the japanese attempt to solve the mongol question in

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Theses and Dissertations

1966-08-01

The Japanese Attempt to Solve the Mongol Question in The Japanese Attempt to Solve the Mongol Question in

Manchuria, 1931-1945 Manchuria, 1931-1945

Richard D. S. Kwak Brigham Young University - Provo

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BYU ScholarsArchive Citation BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Kwak, Richard D. S., "The Japanese Attempt to Solve the Mongol Question in Manchuria, 1931-1945" (1966). Theses and Dissertations. 4861. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/4861

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JAPANESE ATTEMPT SOLVE

MONGOL QUESTION MANCHURIA 9

193119451931 1945

thesis

presented

department history

brigham young university

partial fulfillment

requirements degree

master arts

richard D kwak

august 1966

acknowledgementsACKNOWLEDGE MENTS

author wishes express sincere gratitude adviser

dr paul V hyer chairman asian studies program brigham

young university guidance help inspiration

appreciation extended dr lee W farnsworth

professor russell N horiuchi helpful suggestions

assisting work translationstranslationst appreciation

extended professor hocHorhoriuchiiuchituchiluchi tatsui sato japanese portion

conrad kramer german

warm appreciation extended kerstin kramer typing

thesis final form

wife mildred encouragement kind assistance

many hours spent preparation thesis author extends

deepest appreciation

errors interpretation representation facts

may found work author alone responsible

illlii

TABLE CONTENTS

acknowledgementsACKNOWLEDGE MENTS illiiiliiLIST TABLES illustration v

CHAPTER

I1 introduction 1

II11 historical background 5

manchu mongol relationschinese mongol relations

colonializationcolonializafcionnationalisnvationalismrationalism

autonomous movementmanchurian incidentcreation manchulcuomanchukuoManchukuo

motive objectivecentral governmentprovincial local administrative units

conclusion

III111ili EXTERNAL PROBLEMS RELATED MONGOL QUESTION 35panyepan lemongolmongolismlongolismismborder incidentshanchulimanchuliManHan chullchuli conferenceling sheng incident

manhan battle

IV INTERNAL PROBLEMS TRELATEDRELATED trieTHIEtre MONGOL QUESTION 58creation II1 sinan provincesoffice hainanhsinan affairs

provincial administrationtkb4ii1stri aitionitionletonnetonbanner administrationjapanese moncolmonrol program

lamaismeducationconcordia associationeconomy industry

V SUMMARY conclusion 89

bibliography 949

appendices 102

IV1vav

LIST TABLES illustration

page

1 government manchukuoManchukuo 30

2 map nomonhanmonhan garswartgacswargargac 1939 & 51

3 forces 55comparison 0 & 0 0 0 0 0 0 & & 0 0

4 administrative structure hsinfanhsinganmsingan provinces 0 0 62

5 banner administration 680 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

v

CHAPTER I1

introduction

1930s1930ts 19401st1940s essentially three mongomongollasMon gollaslas

outer Mongomongoliailagliagilas inner mongolia eastern mongolia soviet dussiasrussiasRussiaspreeminencepre eminence outer mongoliaMongollaslat chinascainas inner mongolia japans

eastern mongolia

clarity area barga hsinfanhslnganhsingan region referred

eastern mongolia western manchuria people re-

ferred manchurianManchurlan mongolsmongelsMongols eastern mongelsmongolsMongols hslnganhsinganhsinfan mongolsmongolstmongelsMonMonggolsolstgoisoist

distinguished western inner mongolsmongels inner mongolia

outer mongolsmongels outer mongolia

following successful manchurianManc hurlan incident september 18 1931t1931

japanese kwantungKwantung army commenced sustained drive north north-

western manchuria early part following year japanese

found themselves occupying vast expanse eastern Monmongoliagoliat principally

inhabited indigenous eastern mongelsmongolsMongols covered 200000 square miles

compared 3600000 square miles whole manchuria according

lattimore 5000000 mongolsmongels three mongollasmongoliasmongolianMongollasgolias2

estimates number 1500000 mongolsmongels eastern mongolia

ino reference made bulyatburyat mongolsmongels siberiamongolsmongels within soviet russiarussians sphere influence except those

outer mongolia since do occupy significant role study

boven2oven5 owen Lattilattimoretlatfclmoremoret studies frontier history londonLondontdoni oxford uni-versityversity 1962 p 327 lattimore reliable figuresmongol population

2

evidently japanese intervention 1932 eastern mongolia

boosted morale eastern western mongol nationalist leaders

example soviet chinese exploitation mongol lands suppression

pan mongolismmongol ism provided japanese problem resolved self3

determination undoubtedly deep seated mongol aspiration 1932

then creation hsinfanhsingan province attempt solve im-

portant phase mongol question

although appearance japanese troops eastern mongolia

disturbing factor soviet russia china encouraging ones

far mongolsmongels concerned analysis situation in-

cluding significance hsinganhsinfan province given lattimore

recognition regional mongol interestcreation hsinfanhsingan province important meansinstead two nationsnationsl each treating mongol subjectsauxiliaries victims seemed expedient three nations

now bidding power turn means mongols longer disposed arbitrarily mustcourted thus once become certainextent agents own destiny until year ago

choice extinction under chinese ruledrastic social revolution under outer mongolia affiliated

soviet russia now least mar-gin bargaining power concerted action even

action minority profoundly effect policiesstrategic positions russia china japan 4

effort promote pan mongolismmongol ism japanese soon

learn soviet russia major obstacle

past pan mongolismmongol ism neither positive russian

nor chinese policy japanese earlier attempts

33sincesince fall manchu dynasty 1911 subsequentrise chinese republic mongolsmongelsMongols whole imbued

idea independence japanese evidently awareintended capitalize deep seated national spirit

4lattimore op cit p 329

3

direction made japanese militaristsmilitarisms buddhist scholars

name pan buddhism tsarist soviet russian intervention ended

scheme shall discussed later

reality ideal pan mongolian state realized

long soviet power left unchallenged outer mongolia chinaschinalschanas

power inner mongolia both japan soviet russia ambitiously m-

obilized respective mongol forces including own troops within

spheres influence japanese soviet confrontation along outer

mongolian border 1935 demonstrated japanese promotion

aspiration pan mongol movement dream nomonhanmonhan war

1939 proved

inner mongolia however japanese succeeded establishing

inner mongol autonomous government counterpart autonomous

hsinganhsinfan provinces fulfillment mongol

dream pan mongolian state

internally japanese tried solve many facets mon-

gol question mere possession eastern mongolia did simply solve

mongol question neither did establishment autonomous

region therefore japanese noted pragmatism realized

perhaps people steeped tradition influenced growing na-

tionalism hardly useful tools promotion japanese alms

asia therefore institution reforms areas lamalsmlamaismLamallamai sm

educationnedicaleducation nedleal services economy etc became expediency

like government manchukuoManchu kuo hsinganhsinfan provinces staffed

mainly local people ordinarily leaders assigned various

key positions japanese advisors holding secondary positions

again like manchukuoManchukuo autonomous hsinfanhsingan provincial administrations

merely facades japanese imperialism

4

purpose paper then study evaluate

japanese program relative mongol question questions con-

sider what relationship between hsinfanhsingan provinces

manchukuoManchukuo government why what specific mongol programs did

japanese promote why what results how did mongolsmongels

react what designs did japanese outer mongolia inner

mongolia relative key position eastern mongolia why how did

china russia react japans plans what results how did

mongol react three asiatic powers period overall

view what successes failures japanese attempt

solve mongol question

CHAPTER 11II

historical background

brief study manchu mongol chinese mongol relations in-

cluding mongol autonomous movement manchurian incident

establishment manchukuoManchukuo should helpheiphellyheliy reader comprehend mon-

gol question japanese confrontconfrontededgedt particularly

l930s1930s l940s1940s

very fact japanese chosen former manchu monarch

emperor manchukuoManchukuo mongelsmongols hsinganhsinfan suggested

japanese knowledge manchu mongol relations shall soon

observe reader reminded references manchu mongol relations

generally applicable both eastern western mongelsmongolsMongols perhaps

exception bagordagor mongelsmongols nonni river Valvaivalleyleyo lat-ter group did hereditary nobility priesthood

common among western eastern mongolsmongelsMongols

chinese mongol relations unlike those manchu mongol

record bitter experiences chinese colonization policy suppression

mongol aspiration self government large part responsible1rise mongol question therefore following manchuria

incident creation manchukuoManchukuo vasveswes significant move

1644 manchusdanchus conquered china aid mongelsmongols

aa1a regional handbook inner mongolia region compiled fareastern russian institute university washington seattle new havenHRAF 19519566 t p 10

5

6

manchuria manchu sovereignty mongolsmongels accomplished conces-

sions alliances made various tribal groups manchuria

retain loyalty mongolsmongels manchu dynasty extended

privileges example mongol princes given manchu princesses

wives result princes tended increasingly take manchu

dynastic rather mongol tribal point view

aspired inevitably same kind career position appealed2rich highly born manchu however danchusmanchus took precaution-

ary measures thing although steps taken preserve

mongol tribal system 3 danchusmanchus did hesitate prevent resur-

gence tribal leadership call semblance racial

national unity being case

mongol princes nobles therefore barred politi-cal civil careers within china restricted mili-tary administrative careers within own regions

frontier given important honors subsi-dies career mongol became too creative

power among mongolsmongels too constructivepromoted supervisory position peking kepthim contact court away main current

tribal affairs heirs grew social ideaspeking manchusdanchusManchus growth coordination among

mongolsmongels inhibited 4

although dynasty mainly interested securing mongol loyal-

ties centrally left problem autonomy local level largely5

hands nobility regard chinese policy during

republic generally same except creating separate provinces

bowen2owenowen lattimore mongolsmonaolsmongels manchurian london george allenalienailenunion 1934 pop 69

3aisobaisoaiso during japanese occupation 193119451931 1945 mongoltribal system generally preserved

4lattimorejlattimore op012017 cit DO 707170 71

aa5a regional 1landbookhandbook1Tand book tho inner mongolia autonomous region op

eitsiteltcit p 3

7

inhibit political integration japanese policy 19308

1940s somewhat line selfseif seeking policy manchu dynasty

went step further granted mongolsmongels autonomous governments

however primary objective manchu policy directed

against political coalition between mongelsmongols chinese between mon

gols themselves during peak manchu dynasty period chinese

prevented mingling mongolsmongels steppes de-

clining years dynasty manchusdanchus able control m-

igration chinese colonists especially western manchuria fact

dynasty undertook encourage I1 despite earlier edict

outlawed transfer mongol land titles chinese manchu

edict 1801 forbidding intermarriage became dead lettersince local differences became problem soon territorial

ties assumed great importance given area disparate groups join

together cause league become powerful political unit

situation imperial government weaken league6

become suprasuprisupralocalri local organization

however important exceptions manchu mongol relations7

generally mutual relations perhaps reason ja-panese desired manchu emperor received mongelsmongols

overlord

chinese monmongolcrolgrol relationsrelaforelafc i ons

during chinese period trend primarily offset

likelihood secessionist movement assimilate mongolsmongels econoacono

bibid6ibidid ppap 343 4

7owenbowenowen Lattilatellattimorellatfcimoremoresmorel studies frontier history london oxforduniversity press 1962 p 334

mically culturally politically

however failure chinese republic satisfy mongolian

aspiration autonomy led movements barga region western

manchuria inner mongolia mongolsmongels manchuria jurisdiction-

ally under chinese provincial governments mongelsmongols inner

mongolia 1928 partitioned chinese provinces ningshiaNingshia

suiyuansulyuansulymanSuiSulyuan chahar therefore made difficultfordifficult mongolsmongels

organize themselves unified political group nonetheless set

gave provincial governments headed chinese warlordswar lords power

nanking government liked them besides

made lot mongolsmongels unbearable under unscrupulous provincial

governors

during peak chinese colonization 192919301929 1930 railroad de-

velopment increased misery mongolsmongels manchuria thus further

intensifyingC mongelsmongolsMongols hatred chinese overlords

colonization

attitude republic toward right claim mongol terri-tories expressed lattimore

tendency assert definite principle sub-ordination mongol chinese interestsbeganinterests began appearearly 1914 1915 chinese authorities estab-lished precedents theory mongol land belongedneither mongol prince nor mongol tribe chi-nese nation theory applied meant mongelsmongols

allowed divide own tribal landsettle down private ownership farmersfanners 8

however beset internal external strifesstrafesstri fes unstable chinese

government unable control exploitation mongol lands among un-

scrupulous government officials warlordswar lords land speculators merchants

80wenvenwen Lattilattimoremocelmorelmorer mongol destiny manchoukuo asia XXIVapril 1934 210

9

collaborating mongol nobles

two land booms increased demand mongolsmongels land

thereby aggravated manchurianManchurlan Monmongelsmongols1mongolsgoisgols plight those 1916181916 18

1926281926 28 first land boom need manchurian

foodstuffs warring nations world war 1I pastoral lands con-

verted farmlands second land boom order counteract

competitive economic position russia japan manchuria

9republic undertook reclamation mongol lands

twenties complexion toward chinese colcoieolcolonialontal penetration

took modern character belated adoption railway construc-

tion western powers chinese able penetrate further

mongol lands indubitably mongolsmongelsMongols accustomed primitive ways

helpless moreover expropriation mongol lands facilitated con-

structionst railways influx chinese farmers western ma-

nchuria effect

0 construction peking mukden railwaymanchuria pekinspeking suiyuansulyuansulyman railway western innermongolia followed immediately swarms chinesefarmers stakedstakeostakee lands within jurisdictionmongol leagues north chinese eastern railwaycrossed hsinfanhsingan mountains areas occupiedbarga tribes line pushing northwestward tao nan

well Ccheng chia tunt1untaun line thrust landjerimgerim league further colonization chinese

launched great hsinfanhsingan reclamation project 1929 em-

ploying reclamation army spearhead extendline raovaoao nan solun eventually waysouthern hsinfanhsingan mountains link chinese easternrailway hailar fall 1931

forty miles railway built 10japanese seizure manchuria brought end project

thus during period larladgelargelangege scale migration newly

constructed railway pressed mongol frontier almost hsinfanhsingan

91bidbid pop 210

10 regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous region opcitowcitopciccit p 44

10

mountains formerly mongol perimeter extended central

plain far Hs inklinginking ssupingkai part deholjehol how-

ever barga west hsinganhsinfan range escaped full impact chinese

colonization remoteness russian interests chi-

nese eastern railway relative less number railway lines

running through region

brief then chinese railway construction colonization pro-

ject became alienating factors mongol chinese relations probably

never suitable time japanese imperialism capitalize

situation did 1931

nationalism

mongol nationalism budding political factor even

before establishment chinese republic 1911 however

essential roots found mongol self identity mongelsmongols

thought themselves world conquerors great warriors bril-

liant 11organizers short superior people usually spoke

12terms Cgood11yood1 old days chingchingghisghis khan great leader

extended power influence far gates vienna

twelfth century robert rupen

memory chingghisChingghis khan continues politicalfactor throughout mongolia represents glorious past

mongolia unified mongolian influencespread through world day capturedimagination mongelsmongolsMongols many westerners well

name continually reappears mongolian nationalist move-ments mongolian areas represents truly

ilpaulaul E eckel far east since 1500 new york harcourt brace1947 p 319

i y120wenowen lattimore studies frontier history london oxforduniversity 1962 p 336

