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Chapter

World CivilizationsThe Global Experience

AP® Seventh Edition

Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007Pearson Education, Inc.

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World Civilizations: The Global Experience, AP® Seventh EditionStearns | Adas | Schwartz | Gilbert

The Americas on the Eve of Invasion

12


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Figure 12.1 The great Aztec city-state of Tenochtitlan was established on an island in the midst of a large lake. Connected to the shores by causeways, supplied with fresh water by an aqueduct, it housed a population estimated to

be over 150,000. Early Spanish observers compared its canals to Venice and were

fascinated by its markets and gardens. To the Aztecs it was the center of political and spiritual power, or as they called it, “the foundation of

heaven.”


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Chapter Overview

I. Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–1500 C.E.

II. Aztec Society in Transition

III.Twantinsuyu: World of the Incas

IV.The Other Peoples of the Americas


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TIMELINE 900 C.E. to 1450 C.E.


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Postclassic Mesoamerica, 1000–

1500 C.E.

• Teotihuacan collapses, 700s

– Toltec culture

• The Toltec Heritage

– Rule extended to Yucatan, Maya lands, c. 1000

– Commercial influence to American Southwest

Possibly Mississippi, Ohio valleys


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Figure 12.2 Toltec political and cultural influence spread from its capital at Tula in northern Mexico to places as far south as

Chichén Itzá in Yucatan. The colossal statues of warriors shown here served as columns that

supported the roof of a great temple.


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1500 C.E.

• The Aztec Rise to Power

– Toltec collapse, c. 1150

Caused by northern nomads?

– Center moves to Mexico valley

Lakes used for fishing, farming, transportation

– Aztecs in, early 14th century

Begin as mercenaries, allies

1325, found Tenochtitlan

Dominate by 1434


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Map 12.1 Central Mexico and Lake TexcocoAn aquatic environment at the heart of the

Aztec empire.


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1500 C.E.

• The Aztec Social Contract

– Transformation to hierarchical society

– Service of gods pre-eminent

Sacrifice increased

Source of political power

– Moctezuma II

Head of state and religion


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1500 C.E.

• Religion and the Ideology of Conquest

– Spiritual and natural world seamless

Hundreds of deities

Three groups

• Fertility, agriculture, water

– Tlaloc

• Creator gods

• Warfare, sacrifice

– Huitzilopochtli

– Aztec tribal god

– Identified with sun god


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Figure 12.3 Human sacrifice was practiced by many Mesoamerican peoples, but the Aztecs

apparently expanded its practice for political and religious reasons. This image shows Aztec

priests cutting out their victims’ hearts and then rolling the bodies down the steps of the

pyramid.(Ms. Magliabechiano: sacrificio umano azteco.

Biblioteca Nazionale Firenze. Scala/Art Resource, NY.)


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1500 C.E.

• Religion and the Ideology of Conquest

– Nezhualcoyotl

– Sacrifice

Motivated by religion or possibly terror

– Cyclical view of history


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Figure 12.4 This Aztec stone calendar is about 12 feet across and 4 feet thick, and it

weighs about 24 tons. It was unearthed accidentally by construction crews in Mexico

City in 1790.


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Postclassic Mesoamerica

1000–1500 C.E.

• Feeding the People: The Economy of the Empire

– Agriculture

Chinampas, man-made floating islands

• High yield

Farming organized by clans

– Markets

Daily market at Tlatelolco

• Controlled by pochteca, merchant class

Regulated by state


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Aztec Society in Transition

• Society increasingly hierarchical

• Widening Social Gulf

– Calpulli

Transformed from clans to groupings by residence

Distribute land, labor

Maintain temples, schools

Basis of military organization


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• Widening Social Gulf

– Noble class develops from some calpulli

Military virtues give them status

Serf-like workers on their lands

– Social gaps widen

Imperial family at head of pipiltin

– Calpulli of merchants


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Figure 12.5 In the militarized society of the Aztec empire, warriors were organized into regiments and groups distinguished by their uniforms. They gained rank and respect by capturing enemies for sacrifice. Note the

symbolic gripping of the defeated captives’ hair as a sign of military success.


