is usually born.


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Major Threat(s): There appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole, although it is generally

threatened to some degree by deforestation and habitat fragmentation. The species is also threatened by

hunting in places (for food and animal parts are also used in places for traditional medicine). The population

in Angola may have disappeared through habitat loss in a now densely settled region. Those subspecies with

more restricted ranges are presumably threatened by deforestation because of a range of activities including

agricultural activities (mainly shifting agriculture), selective logging for timber, logging for firewood,

replacement by commercial timber forests (especially in South Africa), expanding human settlement and

future mining operations. The area of Kipini Forest, in which the subspecies C. m. albotorquatus is common,

has recently been given over by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and Kipini Conservancy for resettlement

of people from the lower Tana River area. This could mean that the remaining forest is likely to be destroyed

in the very near future (T. Butynski and Y. de Jong pers. comm.).

Physical Description

Blue monkeys are small (ranging in weight from 4 to 6 kg) and arboreal. The face is nearly naked, usually

dark in color (infrequently blue), and has well-developed musculature (Lawlor, 1979). Cercopithecus mitis

is also known as the diademed monkey because it has a prominent row of forward pointing white fur just

above its brow line (Rudran, 1978).

White whiskers are well developed in males. Males are larger than females. Male canines are also slightly

larger than the female canines (Rudran,1978).

These monkeys are catarrhine; the nostrils are close together and they face downward. They have cheek

pouches to carry food while foraging (Rudran, 1978).

The dental formula ofC. mitis is 2/2 1/1 3/3 2/2=32.

The nail on each digit is flattened, and the pollex is opposable (Lawlor, 1979).

The upper parts of the body are gray and the limbs are darker in appearance. Some young have indistinct

russet-colored rump patches, which has not been seen in adults (Dorst and Dandelot, 1970). (Dorst andDandelot, 1970; Lawlor, 1979; Rudran, 1978)

Behavior

Blue monkeys are diurnal and arboreal. Cercopithecus mitis tends to be a social species with group sizesranging from 10 to 40 individuals. The groups have a unimale social system (Estes, 1991). The alpha male

receives all of the copulations from the troop females. He also guards the troop against other conspecific

troops and males. Females tend to join in confrontations with other conspecific troops (Estes, 1991). When

take-overs occur, the former alpha male is often ousted from the group. Additionally, blue monkeys form

alliances with other monkeys such as Cercopithecus ascanius. This is probably for added protection against

predators. Cercopithecus mitis and C. ascanius do not compete for resources because they forage in different

locations in the forest (Richard, 1985). (Richard, 1985)

Communication and Perception

As in other species of primates, communication in these monkeys is likely to be complex and varied.Because of their facial markings, facial expressions are extremely marked. Body postures add to the visual

signals used in communication. Vocalizations are common in primates and are probably used by diademed

monkeys. Tactile communication occurs between mates and rivals, as well as between mothers and their

offspring. Grooming is an important physical activity which helps to solidify social bonds. (Grzimek, 1994;

MacDonald, 1984)


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Food Habits

Blue monkeys are frugivorous and folivorous in nature, eating mainly fruits and leaves. In addition, bluemonkeys tend to concentrate their invetebrate feeding on slow-moving slugs and worms (Rudran, 1978).

the eastern arc mountains of tanzania and kenya

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