11

131 0universal mongolian symbol

peter hume comments idealization chingghisChingghis khan hsinfanhsingan

mongelsmongols 1931 remind them past glory hope another

still idea uniting themselvesbecombecomingbecomngbecomingng once great nation you see enormous number

mongolsmongels wearing buttons genghis khantskhasehas head themsymbol fond belief day

attain those thirteenth centicenturycen&uryury heights again 14

concepts political nationalism uneducated mongol

vague however during 1930s1930ts under japanese educational program

exposure them made available him 153 tho chinese government

hand undertook far ambitious educational program

probably encourage development mongolian nationalism acceptable

present regime 16

ironically prior 1931 deterrents mongol nationalism came

largely ruling mongol high lamas preferred luxurious

life high chinese officials nomadic life co-mpatriots life made easy collaborating warlordswar lords during

period chinese colonization example lattimore cites de-

plorableplorable situation twentiespower passed princes manipulated

tribaitrimaitribal 0ownershipwnershipenship land chinese officials con-trolled railways powerful these officialsbecame regular barons general controlled striprailway corps troops do likedmongol hinterland best even relatively strongprince help prevent tribesmen organizing

roberh13robert13robert rupen knonkMonmongelsmongolskmongolszolsgolszois twentieth CentcenturyurzurX part I1bloomington indiana university 1964 p 86

14peterteter bumerumehume mongelsmongols under new orders journalroyal central asian society XXVIIIXXVITI july 1941 249

15a regional Handhandbookboolbooi inner mongolia autonomous Repregiondonjon020op sitgitelbciteib p 342

16jbidibid

12

rebelling though did always succeedreceive chinese backing commission land deals

rest mongelsmongols got nothing herdedtogether diminished part t sir tribal territorycondition worse american indians reservations i17

profit then aristocratic class slow collusion

provincial leaders speculators arrangement

difficult mongolian aristocracy vanguard

mongol nationalist movement everything gain protesting

vested interests 18 reason lesser nobility deprived

former power privileges face chinese exploitation

provided leadership early rebellions western manchuria how-

ever these rebellions characterized lack concerted movement

ended abortively result mongelsmongols treated severely

warlordswar lords lands subjected further expropriation

outburst local rebellions

really nationalistic though pro mongolianalmost impossible determine whether these

rebel leaders those mongolsmongels followed them re-bellion motivated aspirations mongolian politi-cal unity incidents supsunsuppliedpliedpiled foundationlater development nationalism19nationalismnational ism 3919

however manchurian incident positive action toward

mongol autonomy became stronger japanese promoted mongol nationalism

order counteract chinese national aspirations manchuria rus-

sian imperialism outer mongolia moreover japanese sponsored mongol

170wenowen latlattimoretiroref phantom mengkukuo pacific affairs X

december 1937 42021420 2118during181 0during manchu dynasty practice regime

solicit support ruling princes administration mongolaffairs enforcement imperial decrees return ruling princes

subsidized territorial hegemony guaranteed governmentobject prevent national unity see regional handbook

inner moncMontmongoliafolia autonomous region op cit p 342

19ibidibid

13

nationalism foster pan mongolianmongolisnmongol ism device extend japanese hege-

mony asian continent

chinese colonialism major factor alienation

mongelsmongolsMongols bred deep animosity between chinese mongolsmongelsMongols

numerous local rebellions expressions animosity course

oppression unjustice collusions unscrupulous profit seekers com-

pounded problem

essentially lack positive chinese policy alleviate

mongol plight made necessary mongolsmongels turn japanese

support inability nanking government restrain exploitations

provincial authorities further worsened chinese mongol relations sim-

ply china failed solve realistically mongol problem attempt

guarantee mongoldmongoljMongo lJ immunity further colonization too late 20

besides provincial authorities object strongly generous

policy toward mongelsmongolsMongols 21

essential stress juncture many years

japanese familiar mongolianmon ollan social life developing na-

tional aspirations lattimore asserts

japanese policy toward mongelsmongols influencedy small body japanese experts them mili-

tary officers travelled lived amongmongelsmongols years knew language knew tribaldivisions leading personalities minutelyinformed cross influences tribal religiouspolitics among mongolsmongelsMon gols provincial cen-tral government politics among chineseprevented theoretical mongol nationalism cohering

Cgenuine national movement 222

having thus understood mongol aspirations japanese militaristsmilitarisms

200 o20lattimorelattimore mionnionmonpmonagoolsois1 J vnchuriacinclhuriaVnchuriachurla op cit p 30

21 ibid22lattimore studies frontier history1 op cit 9 t0 418

14

ready promote pan mongol movement discussed next

section

autonomous movement

before fall manchu dynasty 1911 growing feeling

self determination felt among segments mongolian leader-

ship although inner mongolia genesis mongol unrest against

chinese sovereigntyC outer mongolia independence move-

ment sprouted

inner mongolia movement autonomy

barga region eastern mongolia circumstance related follows

since 1906 chinese troops gradually introduceintroduceddtnew taxes customs dues instituted landset aside settlement chinese general provin-cial system administrative divisions post taotaitao taital

introduced lastly 1911 decided insti-tute number schools bargussbargutstaught chinese september barbutbargut national congresscalled chinese withdraw troops stop colonizacolonize

0 3

tion recognize local ausautautonomylonomyconomy 23

thus january 2 1912 spurred chinese takeover manchu

dynasty barga mongelsmongols revolted resulted removal chi-

nese officials soldiers holunbierHolunbier barga joining

barga new autonomous government urga rebellions barga

inner mongolia ended abortively unconcerted planning

leadership besides russian japanese self interests frustrated bar

gut plans pan mongol movement outer mongolia 1912 tsaristrussia concluded secret agreement japan reaffirming formers ex

24elusive sphere influence outer mongolia latlatterslatteriatterbattersters manchuria

23robertroberc23robert rupen mongelsmongols twentieth century part I1bloomington indiana university 1964196tl op 727372 73

24gerard M friters euterouter mongoliapron14on olia international positionbaltimore johns hopkinshonkins 199 p0 21821321 3

15

meridian set peking line demarcation corresponding

vaguely outer mongol hsinfanhsinganHs ingan border become bone

contention 19303

following fall manchunanchu empire 1911 jebtsundamba

xhutukhtukhutukhtu politico religious leader khalkha mongelsmongols outer9525mongolia appointed sheng fu bargutbarbut leader emissary hallar

however russia inclined support union between barga

autonomous government urga tsarist russiasrussiatsrussialRussiassiatsslasslatsslays opposition

barga mongelsmongols decided solicit japanese intervention

1915 babojabBabo jab respected inner mongolian prince told russia

uncertain terms refusal support mongolian aspiration

inner mongolia barga union urga make necessary

him seek japans aid 26 show strength babojab

7900 well armed men before end october babojab barga

ten japanese meantime tasa shubushebu lieuten27ants sent tokyo negotiate armed assistance moreover

russian vice consul altattalb hailar conjectured babojab together

princes aiming revolt tin apparently japanese

participarticaparticipate28participatepate 28

november 1915 china regained influence barabargadaradarga mon

gols russia treaty concluded china awarded barga cen-

tral government republic apparent russia desired

exercise sovereignty chinese eastern railway

25 rupen apppop 04citt I1 p 72

261bid26 ibidt i

271bidibid280

friters op cicitt p 225

16

tereststeresta north mlanYlanmianmanchuriachurla

babojab relentless opposing chinese death

1916 separatist movement continued ultimately merged

29japanese sponsored semenov neisse gegen pan mongol movement

like tsarist russia soviet russiasrussiadussiasRussiasslas aimsalms 1920 frus-

trate kind pan mongol movement particularly japans japan

ese backing semenov ambitious white russian leader made manchullmanchulimatchullManchullchuli

near border outer mongolia base operations

launched drive chita february 1918 driven back

bolshevik offensive meanwhile zhevchenkoshevchenko semenovssemenovfssemenovaSemenovs deputy

30sent japan successful negotiation support military arms

then newnow offensive april setSeisemonovseirenovrenov able proclaim may

31provisional governCoverngovernmentment transbaikaltransbalkal territory near chita semenovssemenovaSemenovsspecial manchurian detachment officered mainly russians com-

prised inner mongelsmongolsMongols bargutsbargussBarguts buryatsburyattsburcatsBurbunBuryyatsactsattsachs scattered nationality

groups april 1918 detachment strength 2000 men Includedincluded32includedi332

officers 350cossacks 350russians 300serbsgerbs 250buryatsburcats 50

mongolsmongels 600chinese 50koreans 50

semenov vanguard japanese hoped fulfillpan mongolian aspiration

throuthroughh semenovsenteSensenov japanese broached appeal

29rupen29rupen opop cit30rupen op cit p 132

311bidibid32 ibid

17

mongelsmongols thought win mo-ngolian groups effectively sepalseparateaceate burcatsburyats russiasimultaneously furthering larger japanese aimsalms influ-ence asian mainland pan monmongoliaolielloliall becameslogan movement crystallized dauria con-ference february 1919 JJ33

february 25 1919 preparatory meeting chita siberiasemenov japanese major suzuki six buryatsburcatsBuryats five bargussbargutsBarguts three

inner mongolsmongelsMongols attendance34attendance 34 then february 28 great mong-

olian state proposed embrace mongol territories baikal35tibet manchuria eastern turkestanTurkestan state

nominally headed neisse gegan influential khutukhtu inner mo-

ngolia hailarhallarballar barga capital

movement end failure admiral kolchak

anti bolshevik assumed leadership siberia refused support

semenovSemenovs idea pan mongolian state moreover kolchak symp-

athetic toward autonomous movement burcatsburyats russian occupied

bulyatburyat mongolia however december 1919 two leading buryatbulyat buddhists

did support him opposing national revolutionary socialist movement

36E f 375 7among buryatsburcatsBuryats earlier apriladril dauria government through

delegation paris peace conference appealed international

recognition accordance principle self determination

people however kolchak protested strenouslystrenuously characterizing move-

ment japanese inspired led instrument japanese aggression

331bidibid34ibid

351bid351 bidhid36 ibid37rupen does indicate geographic location dauriaidauriall nor

reason appellation dauria government see ibid ppap 1329132135 160 479

18

east asia I1 kolchaksKolchaks agentsC parisparts managedC1 sidetrackside track propoapropo

38sal 0 result dauria government recognized besides

jebtsundamba khutukhtu panchen lama perhaps suspicious sem

enovsenois motive dared support dauria government eventually japan-

ese seeing futility movement withdrew support reper-

cussionscussions following japanese nonsupportnon support given rupen

failure gain international recognition versaillesfailure obtain substantial indegenousindigenousindegenous support due

outer mongolianmongoliasMongolias participationnonparticipationnon led japanese dis-avow connection neisse gegen those surroundinghim claim japanese army officers semenovsenois forces undertaken whole thing own

initiative without knowledge superlosuperiorssuperkojapanese government withdrawal japanese support

caused barely suppressed opposing tendencies withinmovement quickly break violence inner mongolsmongels

buryatsburcats fought openly manchu leader fusenggeFusenggemurdered whole affair ended ignominouslyominouslyignominiouslyignchinese garrison maimaichengMaimai cheng captured special ma-nchurian detachment OMO01410 january 1920 chinese im-mediately shot neisse gegen twelve brigade commanders

sent 200 prisoners urga do forced laborsemenov himself escaped 397

barga too 1920 troubled chinese government cancelled

autonomy barga moved jurisdiction heilungkianghellungkiang province

coerced bargussbarguts requesting 1 incorporation chinese

provincial system 404 august 19281923 young barga party yearning

revive barga autonomy probably another attempt affiliatemongolian peopledpeoples party past revolted against chinese suzerainty

however revolt soon suppressed better equipped chinese troops

1921 japanese lost prestige promoters pan mongolisinmongol ism

inner asia japan among foreign powers demonstrated

381bid381bidibid p 132

391bid391ibidbid p 136

40 regional handbook innerylongollainner mongolia autonomous region odop

eitlitsitcit p 47

19L

intInIinterestterestberest mongol autonomy before inner mongol barga mongol

leaders turned urga base pan mongolismmongol ism Rusrussiaslatssiatsintervention shattered dream then too china traditional obstacle

form mongol autonomy saw mongolsmongels turning japan

hope

1920s active mongol affiliateskuomintang looked forward kuomintang guided regional ra-

cial autonomy under principles laid down san min chu 1I

41even hope failed until manchurian incident

another opportunity mongol autonomous rule favorably con-

sideredsi

manchurianmanchurimanchuriaManchurichurl incident

victory russorusgo japanese war 1904051904 05 secured japans entry

manchuria relegated russiasdussiasRussias sphere influence barga region

moreover japans foothold south manchuria established sino

japanese treaty may 25 1915 treaty extended japan leased

territory liaoningLiaoning peninsula ninety nine year lease finalized

possession south manchurian railway well aftungantung mukden

railways addition sino japanese commercial treaties granted

japanese subjects rights residence trade treaty ports ma-

nchuria china itself short japan given advantages mili-

tary administration jurisdictional rights south manchuria

therefore secure position south manchuria japanese

military launch attack thus threaten chinascainas russiasdussiasRus sias in-

terest north manchuria taking advantage confused politico

military situation tokyo kwantungKwan tung army without consent

41lattimore studies frontier history op cit p 417

20

civilian government instigated incidentncidentff mukden night

september 18 1931 resulted immediate invasion northkorth ma-

nchuria 1932 vestige chinese forces overcome

doubt factors chinese nationalist attempt incorporate ma-

nchuria integral part china prompted I1 KwkwantnakwantungKwanantnatengtung army act

moreover economic conditions worsened japan ultranationalistsnationalistsultra

found receptive audience grandiose plans conquest

promised prestige wealth power 110r empire 424 brief

incident itself reflected

schismatic character japanese governmentfear uncertainty paralysis gripped top branches

government cabinet helpless preventinitiation independent foreign policy smalloverseas clique aided various forces home exhorted

counseled high officials surrounding thronegiven moral support emperor himself cabinet

still find solution 434

thus under conditions kwantungKwan tung army came prominence

dominant force external internal affairs manchuria

creation manchukuoManchukuo

motivemoriyemotiye aru objectivej0016basic reasons creation government manchukuoManchukuo

traced period before manchurian incident fundamentally

manchuria considered important sphere interest first manchuria

vital interest rich natural resources essential japans

survival world power since taking Rusrussiansrussiarussiatsslatssiats position south

manchuria 1905 japan lost time exploiting resources

42r hugh borton japansja2ansjapansjaoans miodmodernern centumcentury new york ronald press1955 p 321

43robert scalapino democracy party movement prewarjapan berkeley university california press 1953 p 240