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• Overcoming Technological Constraints

– Women have various roles

Can own property

No public roles

– Elite polygamy

Most monogamous

– Lacked the wheel, suitable animals for power


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• A Tribute Empire

– Speaker

One rules each city-state

– Great Speaker

Rules Tenochtitlan

Prime Minister powerful

– Subjugated states could remain autonomous

Owe tribute, labor


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Twantinsuyu:World of the Incas

• Tihuanaco, Huari (c. 550-1000 C.E.)

– After 1000, smaller regional states

• Chimor (900-1465)

– North coast of Peru


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• The Inca Rise to Power

– Cuzco area

Quechua-speaking clans (ayllus)

Huari

Control regions by 1438, under Pachacuti

– Topac Yupanqui

Son of Pachacuti

Conquered Chimor

Rule extended to Ecuador, Chile


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• The Inca Rise to Power

– Huayna Capac

Furthers conquests of Topac Yupanqui

1527, death

• Twantinsuyu (empire)

– From Colombia to Chile

– To Bolivia, Argentina


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Map 12.2 Inca ExpansionEach ruler expanded the empire in a series of

campaigns to increase wealth and political control.


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Visulizing the PastArcheological Evidence of Political

PracticesChan-Chan covered more than 2 square miles. It contained palace compounds, storehouses, residences, markets, and other structures.


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Visulizing the PastArcheological Evidence of Political

PracticesCity of Chan-Chan.


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• Conquest and Religion

– Split inheritance

Power to successor

Wealth, land to male descendants

Result is continual conquest


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• Conquest and Religion

– Religion

Sun god supreme

• Represented by ruler (Inca)

• Temple of the Sun at Cuzco

Local gods survive

• Huacas


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• The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule

– Inca

Rules from Cuzco

Governors of four provinces

Bureaucracy

Local rulers (curacas)

– Unification

Quechua

Forced transfers


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– Military

System of roads, way stations (tambos), storehouses

– State

Redistributive economy

Mita

• Building, irrigation projects


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The "Troubling" Civilizations of the Americas

• Inca socialism and despotism

• Cultural clash with the west

– Violent customs

Ritual torture, human sacrifice

– Moral judgment

– West has history of sacrifice but deems it "barbaric" in Aztecs

• Cannibalism

– Possibly due to lack of cattle, sheep


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Figure 12.6 This Inca sculpture, made of gold, portrays one of the mamaconas, or

“chosen women,” who served as concubines to the Inca emperors. The wool of her cloak is

woven in a classic Inca design.


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• Comparing Incas and Aztecs

– Similarities

Built on earlier empires

Excellent organizers

Intensive agriculture under state control

Redistributive economy

Kinship transformed to hierarchy

Ethnic groups allowed to survive


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The Other Peoples of the Americas

• Great variety elsewhere

• How Many People?

– Larger densities in Mesoamerica, Andes

– Compared

China, India: 75–150 million

Europe: 60–70 million

Americas: est. 60–70 million


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Table 16.1 Population Estimate for the Western Hemisphere, 1492

Sources: William M. Deneven, The Native Population of the Americas in 1492 (1976),

289–292; John D. Durand, “Historical Estimates of World Population,” Population and

Development Review 3 (1957): 253–296; Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust

and Survival (1987).


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Table 16.2 World Population, c. 1500Sources: William M. Deneven, The Native

Population of the Americas in 1492 (1976), 289–292; John D. Durand, “Historical Estimates

of World Population,” Population and Development Review 3 (1957): 253–296;

Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival (1987).


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• Differing Cultural Patterns

– Caribbean islands

Some similar to Polynesian societies

– c. 1500

200 languages in North America

Mississipian mounds abandoned

Anasazi descendants along Rio Grande


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Figure 12.7 Taos Pueblo, in the foothills of what is now New Mexico. The pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley were based on agriculture and the concentration of population in urban

areas. This reflected a number of the traditions of the older Native American cultures of the

southwestern United States.

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