21

area by19311931 considerable headway made heavy industrindustryy 44 thusriasriusalasylas

accelerating japarsjapantsjapard threat another world power second manchuria

strategic area commanded vast perimeter confronting siberia outer

mongolia inner mongolia thus serving ideally natural barrier

against possible invasion doubt regard manchuria serve

excellent buffer russia growing stronger month month

japanese militarismsmilitarists felt japan lack adequate security unless45completely dominated manchuriaManchurLall finally tremendous loss

lives wealth manchurian soisoilll11 result sino japanese war

1894051894 05 even russo japanese trectrenIwaritartarwacrecren 19041904051904051051 perhaps

aroused false assumption japan right ofmanchuriamanchuria46blood treasure region cost them

since manchurian incident vast region soon become in-

creasinglycreasingly vital concern japanese militaristsmilitarisms acquisition

HsinhsinfanhsinganhsinloanHs insaningancoanloan easternmongoliaeastorneastern mongolia here another opportunity renew

effort another attempt pan mongolismmongol ism hsinfanhsingan base

operations politico military significance region

discussed later however important state japan recognized

sovietized outer mongmongoliaotlaotiaolla menace newly acquired sphere

influence hsinfanhsingan stumblingc11 block territorial47

aims inner asia moreover japan apprehensive communism

possible shut off outer mongolia bulwark russian communism

44david N rowe modern china negnenee 7 jersey D van nostrand 1959p 50

45 ben dorman manchurianmanclwrian incident 1931 11 harpers CLXICLXT

september 1934 450

461bidibid47MT aziz janantsjapan colonialismcoloni aliail sm indonesia hague

1martinue11artiartlantinue nijhoffnnijhoffniehoff 1955t1955 p 30

22

asia having thus forcefully acquired manchuria kwantungKwan tung army chose

retain possession therefore facade independence move-

ment soon undertaken

under auspices kwantungKwan tung army headquarters selfgovernment guiding board following occupation mukden set

foster independence movement headed yu chunghanchungchanChun ghan chinese

board members comprising japanese officials actually directed48activities board soon japanese able get

foothold throughout manchuria local boards established pro-

vinces february 161716 17 conference mukden attended chi mo

te salsai mu peipetpel lo kuefukuehu mongol princes representing barga mongelsmongols

49jerimgerim legganleggau respectively present pro japanese50governors three northeastern provinces mayor mukden

apparentlyApparentlyslyt support mongelsmongols important creation

independent manchukuoManchu kuo february 18 1932 convention

chenchlatungchenchiatung telteiteikatontelkatonTeiTel katon representatives eastern mongolian banners met

51time general expression autonomous rule

stage mongol leaders hoped japanese unlike chinese

grant them autonomy february 18 northeastern supreme

council organized meeting mukden issued declara52

tion independence china next day agreed establish

republic changchun later renamed inkinghsinkingheinkingHs new capital

48f C jones manchuria since 1931 london royal instituteinternational affairs 1949 p 21

49Qlbldtibid ppap 21 63 moko balkantaikantalkan tokyo kalzoshaKalzosha 1938 p 241

50jones op cit p 21

51moko taikantalkanbalkan op cit

52jones op02 cit

23

pu yi manchu emperor chief executive following

customary initial refurefusalsalssaltsais puplu yi residing port arthur53time accepted Itheheaditheadtedtadtedg new state

inauguration puptuatu yi chief executive republic

march 111 1932 timed coincide exact anniversary

establishment manchu dynasty peking 11544541154416443954 however two

years later same month day kwantungKwan tung army elevated chief

executive pu yi status emperor

W G woodhead comments ittherethene little doubt con-

siderablesiderable numbers mongolsmongelsMon gols especially barga region favored

55reinstatement pu yi merely chief executive butas emperor

formal precedent legal aspect demonstrated 1635

time

mongolsmongels living south gobi desert ac-cepted suzerainty manchu ruler gave him stateseal former yuan mongol emperors actrecognized him legitimate heir overlordship

genghis khan 56

overthrow ming dynasty 1644 accomplished princi-

pally through alliance manchusdanchus mongolsmongels western manchuria

reason latter never considered themselves inferiors

mutual partners owen lattimore comments traditional manchu mongol

mutual relations

manchusdanchus mongelsmongolsMongols equal statuslineage obvious leaders right

531bidibid

541abideibidebid pop 40

55H G woodhead visit manchuria shanghaishanghaisShanghais mercury press

1932 p 89

56jones op cit

24

birth Alleailealieallegianceglancebiance alliance under manchu emperorsolve problem under manchu empire mon

gols never regarded themselves conquered subjectpeople allies true manchusdanchus made impossi-ble rise independent mongol power yetgranted mongol privileges honors degree tri-bal autonomy made them own estimation peers

manchusdanchus superior chinese 57

charles bells interview prince te wang mongol leader

inner mongolia gives different view regarding pu yl emperor

bell writes

I1 asked him whether welcome emperormanchoukuomanchoukub emperor mongolsmongelsMongols maybe somewhatshadowy sovereign interfere pro-grams self government de wang repliedgood Empeemperoremperorsrort emperor should mongol

connected very closely manchusdanchusManchus f58t 8

however following reinstatement emperor manchukuoManchukuo pu yi kept

touch mongol princes resultsresultresuit many them sent tributes59letters expressing devotion loyalty him

proclamation manchukuoManchu kuo manchu empire march 1 1934t1934

pu yi emperor kang testevte undertaken kwantungKwan tung army experts

keen awareness east asian historical experience instead adopting

korean experience japan forcefully implemented annex-

ation korea kwantungKwan tung army realized dynastic form govern-

ment preferable acceptable danchusmanchus mongelsmongols

manchuria historical orientation toward monarchism

elucidating dynastic form decreed manchukuoManchukuo demise

dynasty lattimore makes observation

57lattimore57clattimore studies frontier historytorzstorystorzy op clcit t ppap 334335334 335

58KQcharles bell struggle mongolia reprinted

journal royal central asian societsochetsociety XXIV january 193701937 54

59hsiao hsin chen developmentthedevelopment transition public ad-ministration inner mongoliamong ia kengchiangmengchiangmengchlangMeng chiengchiang 1930 1945 mastersthesis bridribrighamahamgham young university 1966 p 58

25

careful resurrection imperial forms modeledold dynastic ideas china turn

closely related ideas empire dynastyjapan indicates deliberate genuineintention follow korean precedent korea

time annexation japan necessitydeal fact genuine korean dynastyalready existence long survived

focus resistance against japanese policy 606

thussthustthus kwantungKwantung army endeavored conceal true design manchukuoManchukuo

order accomplish dream extension japanese empire

wangtaowan&taotyangtaoWangtao imperial way device designed encourage

manchurianmongolsmanchurian mongolsmongelsMongolsgois chinese minority groups rendering alle-giance loyalty manchu emperor kang te pyupluP yi thereby bet-

tering manchukuo japan relations concept tImpgimpimperialtimperialerial way ex-

tracted confucian classics

0 represents confucian ideal upright sagerules force persuasive effect gra-cious benevolence within realm wayrightoright contrasted pa taoyao way might 61

transference principle confirm fl imperialflimperial waywayt status em-

peror kang te t1thetothe virtuous ruler governs accordance

62frheaven f v suited grand design kwantungKwantung army

obvious reasons kwantungKwan tung army never attempted reveal

facet confucian political philosophy cenciusmencius theory

right revolt virtually empowered subjects prerogative

overthrow tyrannical ruler political philosophy foreign ja-panese dynastic concept undoubtedly challenge therefore threaten

kwantungKwantung armysardys dream expansionism

600wenowenoven lattlattimoreimaretimoret cradle conflict rev ed new york ma-cmillan 1933 p 307

61T bisson japan china new york macmillan 1938 p 372

621bidibid

26

concordia association nyowakyowa kaikatkal unofficial propaganda

organ government whose primary role ease execution663governments plans smoothing relations among several racesraeesracestf

promoted program imperial way

central government

two protocols effected machinery government

least outward appearance first march 1lt 1932

second september 15 1932 firstsfirst japan recognized manchukuoManchukuo

independent state organized accordance free64inhabitantsInhabitantst reciprocation manchukuoManchu kuo recognized japanese in-

terests rights within jurisdiction second protocol m-

utual agreement national defense stipulation japan-

ese forces may necessary purpose shall stationed man

choulcuochoukuolf 6503 thus position power japan able extend

influence continent

transition manchukuoManchu kuo republic prototype

japanese imperial system intended stabilize government en-

hance japans hegemony analysis seen examine

nature governmental structure

under organic law manchu empire 193419349 state66completely centralized throne manchu emperorsemperor entourage

aides imperial household committee imperial house

631bid63ibid

64quoted64quoted aziz cp02 citeiteltcidotcitot ppo 32

65quoted65quoted hugh byas rift war clouds asiasasiatasiaasla XXXIV

september 1934 521

66southsouth manchurian railway sixth report progress manchuria1939 tokyo herald press 1939 p 8

27

hold law office privy seal office aidesaldes ddedecampcampecam

privy council ministers ofthesethese officers invariably non

japanese officials emperors vested powers executiveexecutives legisla-

tive judicial like emperor japan did nothing without

advice ministers turn controlled japanese vice

ministers 67 kwantungKwan tung army made certain manchu emperor

serve usefulness puppet

addition emperor entourage

state council legislative council courts Justjusticeiceyicet su-

pervisorypervi sory council state council virtually cabinet charge

administrative afaffairsfairst headed prime minister controlled

ministerstheministers following nine departments civil affairs foreign

affairs defense finance industry communications justice education

department mongolian affairs 68

1937 complete reorganization national administrative

organ effected 669 four independent branches state council

executive council courts justice supervisory council

latter eliminated leaving three then too number nine

departments reduced six theserhese public peace peoples welfare

industry finance commerce communications justice however

department industry abolished june 1940 same time

department agricultural development established 1937

offices foreign affairs hsinganhsinfan affairs created latterreplaced department mongolian affairs created coordicoorde

67aziz OP02 cit P 31

68manchoukuo year book 1942 inkinghsinkingheinkingHs manchoukuo year book

1942t1942 ppap 156157156 157

69ibid p 157

28

nate matters concerning administration mongolsmongelsMongols 70

purpose reorganization july 1937 follows

1 subject political administration under supervision

prime minister 2 merge abolish administrative departments

order consolidate administrative structure 3 unify military

police organizations order improve public peace order 4

facilitate communication between central local governments

5 expand consolidate functions local governments 6

eradicate evils standardization 7 facilitate plans economic

industrial development 8 improve plans attaining racialharmony71harmony 71

study operation government respect authority

control revealing surveillance nature

japanese officials without question masters exampleexamples

director generalgenerals key administrator general affairs board under

state councilecouncilqcouncilCouncilq invariably held japanese then too heads

respective bureau heads under general affairs board japanese72

officials

reality director general

real director policy controllergovernmental activities appointed dismissed officialsofficialprepared budget constituted what japanese offi-cer kwantungKwan tung armysardys general staff termed steelframoframeframp holding together whole regime general affairsboard stronghold japanese internal controlmanchukuoManchukuo government make assurance doubly sure

each ministries departments japanese viceminister each own general affairs bureau

70ibid p 159

71ib1dbid

72jones72jones 080020obeop cit pop 25

29

secretariat controlling personnel includingbureaux heads japanese73Japanese 73

thus observed unquestionable administrative author-

ity hands director general general affairs board

theory responsible prime minister japanese puppet

practice responsible xwantungkwantungKwancungtung army department heads minis-

ters invariably chinese governed respective japan-

ese advisers vice ministers puplu yi former role puppet

emperor gave testimony before tokyo war crimes regard what

already said

paper order fool people worldmanchukuoManchukuo made look like independent statefact administered kwantungKwan tung army nominally

ministers vice ministers chargevarious departments government practically every

vice ministers japanese ministerschinese surface chinese put chargeunderneath japanese ran show fourthsection kwantungKwantung army control manchurian af-fairs ordinances enactments preferred

vice minister japanese thenapproved kwantungKwan tung army74admayarrayacray 74

foregoing testimony indicates 1 distinction mi-nister exercised chinese official facade government

manchukuoManchukuo itself 2 subordinating office vice minister

held Japanjapaneseoseoeseooses policymakingpolicy making administrative control

3 kwantungKwan tung army decision maker inasmuch poli-

cies created vice ministers subjected approval

chapter IV shall observe what ordinarily case

under manchukuoManchukuo administration conclusions enumerated above

likewise said hsinfanhsingan provinces under japanese administra

73ibid74

quoted I1 n azizaciz op02 cit p 45

GOVERIgovernmentTZIENT CF MANCHUKUO

unounofficialfalcialfflcial transkonTranshonzhonskonimperial household dept

Ddept pubspubpubx I1LI1 advisers pt bur imu 0 G nialni al sastaflslafl7committee orioniorl imperial house law peacepescepesca

aurelibureliburellBu rellreLi mili y affairsff rsoffice tat1t r- zZ privy s-alsaigealseal bjr&iu pocpuc alaffairsfaisfai0 e ai de codconcad jpL d ii acurcu aniluLinilun tiueilu bulunculuncu l r-in czachkzachkeachreachj dedeptp t 0pyi y courcycourcuc11cid pegPCGpeoPCpecpspecesG Yssqaq earntebrnt vclfare bureaubereau uducfduc ionlonddnidn

1 bureaudureauB ireaubireau sccioscci0cc 1 afisafiaftaffairsbureaudureaudereau pupulcpuicbuiclj FI laihluihkuthruih

i E j audit health eauequipsequiprn rtntr t dptprptaptQ c dad1dcoraccorac iici3cc cunialccnial eou1oc3l obrieobrve ry 0 cf

embassyemoassy 11 jaynjaanja3n socialI1trdard 2 cos 0 la gcrinanygcmanygomanybureaudureau asncul uraiural aff rs mu-

r

r consulsconzulsus D- Ddral bleuBbieule u cf rispisg- ofcac2 hj sry eu u cf cc yidir idiidlajijjiCK G

ai r37cfpoc eoicsepics bi cc c0 li I1 ans r i rtC T vc 7 n con neuceniucetc e

T al 11 icuicioCucuicilicil pinfin il irompro i ci t hychhyclhsehT 0 eliiecflecliecbieccc lrisitsiij I pover coicorortlonsrtlon poixhlPoixfoiw hl

t i govngoanbureaubiubludiu cfjcej ffare nntantP n tro staftpstp e cc cil gcicral barlbnrl au accaaccc comiconimitnimitittceiticeice en denteprcpr general monopcy 0 cs 003kesces

afaii5 Cculture rd aliancefliance ni I1 scrbcr taintbolij Bbtofpcnnl Eeducationoc 0 1 1commerce bleauiu 01 Conrconrcucu aff rsHrueaujueauU caa stastai5tc3 duleau revenue polcepoirelilircaup ureume U oi T

13l 3 i r dureaubureau fina i ce DbrdardcardcitalC italcorcncoran dureaubureaudereau cf supplies d repairs gvnoral postal adnwstraiiji cornccooncn c-

uonsc 03 dureaubureau bureauT Ddeptc taintidoldiin accnyaccoy p

r scietritre r i tcomncoann r iunijuni bureau P icviyvvayveyays3jr suliinsuliieI1 c scientincScien tinc research cationscanions1

I1 llurcbureaulu 0 3

bureau 0 f1 vl tnoicaoicc01co iiollo110 i screanatScreanrc n Z

affairs bu cf antrnt screalscreakscreai tdureaubureau rvisiruisi dept cfspp j bureau civil affairsairscirsjusticejus liceilce buaizbuaiutauvau 0 ciiininl afiaff 1

CY0 ikniiani affairs bureaudureau1

11zeelseel 1

111 pea a- u raticnrationratica

C

1 I lccrlccy os 0 c

south manchurian railway sixth rekortreportre2ortraport progress manchuria 1939 tokyo heraldpress 1939

31

tion

provincial local administrative units

thorough program reorganization provincial local

administrative units local administrative research commission ap-

pointed february 1934 subdivided three provinces liaoningLiaoning kirinhellunachiangheilungchiang fourteen new provinces number increased

nineteen five added during years 1937451937 45 nine-

teen four autonomous mongol provinces east hsinganhsinfanHs ingan west hsinfanhsinganHs ingan

75north msinganingan south HsihsinfanhsinganhsinaanHs ingannaan technically underlying principle

reorganization ensure complete subordinationsordinationssub local76governmental bodies central government Hsheinkinghsinklnghsinkinginking

provincial government theoretically administered af-

fairs province highest administrative unit state

each province subdividedsub divided hsien districts77districts 77 turn

subdivided chu counties turn tsun villages dis-

tricts essence fundamental local units nation

counties villages lower administrative units

differences leadership composition pro-

vincial administration evidently based population development

ethnic status provinces each well populated developed

provinces governor vice governor secretariat fol-

lowing boards police affairs public welfare industry public works

75a75 discussion these provinces especially east hsinfanhsinganHs ingandiscussed chapter IV

76jones76jones op02 cit p 26

77however hsinfanhsingan provinces banner system retained

banner roughly equivalent chinese hsien

32

lasttwotvotwodvo named boards eliminated less developed provinces

felhoheihohelho province sparsely populated northern frontier special

administrative system general affairs police public welfare

sections well hsien district offices serving branches787provincial government

according lattimore highest officials hsihsinfanhsinganngan pro-

vinces given favored position terms communication dealt

directly privy council inkinghsinkingheinkingHs bypassingpassing ministries

privilege extended provinces 797 hsinganhsinfan

provinces under direct contrcontrol01 office hsinfanhsingan affairsdepartment civil affairs case others

readily understood since hsinfanhsingan provinces strategi-

cally vital far japanese militaristsmilitarisms concerned judi-

ciously extending certain amount privileges mongelsmongolsMongols japan-

ese hoped eventually penetrate inner mongolia same time

undermine therussianrussianrusslan position outer mongolia then promote

plans territorial expansion asian continent

provinces including HsinhsinfanhsinganhsingantHs ingangansgant troops finance ju-

diciary controlled central government example man

chukuochukuro troops posted provinces under jurisdiction

manchukuotmanchukuollManchukuo national army whose commanding officers appointees

central government revenue officials assigned provinces collected

taxes administrative expenditures defrayed Hsheinkinghsinlcinghsinkinginkinggovernment treasury lifetimelife time appointees central govern-

ment judges heldholdheidhoid prerogative exercise judicial office

78jones78jones op citacitoelteit p 27

79lattimore797 lattimore cradle conflictC onf1ionfri c t op02 cit ppap 14142141 42

33

80provinces

aside tche nineteen provinces two special minici

palitiespolitiespali ties capital city Hs inking harbin

each having mayor appointed echeethe government city council hand

picked since both municipalities under control central

government independent provincial jurisdiction however

july 1 1937 special municipality harbin abolished har-

bin 81assimilated unit special municipality inkinghsinkingheinkingHs

latter under jurisdiction prime minister

hand ordinary municipality under super-

vision provincial governor turn responsible prime

minister municipal system affected fourteen cities outside

hsinfanhsingan perimeter since mongolsmongels yerevere given autonomous status

apart chinese local administrative system councilor system

later established local governmentst82governments0governments 0 describing system

japanese writer 1938 said

state manchouluomanchouruo politically divided manylocal administrative units called counties ban-ners every office thobhobhe county magistrate bannerchief attached japanese councillor whose duty

give counsel manchu unit administrator ren-der assistance every possible way83

conclusion

short establishment government manchoukuo

80OAjones 2op cit p 27

81spimoM roR 0top citfcitcief p 0 6

82rnofionno

reirelregionalonalonai handbook northeast china compiled farparferrecfecredeastern russian institute university washington seattle new haventhavenshavenHRAF 1956f1956 p 328

8383mdibid P 338

34

merely facade although nominally constitutional monarchy fol-

lowing short period experimentation representative government

real manipulators behind scenes men kwantungKwantung army

switch monarchical system suited japanese design winning

collaboration manchusdanchus mongelsmongolsMongols since both

historical orientation toward chinese monarchism

actual practice central provincial local powers

hands authorized japanese officials act regardless

how insignificant considered valid without countersignaturecounter signature84appropriate japanese adviser

841bidogibid ppap 33638336 38

CHAPTERCHIAPTER III111lititt

EXTERNALEKTERNAL PROBLEMS RELATED MONGOLMONIGOL QUESTION

1930s1930ts 1940s19401s power perhaps directly

frustrated humiliated japans imperialistic aims inner asia

soviet russia china impotent militarily stem tide

japanese aggression inner mongolia soviet russia did along outer

mongol hsinfanhsingan border thus japans attempt solve mongol question

military confrontation soviet russia serious mistake

pan mongolmongolismism

apparently japanese cognizant advantages promotpramot

ing pan mongol movement tanaka memorandum 1915 although con-

sidered forgery japanese statements sino japanese agreement

same year illustrates japanese attempt use mongolsmongels

1basis frustratingfrustratinfrustration chinese russian aims asia

dismissing possibility concerted japanese effort toward

pan mongol movement however japanese officers feltpan mongolian state supported japan effect exclusion

bolshevism outer mongolianmongolia2Mongolia 2 according chamberlain japanese

military authorities gone far

willing consent detachment ganchoumanchouManchou

1franzfranz H michaeimichaellillii111 chael george E taylor far east modemmodernworld new york henry holt 1956 p 312

2william 11 chamberlain japan asia boston little brown

1939 p 61

35

36

kuo oftheodthe mongolian provinces lying west hsinfanhsinganmountains provided course japanese influence

new state Emonjtmongoljemongollgoilgoll assured unchallenged 3

nonetheless 1931 japanese favorable position use

mongelsmongols allies against future confrontation china soviet russia

perhaps takeover manchuria september 18 1931 sub-

sequent occupation eastern mongolia following year Cgiven

militaristsmilitarisms another opportunity fulfill dream pan mongolian

state thus extend continental power beyond manchukuoManchu kuo obviously

japanese policy limit japans hegemony mongolsmongels east-

ern mongolia itself aim include mongolia give

them japanese enormous leverage policy toward either russia4china very fact japanese established autonomous

mongol provinces eastern mongolia suggestive idea pan

mongolian state under japanese control policy antithesis

russian aims besides china condone move however

possible japanese willingness surrender eastern mongolia pan

mongolian state reported fisher 1936

writer related heard near bordersinner mongolia rumors japanese agents ridingamong mongol tribes urging princes declare innermongolia independent fell project ac-cording tho rumors japanese sponsored state manchukuo ready make them handsome gift formnearly fourth own territory entire westernprovince Hs ingan where many mongelsmongols already live underjapanese domination tokyo official urmaCunruncunnamednameduimameisuimametsmeiSmees did much

merely confirm rumorrumo 5t

certainly 11manchukuo1anchulcuoManchu kuo stands readyreadly time hand

31bidbid ppap 616261 62

40wenowen lattimore mongolsmongelsiongolsIon rolsgolsrois manchuria london george allenalienailenunion 1934 p 139

5gerardlgerardgerard M friters outer mongolia international positionbaltimore johns hopkins 1949 p 234

37

hsinfanhsingan independent mongolia affirmed ob-serve government alonmlonmongolC ol provincesdrovincesDrovinces nevermade inteintegralrairal part government manchukuoManchu kuoadministration quite seseparateparatte under mongol prince

conveniently painlessly detachednecessary time

independent mongolian state ought includemuch inner mongolia should come

outer mongoliac buryatbulyat republic siberiathose Mmongol populations must inevitably drawn ma-gnetism independent regime inner mongolialiberated mongelsmongols now living manchukuoManchu kuo 6

lattimore asserts jadJaojapaneseanese created mengkukuo

independent mongol nation made eastern mongolia chinese inner

mongolia established mengkukuomlengkukuo training ground

7pan mongol movement aiming conquest outer mongolia however

kwantungKwan tung army overran inner mongolia 1937 did unite

region hsinfanhsingan area form mengkukuo basis pan

mongol empire mongelsmongols dreamed instead separate1180mengchiangkengchiangMengchiang inner Monlamongolianollan regime established inner

mongolsmongels soon learn counterparts hsinfanhsingan

autonomous government very much within terms japanese policy

short found merely puppets real power

hands japanese 9 result situation course

did encourage favorable image japanese charles bell gives

reaction mongelsmongols disillusionment matter

mongol position know high au-thoritythority gave me opinionorinion mongelsmongols manchoukuo

ah6hH E fisher russia faces jadanjapan vast asian front new yorktimes april 5 1936 p 5

70wenowenoven lattimore studies frontier history collected paperspabers 19281958 london oxford university press 1962 p 404

af8fpF C jones manchuriamancliurliarialla since 1931 london royal institute

international Affaaffairsirsil 1949 p 66

9ibidbibidbid

38

better off under 1japanese under tthe chi-nese receiving japanese what

led believe receive opinionputs position nutshell 10

nonetheless dream pan mongolian state part

japanese militaristsmilitarisms failed materialize japanese policy itselfshortsighted failed comprehend aspirations mongolsmongelsMongols

administration paternalistic bound arbitrary besides follow-

ing occurrences hampered seriously realization pan mongolian statestates1 serious border incidents between soviet outer mongelsmongols japanese

hsinfanhsingan mongolsmongels along outer mongolian border 193519361935 1936 2 japan-

ese invasion north china 1937 3 nomonhanmonhan battle between soviet

russia japan 4 demise kwantungKwan tung army 1945

border incidents

japanese eastern mongolia following occupationoccupa74 ma-

nchuria 1931 became vitally important strategicC3 area

past occupyingC vast mongol domain western manchuria

eastern mongolia favorably facilitate japanese imperialistic aims

inner asia first japanese kwantungKwantung army conveniently mili-

tarize rallarhailarhallar eastern mongolia 100 miles outer mongolian

border second prelude pan mongolian state japanese mili

tariststarista now establish autonomous mongol region eastern mo-

ngolia exception siberia eastern mongolia probably

aid deterring soviet threat important japanese industrial

military installations south manchuria

early 1930s19301s indicative military unreadiness soviet

russia did challenge kwartunkwantunKwewanKwankwantungantuntung armysarmyfsargys sweeping drive north

10charles bell struggleI1 mongolia reprintedjournal royal central asian society XXIV january 1937 59

39

manchuria followingJ incident mukden moreover 1935

sale chinese eastern railway japanese puppet regime man

chukuochukuro soviet russia abandoned north manchuria sphere influence 11

sovietized outer mongolia russia determined defend inter-

ests

following occupation eastern mongolia 1932 occasional

minor incidents along outer mongol border became serious problem

1935 result november 27 1934 gentlemangentlemantsgentlemants agreement con-

cluded between soviet russia mongolian peoples republic

amounted politically military alliance 12 again march 12 1936

increased border incidents soviet russia outer mongolia con-

cluded protocol mutual assistance both agreeing

event military attack contracting parties render each

131 0every assistance including military assistance unmistakably

meant soviet russia contrast previous retreating posi-

tion north manchuria longer tolerate actions

jeopardize interests outer mongolia

1936 noticeable indications rapid mobilization

military installations outer mongolia eastern mongolia 1936

T steele correspondent hailar made observation

hailar brief become mammoth military baseleast division japanese broonstroons quartered

highly mechanized prepared short notice move againstadjacent frontiers where occurred sanguinary

border incidents hivehcyverve source unending

inthisilthis done without securing consent china CER

partner1712friters op cit p 143

131biibid1id

40

14friction between manchoukuo neighbors

1936 edgaralzl snow made following report

while kwantungKwantung army extends roads rail-ways telegraphs frontier hailar buildsimmense base suitable mongolian operations leaders

ulan bator quiescent 0

mongol red army15army said well armed wellequipped fully equal asiatic troops motor roads

extended frontiers telegraphic radiocommunication bean much developed fortifications

erected probably largely russian flownmongol air force rumored comprise three hun-

dred 16planes based several modern airdromesairdromes

moreover increase soviet outer mongol troops estimated between 60000

ioos1001loos10000000017 military installations indicated gravity soviet

japanese relations 193519361935191935 19193636

january 1935 lake bulduldui nor located fringe oi1 outer

mongol hsinfanhsingan border central area dispute question border

demarcation claim each party follows

japanese considered lake bulduidul nor partmanchukuoManchukuo khalkha river natural boundary be-tween ttwo0 o countries f outer mongolian maps ap-parentlyparent ly soviet mapsnaps howeverhovhox raverrcver included khalkha

14 T steele mongol border asia XXVI august 1936 495

151930 former mongolian Peopeopledplets revolutionary army re-

named red army 1 see peter 11 tang russian soviet policymanchuria outer mongolia 2 1911911igi191119311 1 1931 durham duke university press

1959 p 395

16 edgar snow japan gates red mongolia asia XXXVI

january 1936 13

17 ibid correspondent sterling fisher gives overall comparisonsoviet japanese military preparedness asia russia unquestionably

larger trained land forces abundant supplied resourcesequipment stronger fortifications side standing army1300000 against japans 230000 air force 3500 planesjapans 1446 far sasesasteasldase said 250000 troopssiberian manchukuoan frontier protected elaboratenetwork small concrete forts like maginot1 line guarding francegermany likewise 600 700 tanks 800 900 airplanes eastlake baikal japan hand opposite 1manchukuofanchukuoilManchu1 kuo less

90000 japanese soldiers smaller number relatively raw na-tive troops few tanks airplanes border forts fisher op

cit

41

river lake dutbuiduidul nor within territory mongolianpeoples republic 18

short tche japanjapaneseese insisted area dispute within tche

hsinfanhsingan perimeter russians arcarguedYaedued otherwise

early border encounter january 1935 snow reports

first serious clash occurred january japanese led Manmanchuchurlchullchurr troops encountered red mongol patrolnear lake doir west bargaC district MancmanchuriahuriashsinfanhsinganHs ingan mongolI1 commandercominander soldier killedwhile slight casualties inflicted manchukuoManchukuo side

mutual protestsdrooro tests exchanged 190

number clashes 1935 alone reported sterling fisher

amounted 106 serious ones first three months 1936 twenty

20two several these seems apparent occasional

skirmishes between outercuter mongolsmongels hsinganhsinfan mongolsmongelsMongols dispatch

secretary state january 23 1936 tokyo ambassador joseph grew

reported alleged involvement hundred outer mongolsmongels

21manchurian mongelsmongols border clashes january 8 15 16 17

encounters between mongol troops outer mongol hsinfanhsingan11singan mongol

tended create animosity among blood brothers grew makes rele-

vant observation

cause these clashes clear apparentneither outer mongelsmongolsmionlgols nor manchurian mongelsmongols

hsinfanhsingan province each whom confident supportsoviets tche jenJanjepjapaneseanese respectively present

willing show sign veweaknessakness williwillingnesswillinanessnaness22cormcompromisepromise

18i pfriters op cit p 235

191 snow op cit p 11

20fisheryfisherfishet OP citcit21

foreign relations united states 1936 vol IVTV washing-ton

washin-ton government printing office 19519566 p 123

22ibid

4 2

perhaps peculiar situation take con-

sideration similar relationship existed between north koreans

south koreans following korean varwar 1950 even between

north south american civil war

sum border incidents symptomatic japanese terri-torial ambition overconfidentconfident initial victories north manchuria

jeholdehol japanese military january 1935 thought perhaps

provocation soviet outer mongol troops lake buirbair nor perimeter

might cause russia makesnakeinakemaremarq concessions them stiff russo outercuter

mongol troop resistance however gave themthenthed afterthoughtsthoughts closer coordina-

tion between russians outer mongolsmongels border defenses re-

sult addition 1936 chinese government preferred rus-

sian occupation outer mongolia japanese takeover offered239protest regarding in-fluxinflux russian troops country more-

over border incidents reflected Rusrussianssiasslas determination defend

preeminentpre eminent position outer mongolia siberia past

tolerated japans intrusions far chinese soil

manchuliManchuli conference

june 3 1935 result mounting seriousness bor-

der incidents conference held manchulimanchullmatchullManchulichull north lisilslisinganhsinganhsinfaningan province

near outer conlmonlmongoloi1 border soviet objective conference

settle immediately question boundary demarcation along outer

mongol hsinfanhsingan border japanese desired primarily

establish foothold outer Mlongmongoliaoliaoila means gaining concessions

russians leadleadingn delegate amonsamong hsinfanhsinganfsingan mongol officials

23lawrence K rosingfrrosingerRosingfr others state asia new yorkknopf 1953 p 10101loilott

43

ling sheng governor north hsinfanhsingan province japanese delegates

kanki saitosalto sakurai Kwankwantungkwanfcungtung army leading outer mongol

entourage sambowasambolaSambowa vice minister war accompanied russian offi-

cials 24

should emphasized here appearance outer mongol

hsinfanhsingan mongol delegates merely facade actual men behind

scenes respective russian japanese officials william H

chamberlain observer during manchuliyjanchullManchulichull conference

sessions makes following comment

I1 present short time during these con-ferencesferences carried away impression diplomaticpuppet show tokyo MOSCOW vigorously pullingstrings controlled manchoukuo outer mongoliandelegates delegates lived railway cars surrounded

watchful Russirussianzinfin advisers inaccessible un-communicative grand lama tibet japanese dip-lomat attached manchoukuo foreign officemoving spirit manchoukuo delegation 25

boundary delimitation concerning questionable vaguely marked

outer mongolC hsinhsinfanhsinganD border urgent1 issue far japanese

concerned japanese primarily interested open door

policy 1 open diplomatic relations between outer mongolia manchu

kuo 2 maintain manchukuoManchukuo military mission ulan bator 3

267 f

construct telegraph line between 0outerouneralterulter mongolia manchukuoManchu kuo obviously

japaneseJaDanese intention gazgalgain n foothold ulan bator far

setting espionage activities concerned however soviet outer mo-

ngolian refusal complyalyolyotynly vith vnanosejnanosetnnnnese proposal frustrated latlatterlattersiatterbatterstersaims outer mongolia

24f fsnow OP22 cit p 1111 see steele op02 cit p 494

25chamberlainchamberla5n op citc i t p 63

26 snow 2nop cit p J121 2

4441-1

indicative teheie futile attempts reconciliation manchuliManchuli

follofollowingwinIg russolusso outer nlmongol1 iol comunicomuniquescoirriuniquescommuniquesques recent events prove

manchukuoManchu kuo wishes avoid peaceful settlement border incidents27prepare way further occupation our territory japanese

militariammilitarisemilitarizemilitariamarise undertakes mormozmozemorge risky adventures may happen

however reckless investigators these adventures break28fnecks neenewN ew yorkYork timesT i lreirelne

responsible spokesmanspokesinnan japanese foreignoffice did conceal fact japanese government ap-proved efforts t open outer 1mongolia rI1 e repeated

manchukuoManchukuo now knockingknock ins outer MonmongolianmongoliansmongoliasMongomengogoliaslians doorjapans door 1858 implying same result in-evitable 29

reviewing issues led cessation

manchuliManchuli conference close 1935 ve find june 3rdard

session soviet outer Mionulonmongelsmongolsmionryolsryols priprimarilyairilyarily interested settlement

boundary dispute delimiting bordarborderbordsr however japanese

evidently trying evade question demanding matters30mutual interest should discussed referred course

japanese open door policy outer mongolia october 2

31open door policy again became issue

personal interview edgarsogarzogar snow chashichashlchaehi japanese vice

ministerinister manchukuomanclhukluoManchunanchukuo for1foriforaforeignn cfofficeficeficq stated candidly border

27newnevnew york ernestimesmrnesL july 7 1935 jyN

19.19 p 7

28quoted T Bdissonbissonasonsson annanjananjainnann cainachina new york macmillan 1936p 230

29new york times 1october1zeoberctober 22 1935 responsible spokesman

kanki official japanese 1nistryministry111

4bistry foreign affairs see davidJ dallin sovietovi ot Rrussassiayssiai 7farir eastgaszast t nevnovnewnow haven yale universitypress 1981948 0r 25

30newnevw york times june 15 1935935 Dp 6

31bisson citc i t p 231

45

question incidental issue wider implication regarded

manchuliManchuli conference tas merely preliminary determined attempt

pry open mongolia benefit world enforce open door32country much con-anoncoinmoncoincon our empire

stubborn soviet outercutereuler mongol resistance border revealed

futility japanese efforts conference table besides 1936

pointed earlier substantial soviet outer mongol mili-

tary buildupbuild outercuter mongolia kvantung4wantungKvankwan1 cungtung army experts aware

33 provocation war time unlikely

each side recognized among reasons potential might

shoshortrt manchuliManchuli conference november 1935 ended

stalemate neither solution question delimitation

frontier nor russo outer mongol1 acquiescence japanese flodenflopenopen

door proposals

adjournment july conference manchulimanchullmatchullMan chulichull terethene

alleged rumor referring bitter exchange words between outer

mongol hsinfanhsingan11singan mongol delegates euteroutercuter mongelsmongols bitterly denounced

hsinhsinfanhsingan mongol delegates JapanjapaneseGsa puppets T latter re345

plied calling thetthellr relative reded slaves perhaps

plausible consider charges counter charges north

south koreans conference table panmonjompanmoniom

ling sheng incident

april 193611935 consequence manchullmanchulimatchullMan chullchuli conference

kwantungKKwanwantunptung army arrested Pprncearncece L-Ilingn sheng mongol governor north

32 snowssnowlsnow 01op13 CLcittat9 p 12

33new york Ttimestimoses january 27 1935 p 8

34snow OP cit

46

hsinfanhsingan province several high 321111opimongol officials alleged charges

iviidlIvlplottingivlottingotting subversive movements against manclManchumancimanchukuoiukuoyukuokuo w1wavithj glgivingelney mili35tary information soviet russia governor ling srengstiens entouragentourage

among whom monmongol01ol armysarmyvsardysargys chief 0 J staff chief police

sent hailar 11sinkinginkingsinkingHs11 capital manchukuoManchulanc riukuoriukuo tried

court martial shortly thereafter accused including gov-

ernor armysarnrysaremys chief staff chief police brought

trial found 360guilty md executed

noted governorlingygovernor linsylingLingy sheng chief Ihsinfanhsingan11sinloanaan delegate

manchuliManchuli conference capacity assumed occasional

conversations russian outer leonavon1vonmongolol delegates might looked

upon much suspicion japanesejacvocjapanoseJacjapamosevocnosewogweg respect japanese37considered relations relsontreasonU reason gbravestgravestravest forms

among chargesC plotting secession barga

japanese further declared

ling sheng established connectionsconnextions USSR1929 soviet troops invarinvadedbedled hailar punitive ex-peditionpedi tion againstainstainest chanchanschang 1hseh 11llangliangriztizrig always

secretly workingC russians while professing38loyalty try111irlmanchukuoanchuzluollManchukuohuobuo

russians hovehowehowevervcr flflatlyitly ioniccloniclonic having affiliation ling3039sheng

T steele met ling sheng acknowledges him man

integrity does dismiss possibility played

35new york times april 13 1936 p 4

36david dallinda 1 lintin soviet rusrmsrussiasiaslaqia far east new haven yaleuniversity press 19481943 p 360350 jonesiones op cit p 67

37steelellSteesteeleleyllelllesl op cit pp 494

303 jones oo00 citct nnapodpo 6765755767 56

39aq3qibid9ibid p 68610

47

both sides however what terms steele does venture say not-

withstanding steele comments character mongol opportunism

opportunism though reprehensible occidental stan-dards phenomenon tene MlongmongoliasmlongoliasmongolianMonoliasgolias where rulingprinces papalspawnsLs international intrigue since

collapse mighty empire erected genghis khan I1zustjustlust completed journey through hsinfanhsingan province

chinese inner mongolia hailarhallar northwestern manchouganchoukuo suiyuansuiyunnsuiyungsulSui yuanyunn northwestern china everywhere I1found mongol leaders much same mood 40

japanese military alleged ling sheng motivated

desire insure security hinishirishimselfelfeif ane people event

41war between outer Monmongoliayolla manchoukuomanchoulkuo powerful allies

interview japanese generals tokyo 1963 dr paul

V hyer student mongolian affairs asserts possibility

japanese officers kempertkempeitaikempeitKempeitaial secret military police ambitious

promotion always suspicious mongelsmongolsmonoolsMonoolsgolsgois sought use ling sheng

scapegoat related 111byorbyer1iyer russian agents concealed weapons

way give appearance ling sheng plotted coup whether

ling sheng actually framed difficult ascertain execution

outer mongol leaders shoreshortshortly1 y thereafterlreafterch ulan bator charges

having plotted bhehilebile 1hsinfanhsinganF1s 1enolsonols11onolsoisols pan mongol movement tends42absolve ling shensheng

reaction incident steelesheele makes folfoifollowinglowina conclusion

turning point ilskishsinfanhsinganwisinganwis ingan mongol1oro1 catanesejaranesejataneseJaraneseTanese relations

idaldatidingsidl ngs tilc event worevoreverevenevone soon every mongoltongue execlexecution1

1aonfon1on 070 fofourfout mongolsmtongolsmongels high rank poli-tical fonsetenseoffense againstdinstninst manchoukuomanchoulcuo government may bolstermongol respect r 0 o d rairnarn1 cledclod japanese guide

40ibid41 1ibidb d

429 personal intervieiinterview wlwihvithviehh dr paul V hyer july 19 1966

48

destinies young scarcely calculatedstimulate mongol affection 433

unusual reaction natural human chara-

cteristicte group people side own kind face

foreign occupation whether motives justified however

incident itself did generate serious anti japanese reaction

terms revolt particularly opportunity later defeat

nomonhanmonhan war made possible regard F C jones

points

commentators took event ling sheng in-dicationdi cation failure japans mongol policy

assuminassuming rather too muchch hostilities nomonhan 1939 culminated severe japanese defeat

hands soviet forces might opportu-nity large scale revolt manchurian mongelsmongolsMon golshowever did occur 44w

battledattledattieba ttieatie nomonhanmonhan

period 193119391931 1939 Rusrussianssiasslas position northeast asia vas

primarily defensive although able withhold japanese attacks

along outer 1mongoliviivl hsinfanhsingan border 193519361935 1936 embarrass japanese

changkufeng 1937 annihilate japanese forces nomonhanmonhan

193919391 1 defend outer 1 future bufferpolicy merely 1-0 o mongolia

prevent possible japanese invasion soviet union further-

more russia amanxiousKious extend perimeter influence mecne

borders china nor newly japanese acquired hsinfanhsinganHs ingan satis-

fied having inner myongMlongnyongmongoliaolia buffer against developing chinese

nationalism

japanese militaristsmilitaristmilitarisms hand plans own

43raibid44jones44jones op cit

49

remembered abortive attempt greater mongolian stacestate two

decades ago soviet russia stumbling block then doubt

mind militaristsmilitarisms extension japanese empire exten-

ded asian continent throughthrouph pan mongolJ strategy without firstcrushing soviets dominant position outer mongolia

recounted earlier mutual assistance pact signed be-

tween russia mongolian peoplespeopled republic 1936 though bi-

lateral agreement simply indicated uncertain terms russiacome defense outer mongolia event attack kwan

tung army took hint result fewer border incidents45thereafter

however 1937 japanese forces invading china russiaundergoing internal crisis great purge engineered stalindenuding soviet nation leading military leaders

marshal tukachevesky same year severe japanese attack

amur river encounter russians evacuated russian held islands

near juncture soviet korean border following

year russians defeated japanese forces led settlement

calling withdrawal troops both sides 46

relative difference between russiansDlusIussiasslas retreat 1937

victory 1938 attributed rather disappointing japanese

drive china opening full scale offensive against china

first source worry russians japanese failed47overrun adversaries reds considerably heartened

45 dallin op02 cit p 27

46meribeth cameron others china japan powers newyork ronald press 1952 p 407

47cameron op cit

50

spite set back japanese making preparations major

thrust outer mongolia

without question japanese years preparing

thrust direct railway line connecting inkinghsinkingheinkingHs halunarshanHalunarshan

traversing hsinfanhsingan mountain range completed 1936

48course facilitate deployment troops proximityinproximityunproximity nomonhanmonhan

moreover july 1938 japanese general staff made preliminary plans

invasion outer mongolia soviet baikal irkutsk ul-

timate goal 49 result japanese 23rd infantry division nor-

thern kyushu transferred rallarhailarhallar 100 mile distance north50nomonhanmonhan

past practice both sides post border

guards along disputed area disputed nomonhanmonhan area located

few miles southeast lake duir nor disputed area 193519361935 1936

east khalkha river russians insisted outer mongolian

border included area east khalkha river whereas japanese51thought otherwise reality disputed area vital signific-

ance visible fortifications aionalonalongatsalonggAts peripheriaperipheric ex

52captcept numerous border outposts however map sem-

iofficial japanese publication 1932 revealed disputed oasis area

48jones op cit p 111

49testimony49testimony ataman semenov cited larry moses battlenomonhan Khalikhallkhailkhalkhinkhalithinchinthin golgotgoi unpublished manuscript indianapolis indiana

university 1966 p 44

50cited moses op cit saburo hayashi alvin D coxscoxkogunxogunbogun japanese army pacipaclpaelpacificfic war virginia marine corpsassociation 1959

51mosessmoses op cit p 42

52ibid9ibid p 43

51

NOMONHAN warswartWAR 1939

py

ZI

ilairailk

0IA

r

david joJ dalllndallinoballino soviet russia far east new havenyale university press 19491948

52

tween nomonhanmonhan eastbankeastbank khalkha within border53mongolian Peopeoplesplets republic moreover mongol patrols both sides

taken liberty patrol oasis respective comrades

54posts observing routine unusualyunusually outer mongol

55border guards patrol area sizeable numbers

may 11 1939 japanese lisinganhsinganhsinfan calvary unit 200 men

crossed oasis attacked 50 man outer mongol patrol near khal-

kha eastsideeastside result outer mongelsmongols killed however

attackers soon retreated first large scale penetration56border japanese actually intended test import

soviet outer mongol mutual pact 1936 great

disappointment may 22 lieutenant rykov platoon orders57crossed khalkha soon repulsed japanese hsinganhsinfan cavalry

latter consequently occupied eastbankeastbank violation border

limitation set forth outer mongolia soviet russia mo-

ment challenge set forth soviet union keep promise

according mutual agreement russo outer mongol forces retaliated

few days later may 31 direct warning japanese

molotov made following declaration before supromesovietsupreme soviet

I1 give warning borders mongolianpeoplespeopled republic virtue mutual assistance treatyconcluded betweenbecsrmonmmon us defended USSR vigor

53citedcited abidogibidogibid Tp 42 japans rights manchuria japanhodaxtodaxT od ay tomorrowT omorrow 19311932193119 31 1932 osaka osaka malaichimalnichimainichlMalnichi publishing 1932

5454testlmonytestimony rippel ogiseogisu citedintedinciterincicited moses op02 cit55moses55moses apop cit561bidtibid p 45

57testimony57testimony major E bykov cited imiteimfte mosessmosesop0 P citaittcitt p 46

53

58cpouslybously shall defend our won borders

skirmishes may 11 22 soon developed full scale

modern war battle line extending fifty sixty kilo59meters depth twenty twentyfivetwenty five kilometerskilometerst much

crucial battles centered Momonhan perimeter

briefly battle monhan characterized these terms

initial drive until july 6 large scale offensive

generally japanese favorsfavor thereafter japanese began feelfeetfeol

growing strength soviet outer mongol forces finally

latter part august soviet outer mongol forces began tremendous drive60whichcompletelycompletely routed japanese manchukuoanmanchuruoan forces

besides use ground forces including tanks artilleryboth sides did shy aerial duels june combat overhead

61took major part action june 17 japanese admitted62fouter mongolian russian planes begancac3 series raids manchukuoManchukuo

each side reported incredible victories butic difficult rely

source what acknowledged howhowevereversevert both sides able

latest models 65636 5test efficiency

doubt soviet planes probably attempted bomb heavily

fortified ballarhallarhailar dispatch hailarhallar however discloses bombing

raids did occur vicinity hailarhallar through day soviet aircraft

58dallin op02 cifacifccippcitp p 39

59claude buss far east new york MacMilmacmillanlanglant 1955 p 335

60moses60moses op cit p 41

611bid461 ibid pop 48

62newnevnew york times june 25 1939t1939 p 28

63moses63moses 2jpop cit p 48

54

ranged eastward bombing communications centers near hallarhailar

least four fresh bomb createrscreators thirty five miles south hailar

five others near changmiaoChangmiao 640

reason russians unlike japanese trained outer

mongelsmongols pilots long before nomonhanmonhan incident japanese knew

outer mongolsmongels russian sponsored air force 65 august 22

11Hs sinkinginking dispatch disclosed forty outer mongol planes shot down

three battles border five halunarshanHalunarshan sixty miles66ffborder august 21

first week august japanese beginning geugetgot des-

perate reinforcements hurriedly deployed front compos-

ition reinforcements follows 23rd division part

7thath division whole manchurian mixed brigade koreans inner

mongelsmongolsMongols manchuriansManchurians three hsinganhsinfan regiments three heavy artillery regi-

ment entire antitankanti tank batteries ist infantry division 0767

time soviet forces far superior modern weaponry

chart 2

august 20 russians opened tremendous drive ended

68defeat japanese forces august 31 according moses

superb russian military stratestrategysy tactics including support su

64new york times july 14 1939 p 9

65tanglivans OP cit p 397

66new york T imestimes august 22 1939199 p 6

67testimony67testimony rippelrippeirimpei ogiseogisu 11IMFTEtuteTTTE cites moses op02 cit p 52

68according tokyo thotha japanese suffered 18000 casualtiesentire war russian casualties although unknown probably less

dallin 22op cit p 39

55

CHART 2

comparison FORCES

Jjapanesepane e manchukuo sovisovietet mongol

infantry battalion 25 35

cavalry squadrons 17 20

light medium machine guns 1283 2255

guns 75 mmranman above 135 266

guns 45 mm below 142 286

motors 60 40

tanks 120 498

armored cars data 346

attack planes 311

light bombers 181

heavy bombers 23

total planes 303 515

source N F kuisKusskuzmannian na nuraghesuraghesurazhe mirnogomltnogo truda 192119401921 1940cited moses op cit p 53

56

periorperipecipedi armored vehicles air power instrumental defeat69japanese forces CDgenerally vereworevorevoce employing world war I1 tactics

news shocking kwantungKwantung armyarmyo time japanese re-

treat late august soviet non agressionegression pact signed august

23rd moreover perhaps thought having face onslaught

soviet offensive manchukuoManchu kuo became ever depressing however

moscow truce signed september 15 togo molotov thus ending

monhan war following day perhaps welcomed news

both sides

japan soviet russia saw extending war

advantage despite aggressionnonaggressionnon pact germany stillapprehensive having fight two front war logistics

same problem spite victory nomonhanmonhan

japan too effect fighting two front war nomon

han china logistics distance

involved difficult task come learn soon japan

realized blunder militaristsmilitarisms made humiliating defeat

forces nomonhanmonhan convinced necessity negotiate

signing truce

conclusion nomonhanmonhan far mongelsmongols concerned

dimmed hope mongolia mongolsmongelsMon gols ended image

japan patron promoter mongol pan mongolmongolismism japan able

recapture spirit greater laonraon14onmongoliaolia crushing defeat

kwantung1twantungKwan tung army 1945 ended japans ereamdreamream greater mongolian state

further extension japanese empire asian continent

soviet russia nomonhanmonhan succeeded weepingkeeping outer mongolia isolated

69moses op cit p 59

57

70divided chinese inner mongolia manchurian mongolia moreover

authors opinion nomonhanmonhan revealed outer mongolia way

11Hs insaningan longer pathway japanese expansion thus relegat-

ing kwantungKwantung army secondary position far future japanese

strategy war concerned finally monhan made possible

border demarcation settlement along outer mongol hsinganhsinfan border move

japanese militaristsmilitarisms long delayed after preliminary meet-

ings elsewhere mixed border demarcation met harbin october 1941

71question boundary dispute settled however

72ratification agreement took place moscow may 1942

7cioreovermoreover granting outer mongolia status inde-pendent state yalta agreement 1945 made ever impracticable

hope pan mongol movement take place sovietizedsovietzedSoviet zed outermongolia never condone

71in preliminary meetings august 1941 chitafollowingC leading hsinfanhsingan11singanC mongolC japanese officials presentnobusadenobusadaNobu sade shimomura director political affairs bureau for-eign office manchukuoManchukuo po yen man tu councillor hsinfanhsingan office

later became governor east 1hsinfanhsingan11singan province manchoukuo yearbook1942book 19421942 Hs inking 1933 p 366

72rupen72rupen op02 cit1ciccitcitycita p 266

CHAPTER IV

INTERNAL PROBLEMS RELATED MONGOL QUESTION

unlike previous experience under chinese even russian

administration eastern mongolsmongels granted autonomy under modern

foreign power japanese realized order extend japans in-

fluence power mongol regions inner outer mongolia

collaboration facade mongol autonomy under beneficence

advantage

creation esinhsinhsinfanhsingan provinces office hsinfanhsingan affairs

following february 1932 meeting banner leaders chen

chiatungchia tung telteiteikatontelkatonTeiTel kaconkaton calling mongol autonomy japanese established

hsinfanhsingan bureau march 9 1932 1 hsingkingHsingking made responsi-

ble state council manchukuoManchu kuo government same year

august 3 bureau renamed hsinfanhsingan general office change

20name organization

takeover north manchuria 1932 japanese created

hsinfanhsingan province named hsinfanhsingan range3rangedrangecange eastern mongolia

shortly thereafter subdivided north south east provinces 4

lmokolaokomoko talkantaikanbalkan compiled zenrinkyokalzonrinkyokai chosabuchosaku tokyo Kaizraizralzkaizoshaxalzoshaosha1938 p 241

21bid21 bid

3walterawalter0kaiterwalter issigheissigbeissig derper mongolischeMongo lische kulturalculturalKul tural den hsinganprovinzen

mandschukuos unpublished doctoraldissertationdoctoral dissertation der universitat wien 1941 p 1

4F C jones manchuria since 1931 london royal institute in-

ternationalternational affairs 1954 p 64

58

59

then invasion jeholdehol 193319331 y japanese sought integrate

heavily populated mongol region northern jeholdehol within hsinfanhsingan

peclperipeniperimeterperlmetermeterneter therefore 1934 program reorganization northernnorthern

deholjehol detached renamed west hsinfanhsingan province 5 generally eastern

mongolia subdivided north hsinfanhsingan occupying barga region east

hsinfanhsinganHs ingan nonninoiminormi valley south esinHsinhsinfanhsinganhsingantHs inganganygantgeny jerimgerim league gestwestvest6hsinfanhsinganHs ingan jo oda league short uncolonized mongol areas set

apart constitute hsinfanhsingan provinces according beissigheissigheissigvissig bor-

ders these provinces did follow historical spreading mon

7golsbutgoisgols followed natural population borders dating 1932 1934

fact nominal parts mongol areas jerimgerim jo oda

josotojosato leagues stayed outside hsinfanhsingan11singan perimeter areas

chinese population outnumbered mongols141ongolsmongels included however

mongelsmongols chose remain interests protected local8tofficesofftoff ices mongol affairs

although mongelsmongols given limited autonomy status

province suggested japanese did intend mongolsmongels

should enjoy selfitselfseif determination fact time did japanese

form independent mongol government jurisdictionally inkinghsinkingheinkingHs seat

central government served mongol capital however

hsinfanhsingan provinces given greater freedom internal affairs9

Chichineseneset provinces spite japanese ran state

51bid9151bid p 327

6heissigbeissigheissigissig op cit see owen lattimoreolattiraoreLattimoceomoreomoresmmoreraore mongelsmongols ma-nchuria alienallenailenailon unwin 1934 p 142

7heissigbeissigheissigissig op cit8

Laltimorelatfcimoreattimoreatt imore op02 citci t pop 21

9 bidibid

60

affairs

end 1934 hsinfanhsingan general office changed

10department mongolian affairs jurisdiction extended

banner areas outside confines regular mongol provinces

hsinfanhsinganHs ingan 111 objectives change 1 improve admini-

stration mongelsmongols manchuria 2 improve develop cultural

economic needs mongolsmongelsMongols 3 promote national harmony

cooperation among mongolsmongelsMongols lz12 1937 part general reorgani

zationalrationalzat ional program central government department mongolian

affairs replaced office hsinganhsinfan affairs

departments office theoretically directly responsible prime

minister manchukuoManchukuo operated through office state council

additional responsibilities new office concerning mongolian affairs1 oversee management banner public finances 2 oversee

management tax system 3 effect measures regard lamaist

affairs reform 4 deal matters regarding nobility 5

facilitate better system control communication among various1311organs provincial government

provinciprovincialprovinceProvinci al administrationadminis craticratl

provincial government office highest local administra-

tive organ each four hsinfanhsingan provinces level authority

follows highest official course emperor manchu

10south manchurian railway sixth report progress manchuria1939 tokyo herald press 1939 pn 3

11mokomono taikantalkanbalkan op cit p 242

12ibid

13 ibid

61

kuo directly below him authority premier chinese

state council manchukuoManchu kuo through state council

office hsinganhsinfan affairs supervised directed mongol affairs con-

sequently jurisdiction hsinfanhsingan provinces administrator14office hsinfanhsingan affairs member thestatethche stateeState council

mongol held title minister equivalent rank pres-

tige rest ministers government manchukuoManchukuo

like others too japanese advisadvisorort 15t provincial gover-

nor 16mongol likewise japanese advisor equal rank

vice governors non mongol provinces japanese advisor councillor

theoretitheoretictheoreticallyoreti callyeallyeaily assisted governor matters concerning proprieties17important matters provincial administration

1938 north hsinfanhsinganHs ingan south hsinfanhsinganHs ingan west hsinfanhsingan prov-

inces operated three cho department seven ka bureau system

departments police affairs civil administration general af-

fairs seven bureaus special affairs education police industry

local affairs accounting general affairs see chart 3

typical 11 heads11heads these bureaus mongolsmongels assisted

respective japanese advisors thosethese bureaus though shown

18chart divided divisions subdivided provincial

officers appointed governor well government

14a T steele mongol border asia XXVIXXVI august 1936p 495

15 ibid16david F aberle chahar damor mongol bureaucratic admini-

strationtra tion 191219451912 1945 2r2n oded now haven HRAF 1962 p 92

17vokomoko zalkan op cit p 247

i 018aberle op cit

62

administrative STRUCTURE

HSINGAN PROVINCES

prime minister

office hsinfanhsinganaffairs

heinanhsinganhsinanHs inanprovincialgovernor

councillor

department department departmentpolice affairs civil adminis 1 general

trationaration affairs

Jbureau bureau bureau bureau bureaueducation police general

affairs industry accounting affairs

bureau localspecial dereaubureaudeneauaffairs

agency police procuratorsprocuratorfprocuratoryProcuraProcuratorstorttorf prefectural bannenbannerdannenB annenannermunicipalmanagementvLanaviana gement headquartersvav1 carlCaricavi quarters office headquartersheadquarter pleadheadquartersquarters

moko taikanltaikantaigan op cit p 2.72724727

63

19manchukuoManchukuo

case east hsinfanhsingan province two cho six ka system

used principal three bureaus civil administration minselMinseisel

police affairs helmureirelkelmukei mu general affairs sonesoeykomusomusony east hsinfanhsingan province

without services police affairs bureau prescribed

others time civil administration bureau handling

7020functions police affairs byuBludureaubureaureau however police affairs bureau

7121added later1941 mongol governors four hsinfanhsingan provinces

po yen man tu east shou mingaming south ne la ko erh ch pu west

7722eh lu chin pa tuh north province

banner administration

obvious reasons early period occupation japan-

ese careful disrupt traditional banner system

mongelsmongolsMongols during manchu dynasty banner basic political

administrative unit verninggoverning authority hands of11the23hereditary mongol nobility appointed functionariesfunctionaries however

unlike mongolsmongels otharothrr hsinfanhsinganlsinganfi provinces dagoc mongolsmongels

east hsinganhsinfanHs ingan nobility reason alternative

19 ibid20

moko taiwantalktaik op cit221aberle op cit22manchoukuo year book 1942 Hs inking manchoukuo year book

1942 p 164 director general affairs state councilpa ta ma la pu tan

23 regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous recrelaelregionghionllonbioncompiled far eastern russian institute university washingtonseattle new hahavenven HRAF 1956 p 370

64

given aberle

fealty manchusdanchusManchus dagorsdagonsnobility received seven high ranks civil statuses

patents nobility called siraakasiranka jangincangin inheritedleader men received these titles transmitted them

eldest sons process continued until endmanchu empire stipend attached title 24

generally meritorious services dynasty granted pasture lands

mongol banners moreoveroveryoverl mongol banners wereancorporatedincorporated within

manchu army 25 following fall dynasty 1911 banner sys

26temterntermtemm loan degenerated oppression warlordswar lords

unlike chinese japanese granted mongolsmongels manchuria

272 7rights privileges self government

next province banner important administra-

tive unit during japanese occupation whole banner made

28apnp1 area 2 inhabitants 3 power govern itself

attempt change boundary reasons administration financefinances

judicatory reasons decided imperial decree manchukuoManchukuo

government 29 theoretically banner administrative judicial30powers

banner headquarter responsible hsinfanhslnganhsingan provincial

governor chief banner headquarters example equal

24aberlelaberle op cit Tp 74

25manchoukuomanchoukuo year book 1942 op02 cit p 153

261bidibidibjdIbJd p 153

21271bidibid p 382

28tokoloko Talktaiktaikantalkzintaiganainalnzin op cit Dp 247

29tbid29 ibid

301bidibid p 248

65

31rank ehe heads agencies procuratorscuratorsprocuratoryPro office po-

lice headquarters32total oftwentytwenty nine banners manchuria

twentyfivetwenty five them within hsinfanhsingan provinces

193219351932 193519 banners like provinces held measure

power thereafter mongolsmongels began sense increased curtail33mentnent power

discussion banner administration author depend

upon aberlesaberley brief study dagorbagor banner administration east hsinganhsinfanHs ingan

34gleaned mainly orgunge onon mongol informant

four banners east hsinfanhsingan province bayen aroon

35litawamolitawaMo morin dawaadawada botahaaBotahaa leader each these banners

usually appointed provincial governor confirmed cen

tf36trai government

since japanese anxious build mongol bureaucracy im-

mediately necessary mongol start bottom

order rise position banner leader however education

basic criterion selection typical banner leader usually

middle aged chinese educated although position carried

prestige honour salary offered sufficient sustain

31 ibid p 247

32manchoukuoylanchoukuo year boobook 194211942 op cit ppap 155156155 156

33aberle op cit p 93

34Q

readereader cautioned what might truecase east hsinfanhsingan province might same wescwestvestnorth south mongol provinces however pattern administration

generally similar35

ibid36

aberle op02 cit

66

man family banner leaders received formal training

occasional indoctrination lectures given provincial meetings fj37

banner headquarters never removed upon re-

lease banner leader neither ramagtamagtama 9 seal office

ever retained him kept provincial headquarters

level authority banner leader subjected whims

japanese councillor although theoretically calling

councillor presumably advise banner leader technically au-

thority above latter restricted authority ban-

ner

ban-

nor leader relationship advisor explained aberle

japanese advisor veto action leaderwithholding own seal official papers advisor

initiate independent action lines communic-ation rigidly bureaucratic banner leader comm-unicate province manchukuoManchu kuo govern-ment 38

0

unlike attitude toward former chinese officials mongolsmongels

regarded banner leader provincial governor due respect then

too people obviously ease mongol officials

chinese whom feared perhaps

chief reasons caused dagorsdagons generally

known being excessively docile lacking proper nationalist spirit

incite minor insurrection algainstagainst chinese during period39disorder imimmediatelyediatelymediatelyediaedlately prior japanese occupation avealtarealtareaadea

banner office like provincial level divided

three bureaus general affairs civil affairs police affairs

latter perhaps incorporated sometime 1938 apparently each

37aberle37aberle op cit p 93

38ibid38ibid ppap 939493 94

39 ibid p go90

67

40these bureaus responsible respective offices chalan tun

provincial headquarters provincial level each these

bureaus divided heads bureaus mongolsmongels nearly offi-

cials five banner offices staffed mongolsmongelsMongols

general banner offices dealt matters concerning educa-

tion public peace tax collection work levies banner offices

hand assisting administration japanese sponsored edu-

cationalcat ional system outlined mongolsmongelsMongols program

part nationally financed 41 banner level police court

level authority below nonognotog ononsokons banner

fiveve notogsr105rios hotopnotognotop refers territory within nomadic unit425pastures moves camps nonognotog leader chosen prominent

citizens notas confirmed banner selection

usually based local prestige office located

hotopnotognotop capital centrally situated larger village unit

although nocor given considerable authority littlelattitudelatti tude action officially received orders above trans-

mitted them lower elhelonsechelonselhel ons matters concerning draft registration

collection taxes etc unofficially act spokesman

villagers certain matters whenever japanese demands became too onerous

next unit authority below nonognotog macan

nature gacadgacaa given aberle

understand gacadgacaa must recall naturebagordagor settlements effective kinship administrative

40manchoukuo year book 1942 op cit p 156

41ibidtibid p 94

42 personal communication lattimore aberle aberle opeltlitsiteitcitelt p 96

68

BANNER administration

banner

councillor

chief

bureau police bureau civil bureauaffairs affairs general affairs

education taxation administraAdminis trationsection section section

public special police accounting generalpeace affairs affairs section affairssection section section section

moko Taltaitalkantalkanjbalkankanjmansrans 2opT cit p 249

69

unit mokonbokon give residential clusterappeared single village subareas oftenseries mokonbokon set contiguous mokonbokon co-nstituted gacaagacad each subdivision constituted ayi

particular village included unit part434gacadgacaa

duties gacadgacaa leader similar thealayi1leader below him however extent differences

clearly ascertained aberleaberlesaberley informant

PYayiaxi1 leader invariably young man perhaps thirty appointed

bv notognonogog leader unlike superiors received salary rank

low much work expected him

gacaagacad many functions ayisylsyi leader

responsible 1 keeping census draft purposes 2

sending draft registrations papers nonognotog 3 collecting taxes

grain fur etc tax apportioned local national functions

4 controlling travel permits latter perhaps technique44political control

moreover among above responsibilities ayisyi leader levied

labor railroad work supervised confiscation certain types

45arms distributed rationed goods enrolled children school etc

spite many functions ayilyleziexl leader neither office

space nor seal however call village meeting communicate

nonognotog under certain conditions banner

logging principal industry came under japanese control

goods subject rationing war time conditions aillsayllsayi

43 ibid p 97

44ibid POp 98

45 since hunting livelihood many dagonsdagors peopleonos area permitted retain guns

70

responsibility increased commensurately under conditions Mayi1

leader perhaps transmit japanese demands people46dared protest least considered andiantiandl japanese

lamaismlama ism

before delving japanese attempts fostering pan buddhism

necessary note briefly historical background lamaism

relationship tibet manchu dynasty chinese republic

soviet russia context japanese attempted pan

buddhist movement

unlike japanese notmanchunoc manchu nor chinese nor russian

policy further cause lamaism among mongolsmongelsMongols japanese

context useful japanese purposes promote pan buddhism

movement conform japanese imperialism

lamaism first introduced mongolia urga during

sixteenth century tibet mecca lamaism perhaps rea-

son charles bell prefers call lamaism mongoliasmongollasmongolianMongoliasgollas fltibetanfltibetan buddhismBuddhIsTWI

mongol buddhism asserts mongolsmongelsMongols like tibetansTibe tans

probably resent use t1termterm lamaism implying reli47

gion buddhism study however shall use

term lamaism reference tibetan buddhism mongol buddhism

seventeenth century manchusdanchus considered mongolsmongels

allies joint conquest china aware great

46ibid pop 99

477 charles bell struggle mongolia reprintjournal royal central asian society XXIV january 1937 p 51

71

ness yuan dynasty under mongolsmongelsMongols therefore restrictpossibility rise mongol power manchusdanchus supported power

great lamas against princes order split mongelsmongols

factions 011488

like manchusdanchusManchus chinese russian actions toward lamaism

exploitation during republic chinese officials collusion

lamaist monasteries exploited triballandsballandstritrltribal lands

just princes frequently sacrifice interestsspecial privileges fixed revenues monasteries pre-serve corporate existence privilegeshierarchy tend show influence side 49chinese theland passes under chinese administration

outer mongolia monasteries since beginning soviet take-

over 1921 subjected severe soviet oppression restrictions

lamaism institution de popularized divested power

50social political economic force early 1930s

soviet political purges destruction monasteries forced collec-

tivization hundreds mongol refugees including religious political51leaders fled eastern mongolia inner mongolia

1935 thirteenth dalai lama made following statement

present time five kinds degenera-tion countries worst class mannerworkingCD among red communist people do allowsearch made new incarnation grand lama

urga seized taken away sacred ob

48ftlattimore inner mongolia chinese japanese mongol pacificaffairs X march 1937 65

49lattimore manchuria cradle conflict new york macmillan1932 p 127

50gerard M friters outer moncmonrmongolia7 olla international positpositionionlonbaltimore johns hopkins 1949 ppap 299301299 301

51robert rupen mongelsmongolsmon olsois twentieth century part I1 bloom-

ington indiana university press 1964 ppap 227228227 228

72

jectsejects che monasteries made monks worksoldiers broken religion even

52name remains

therefore soviet well chinese blunder invitation

japanese militaristsmilitarisms implement positive approach mongolian

rereligiousI1 I1 gi ous quesquestiontijapanese idea pan buddhism did begin occupation

eastern mongolia during russo japanesewarjapanese warvar 1904051904 05 japan-

ese associated lamas monasteries war bhe

japanese invited thirty high lamas dignitaries japan discuss

priests hlgashihonghigashi hongwanjiwanjibanji buddhist leaders concerning ques

53tion pan buddhism since lamaist buddhism japanese buddhism

mahanayanaMahanayana school compatibility areas possible

hoped 1918 attendance seventeen lamas buddhist

association mongolia japan hichinichichiMomichimomichicoMi mo Bukkbuklcyokaibukkyokaizokalyokai organized

then 1919 association changed buddhist association

asia founding mukden agency promotion education

between japanese mongol students 54 190219211902 1921 kudo tetsusaburoTetsusaburo

ventured far Chingchinghaihalghaighaly western inner mongolia audience

living buddha labrang monastery objective

collect funds purpose financing troops restoring world

ching manchu dynasty55553days ching dynasty

during 1930s 1940s japan considered communism menace

52ibid quoted

53 reglregiregionalal handbook inner mongolia autonomous regloregioregion 02cit p 288

54ibid55ibidtibid ppap 288289288 289

73

imperialistic aims therefore lamaismLamaismt properly exploited

aid japanese combating communism ideologically during

advance inner mongolia 1937 japanese spread propaganda

renaissance buddhism tried organize actively na-

tionalistictionalistic church including declaration holy war against communism 11565

1930s1930ts japanese terms reform took steps solve

religious question lamaism education important facet

japajapanesenesenose imperialistic policy geared 1 raise standard

lamaist clergy respectable leveltlevellevei even risk relegating thou-

sands monksmonths status laymen 2 eradicate lamaism

shamanistic elements 3 perfect lamaism efficient corporate

structure 4 effecteffectaeffects harmony ethics philosophy between

57lamaist buddhism japanese buddhism

however attempt reform lamaist religion eastern mongolia

simple since seventeenth century custom having

young boys join celibate priesthood attributed removal 5058male population reproduction alsosalsotaiso promiscuousness among lower

5059monks especially spread syphilis became scourge during

japanese occupation medical relief parties time time sent60Nonmonmongoliangolian areas assist controlling epidemic doctors make

rugen5upentdupentrupen pj02 cit P 227

571bide571ibidbidebida pop 228

58beissigheissigissig p 59

59ibid59ibid see lattimore irinnerinnerifinner mongolia chinese japanesemonmongolol sopjopsod cit 65 lamas never worry vow celi-

bacy want women frequentlyfind them many places worst agencies spread-

ing syphilis serious factor low mongol birth ratehigh rateofrathofrate child mortality

60 anchoukuo1janchoukuoanchoukuo year book 1942 OTop cit p 686

74

61shift hospitals assisted treating mongol patients depopulation

decline traditional mongol aggressiveness generally attributed

these factors years many abuses corruption shamanistic

practices within lamaist institution made unpopular especially

among princes young intellectuals desired reform reli-gion shiro yoda 1936 vice minister mongolian ad-

ministration having jurisdiction mongolsmongels manchukuoManchukuo indicated

superstitious political nonreligiousnon religious elements mona-

steries devitalized mongolian people time interview

T steele yoda explained japanese attempt purify vital-

ise

vital-

ize Lamaislamaistfc institution

limited number mongolsmongels permittedenter priesthood those do required mai-ntain high standards learning line purificationprocess sent ten mongol lamas japan wherestudying japanese buddhism churches lamaistictrend others follow them 0

62

reform lamaist religion eastern mongolia difficult63AI

task 1936 example verewore 17876 monks 283 monasteries

since each family contributed two boys monkhood moreover

since people tere bound lamaist religion consolidated effort

implement reform futile reason among others

may 22 1938 department welfare 11singkinghsingkingHsingking called meeting

japanese buddhist representatives manchoukuo lama priests64counsel advice ft result buddhist national union organized

included lama priesthood four 11singanhsinganhsinfan provinces

61 Ilellelietletieileissiglleissigfleissigissig op cit p 65

62mej

steele op02 cit p 496

beissig63heissigheissigissig cmop cittaittct p 80

64ibid

75

auaugustwustvust 163091516153030930 1938 seventy young lamaist monks sent

Hs inking indoctrination later sent japan same65

purpose earlier 1934 japanese already sent thirty young

manchurian mongol lamas japan two year course study perhaps

indoctrination suitable term 1936 seven vere

sent these monimonks those inner mongolia11ronvon olia between ages twenty66thirty according japanese intelligence reports young men

67age group selected favored reform thus

acceptable japanese under program indoctrination

expenses chethobhobhe students paid japanese government

68aq&qsalary given them 1939 exchange progprogramramyramg fifty japanese

69buddhist scholars sent monasteries remote mongolian areas

another japanese objective bring lamaist liturgy closer ja-panese buddhist liturgy

prior march 1939 japanese militaristsmilitarisms unlike mongol

laymen made serious attempt conscript lama monicsmonies mili-

tary service during confrontation soviet outer mongol 1935-

1936 plans invasion outer mongolia 1939 japanese

militaristsmilitarisms might often though draw monasteries potenipoteni

tiai manpowerman power available dilemma whether take action

found lamaist beliefs four hsinfanhsingan11singan provinces possible

exception those tungusic tribes northern part gan

65651bidibid66bell op cit p 58

67paul V hyer lamaist buddhism japanese policy mongoliaunpublished M thesis university california 1953 p 68

deildelibell op cit69reissigissig op cit p 81

76

70river killing animals even insects taboo rea-

son shamanistic beliefs japanese hesitant call

conscription lamaist clergy result con-

scription until march 1 1939 official agreement reached

february meeting between representatives manchukuoManchukuo government

living buddha including ten subordinates representing

lamas according Japajapaneseneset agreed lamas re-

pented attitude evading conscription done here-

tofore 177171l71evil doctrine custom

primary objective japanese pan buddhism promote

education lamaist clereierelecclergycy particularly young therefore

I1governmentI1 sponsorship lamaist students japan trek japan-

ese scholars monasteries eastern mongolia inner mongolia

1 teach promote reform 2 set ground work lamaist

national church whose doctrines bo purified conform much

possible japanese buddhist theology rut program hampered

71japanese attempt simultaneously secularize many lamas

moreover japanese pan yelonlelonmongolgoigol movement japanese defeat

monhan 1939 decisive defeat 1945 kwantungKwan tung army ended

japanese dream successfully exploiting buddhism even though many

monks might resentment japanese attempts purify

religion subject them military conscription them especiaspeci73ally higher hierarchy regarded japanese protectors lamaism

70beissigheissigissig op02 cit ppap 798079 80

71lyerayer1 1yeryf OP cit p 88

72regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous region op

eltgitsit p 274

73rupon73rupenRupon op cit91cit p 228

77

education

japanese militaristsmilitarisms promoted secular education order

imimplementplementclement japanese imperialistic aimsalms japanese attempts re educate

lamaist monks respect religion step

direction hoping develop mongol military talent japanese estab-

lished 74ithe rsinganhsinganhsinfan military academy wangyehmiao july 1934 cap-

able 75mongol leaders recruited trained military discipline artsbackbone army graduates later serve mongolian

76corps manchukuoManchukuo army

effort educate mongelsmongols order raise socio-

economic status expressed shiro yoda mongolian administration

department inkinghsinkingheinkingHs 1936

iletle trying convert mongolsmongels nomadicsettled way life 6 making old feudal

system government ruling princes being re-placed qualified young magistrates princes provethemselves unfit hold office under manchoukuosmanchoukuots stringentcivil requirements 77

1936 314 schools hsinfanhsingan provinces mo-

ngolianolian established taught official language accordance

japanese tradition strict attendance enforced 7078 lamas

trained japan literate elders wore selected teachers edu79cation mongol pupils

74rapenupen op cit p 227 manchoukuo year book 1942 op cit pop 3383380

75moko balkantaikantalkanI1 op02 cit p 267

761bidibid

77steele77steele op02 cit p 496

78aaft7ft regional handbook inner mongolia autonomous region op

litciteideld p 275

79ibid

78

following japanese source shows number mongol

school children primary schools each hsinfanhsingan provinces

1938 west hsinfanhsinganHs ingan 111434 south hsinfanhsingannslnglanHs ingan 30312 east hsinfanhsinganllsinganHs insaningan 473580

north hsinfanhsinganHs ingan 4891 normal schools established

south hsinfanhsingan east hsinfanhsinganHs ingan agriculture schools81pi

provinces 1941 samesane year south hsinfanhsingan girls

higher national school established likewise provinces except

north hsinfanhsinganilsinganIlslis ingan boys vocational school south 11singanhsinganhsinfan girls82vocational school founded

what do above figures indicate mongolsmongels

first time opportunity mass education though extensive

freely given boast chinese republic never made

lifted fron illiteracy given opportunity educa-

tion mongol11 pupils according yoda quoting steele inter83OQ

viewer taken education vim enthusiastic reaction

similarly noted haslund

lads dressed sort cadet uniform facesconvince myself really mongelsmongols soon

lesson hflunglung themselves upon me

stream eager11 questions

similarly interview buryatbulyat mongol officer hailar 1935

charles bell quotes officers favorable comment

our condition under japan splendid hitherto our peo-ple lain darkness now foot

8 0manchoukuomanchoukuo year book 1942 op citjcitcitycita pop 655

kiblekibldibid p 659

821bid821bidibid p 660

3301steele op02 cit p 496

84quoted regional handbook inner mongolia autonomousregion op cigojcitojcit p 275

79

staircase beginning climb proper schoolsestablished learn taught first read

write our own language well arithmetic etc thenthose clever taught japanese manchouganchou lan-guage well chinese english 85

early phase japanese occupation definite problem

japanese bureaucrats find educated mongolsmongels fill national

provincial posts among educated though few number

those east south hsinhsinfanhsingan Droprovincevince north west hsinfanhsingan

provinces problem illiteracy acute since chinese edu-

cationalcat ional system inadequate therefore beginning

chinese scribes employed work official documents east

Hsinhsinfanhsinganhsintantanlan province administrative posts wereheldheld86educated dagdagorbagor 11llonilonfontonllongolszolsgolszoisolsois few by low ranking chinese officials

until 1941 civil service mongol officials apparently87begun

however under japanese educational system mongolsmongels hada8800range opportunities opened unknown since 1911

result effective establishment schools 1932 1945 many

trained younyoung men well older men job opportunities seen

japanese sponsoredsponsoroclocieci inner 1mongolian11 tonlongolian autonomous government especially

among ambitious ones went japan receive university train-

ing impact japanese sponsoredsponsorec education without doubt disrupted

traditional mongol society same time gave young mongolsmongels

new hope success

85bellbell op cit p 58

86aberle op cit p 929392 93

0787ibid p 92

88tbidibid p 100

80

spite japanese imperialistic ambitions important con-

tributivetribu tive factor helping japanese relations educational policy

mongol people perhaps too mongolsmongels understood clearly

depredations former undisciplined chinese masters contrasted

somewhat policies japanese

concordia association

following successful overthrow odtheoftheche manchu dynasty 1911

new chinese republic inaugurated five striped flag symbolizing

union five races MongmongolsmongolstmongelsMongolsolstbolsoist manchusmanchussjanchusManchusschus tibetansTibe tans moslems chi89tqaq

nese Howhovhoweverevert chinese nationalist party during peak

power 192719311927 1931

discarded five barred flag symbolizing union racettracestracesundertook impose chinese standards MongmongolsmongolstmongelsMongolsolstgoisoist

tibetansTibe tans moslems under control within reachpropaganda intention transforming them allsalltalisaliwhether liked chinese speaking chinese090thinking chinese

again profiting chinese lack insight japanese masterroaster

planned concordia association aptjptjp kyowakaiKyowakai ch kung ho hulhuihut 1932

symbolizing same chinese aim 1911 overall objective

integrate harmony five races chinesetChichineseneset manchusdanchusManchus mongelsmongolsMongols ja-panese koreans gain loyalty races

principles wangtaoyangtao kodo relation manchukuoManchukuo japan respec-

tively 91

special arm government manchukuoManchukuo concordia

association actively reorganized 1936 naoki Hoshroshhoshinoinosinot following

89lattimore mongolsmonglsmonges manchuria 020op citecitocitppcitooppeoppaoppe 1001011001010100loo loie1010lole101loi

901goi901bidibidbid p 103

91manchoukuo year book 1942 op cit p 759

81

japanese german anti comintern pact year then92director general general affairs board manchukuoManchu kuo nature

organization explained charles spinks

single state controlled political partystate employees must belong party members wear military

like uniform salute each drill generally carryfashion nazi party 933

besides aldingaimingalminaaidingad4d create racialharmonyracial harmonyhardony amongC races through concorcolcor

dia association kwantungKwan tung army sought maintain political party

rather several

concordia association body strives in-vest powers political parties parliamentary gov-ernmentsernments attack administrative politicsgovernment 94

then almaimeimelm concordia association bring racial groups

harmony political policy central government

concordia association nearly segments

nf95population persuaded join located capital city

Hs11 sinkinginking affiliated headquarters found each hsien prefecture96district banner equivalent chinese hsien city

92charlescharies92 charles nelson spinks man behind I1 n japan asiaamericasamerlamoriameri cagcas XLIII april 1943 p 218 capacity hoshino politico economic boss state superior being commander

kwantungKwan tung armyarny

930 ylliibid11111111. ppap 218219218 219 john stewart gives impression useuniform those join arc entitled wear uniform great many

do result manchuria swarms people military uniform justordinary khaki distinguishing11 steinrstinr ui shin marks buttons gives im-pression people newly comocome place overrun soldiers

overrun people find concordia association uni-form much cheaper ordinary chinese clothes doesdocs

way distindistinguishulsh them fellows extremely econ-omical saves ood dealclealdeaioealcleai time 11 see john stewart manchuria

1logaytodayloday2 intelinternationalnational affairs XX january 1944 7094

N anchoukuoanchoukuo year tlbookjookdooksooksooh 1942 op02 cit p 76395johnjohn stewart manchuria1114anchuria today international affairs op02 cit961nianchoukuomanchoukuo yearyoaccar dook 194211942 op cit p 759

82

among tht e concordia associationsAssociationts various educational functions

important youth traynintrainingtralnin program 1942

seventy yoyouthuth training schools 7000 graduates according97japanese limit training instruction purpose given

followsf

these schools students during period threemonths live under guidance teachers sent centralheadquarters receive roupgroupscoup spiritual militarytrainingC well academic instruction may

OPdevelop useful citizens 70

another youth program training camps established 1937

since then prior 1942 total fifty training camps

30000 997organized completing program object

program graduates these camps return towns

villages civic leadersloaders mightnight promote aimsalms

100looconcordia association

example japanese effort among mongolsmongels expe-

rience masamorimasanori aradaharadahatadaII japanese civilian manchuria

brief assignment eitwiteltwitlithewiththelithe concordia association central headquarters

Hsli sinkinginking september 16 1931939 I1laradalaradelaraevaadvaaera informed december 20

newnow assignment linhunglintunlincunLindinhungtunghuntun y west ai1iHssiningantyancyan remote region near inner

mongolian border uhen arrived lintunglindungLintung vereworevocevece thirty ja-

panese later hundred youth training center

vicinity banner headquarters called naga-

matsu head administrator following day reported con

971bidibid p 759

98ibid

99ibid p 764

100loomanchoulroVl anchou 0 o year bookook p 76764

83

cordia association banner headquarters replaced general ishihara101loitransferred csinkhsinkKs inkingY

Haharadaradasradesnades primaryTrltri mary responsibility organize youth training

program young mongelsmongolsMongols well chinese koreans

area helped train fifty yoxyotyoungnr men them mongelsmongolsMongols Haradasassignment organize youth groups taught how raise

level food production eeliveilwell how purge villages

criminal elements

besides work youth training program harada took time

between trainintraining sessions travel outlying villages help or-

ganize youth groups methods irrigation raising crops

planting trees 102

despite imperialistic aims concordiascordiasconcordialCon proprogramgramt

mongelsmongolsmonaols saw tanctangibleibleibie efforts foreign power striving better

standard living even risk disrupting traditional

way life 1941 however exigencies war disrupted whatever

further progress japanese i made experimentation

better mongolsmlonrolsfmongelsMongolsgois lot

economy industry

during occupation japanese 1930s1930ts economy

11ongolslongolsmoneonLonsolsgolssois manchuria basically pastoral semipastoralsemi pastoral

pastoral steppe economy common livelihood those mongol tribes

lived vast steppestoope land barga region these barga mongelsmongolsMongols

mixednixed group burcatsburyatsBuryats dadagonsdagorsors well eastern western mongelsmongols

mainly nomadic herdersgerders lived very muchmichaichalch like forefathers

101loimasanoriasanormor 171karedaharadalareda7 eagawagaaa kanmomannoranno 1711111nikki71 ki tokyo FrinKinAnsxinkinseishaanselshaeishaseishaelsha 1962 p 61

1021bid1021ibidbidbieble pn 62

848

raisindalsinraising breebreedincbreedingdinc cattle sheepsheepy horses cows camels

1031 03livelihood importance steppe nomadic lifemongelsmongols1ionaols shown follows

sheep provide meat milk skins wool steppesdeserts camelscanellscanelas hair used clothing combined

wool mahonakomakemabomabe felt yurtsburts monmongolol dwellingsmares milk important part 0 F 1mongol diet fer-mented used makemahe arakalarakhl mild alcoholic beverage

distilled1 potent forms horseessential 11mongelsmongolsMonlonkongoisgolsolsois ilfelifelifill herd animals hunt

fight go anywhere longest shortestdistance mongol111ongol rides horseback horse gaveImongelsmongolsiongols mobility necessary pastoral nomad life

made possible military calvary units organizedthese horsemen steppe wealth power mongolsociety estimated size animal herds es-peciallypeci ally number horses much greatereconomic military use required lora1011loda

hand bagordagor mongelsmongolsllonlgols nonni river area east

great 111hsinfanhsingan1singan1 mountains semipastoralsemi pastoral economy based

farming supplemented logging hunting herding small105amount fishing

since beginning twentieth century I1 discussed

earlier destructive effects chinese colonization railway con-

structionst affected adversely Imongol economy particularly

steppe nomadic area norther joholbohol besides encroachingencroachinl upon mongelsmongolsMongols

self sufficiency chinese criedtriedtric force mongolsmonpolsmongels becomebacome farmers 06uo

lattimoreLatti moro assertsassorts chinese farmers tradition

103 rejRefreflogalregionalreflonallonalionallonai handbook inner monmongoliaoliaoltaoita autonomous resirezireslregion0OTop cit PT ios101los10 32

ioa104loa10franz II11 Yllnichaelmichaelchael anoane george E taylor far east

modern orldtatorldorid mowmewnowcw york henry holt 1956 ppap 575857 58

105loo reregionallo10na 1 Jhandbook1 andibandia 0 ol01 1ehe1lneinqahe1he inner mongolia autonomous regionop cit9citcita p 10

charies106charlescharlos106logcharles buss tho far easttastpastE new york macmillan 1955 p 473

8535

107aptitude livestock raising typify unwise chinese ex-

ploitation mongol14ongol lands lattimore relates first rate pasture land

ploughedsloughedploughed under crops exhausted within few years blowing

away top soilsoll unproductive either farmingi103rqaq

pasture

although first japanese promised mongolsmongels

lands protected future chinese colonization japanese

themselves soon infringe upon self sufficiency mongelsmongolsMongols

T japanese saw possibilities increasing improving breeds

mongolian livestock therefore made ambititious plans them

kwantungKwantung armyarny especially interested procuring ample supply

109loggood horses mules military purposes however japanese

samesane time realizing livestock source wealth did

neglect provide mongolsmongels assistance pastoral indus-

try 110iloiiomeans improving flocks herds

mongoltongol areas barga region west hsinfanhsingan province

provided mongolianlonTongolian cattle holunbierholunblerHolunblerbier district chief supplier

horses accordinaccordingaccordia manchoukuo year book 1942

1800000 horses Mlanmanchuriachuriachurla included those non mongol areas

too number substantial comcomparedared 1448481 horses

III111lililiraised japan thich little half size manchuria

number goatsoats raised manchuriainnanchuria leading province jeholdehol fol

107 lattimore 11mongols1ongolsmongels Manmanchuriachurlachuria op02 cit p 22

iob100lob ibiblciI1 e

109tont109log0jonesTOnt op cit p 18

110iloiio

liimianchoukuovanchoukuo year book 1942 op02 cit Tp 452

86

ovedowed west hsihainanhsinanngan province4I1northorthnorehocth alidano 1hestvest170 t bisinbasinhsinfanhsingang pprovincesrov nc w r

chief producers camel less scale south nsinganhslngan jeholdehol

provinces however 12800 camels number

I1graduallyradually decreasing soaesonene 19651965900poo900moo head sheep chiefly raised112119four hsinfanhsingan provinces since wool mongolian sheep

inferior quality japanese made attempts improve breed

experimenting imported 11merino corriedale superior113strains object sufficiently supply japanese

woolen industry mongolianoti iol wool instead australian apparently

venture proved chimerichimericalcalicall ilg114

hith introduction brodermodernmrodern scientific methods including

work veterinary institutes combat animal deseasesdiseasesdes eases experimental

work sheep farms 514714iionolongoiongos pastoralistspastora lists received benefit

endeavors I1however1loveverwevervaver teach new improved techniques people

accustomed conservative time proven methods

easy task tynis tact persuasion necessary

tact patiencetience towardswardis peoples whom position dominate

115qualities chicwhic few japanese apt exhibit

forested area east IITssinaningan japanese interest

procurement woodbooctooc deecneecneededneecedcd especially railway ties telephone tele-

graphic poles did henderongendergenderbenderengenderen favornblfnvornbq1 dzitordzigordaor jajapanesepanes e relations

daorsdagorsdagons dideliddiodloolid protprolproducealicclicc surplus foor depended sale furs

forestlorest products tat1 livelihood eith incursion japanese

112bidl1121I1 bid11311

11lanchojanchochoir ttouotio year 1500do ok 1942 OT cit p 45555

jones cit9citacit tp 67067

15 ibid1 b i d

8737

lozlogloggingins enterprises losinglogging became dominant economic factor116ilgsustenance

corporation boodwoodjood procurement head office 11Hs inkingsinking

controlled wood cutting wood prices through banner procedure

result losslogglosingintiny enterprise administered banner office

experience aberleyaberles mongol informant follows

order go loggingQ Z 131171ury necessary Cget licensebanner inform corporation how many people

0goingolnoin nartiparticularcular lologgingac0c inf party leaderparty then recereceivedivolivelivos noneymoneymoncy least important clothesmatcmajcmatches1 es cicigarettesirettes hard getgot war-time toolsattoolsat low regulated price logs once cutcuc

brought dodomndonddowndonnnn river raft countedcorporationCorDoration office then tastalbakentakenbahenloonloenicon tsitsihartsitsilharTsitsihar two monthsilaterater payment governmentally regulated rate given

lologinloggingg party led individual familymeans transtransporttransoortdortoort fecifeedfeel tiletiie1 7workers during lo10loggingng

season profits wont 1halfalflaif tic organizeranizeragnizer andhalfloggers official rate paynayay logsC low comparedvithW L i black market rate tleliareelicrearoqro always black ma-rketingketing117117

exploitation possible mineral deposits sig

nigicant japanese accomplishment although japanese plan called

possible development resources reported john stewart118libtipIIPtin1940 doubtfulcoubtfful hechezheadwayrid1w ty made

notwithstandinnotwithstanding elexploitation mongol livestock logging

industry further own ends japanese unlike chinese triedmake compensation 1mongol111on ol losses lands example

achieve permanent settlement tinctine veveningvexingveringing conflicts land between

chinese mongelsmongolsylongolsMongoisgols Japajapanesenosoneso evacuated dagonsdagors east batahabatada

east nonnikonni river west however dolndoindoing japanese

116ilgaberle enaop cit P0 95

amslmsl

ll11ito110131

john R stclsteartstcartStcartaart7art manchoukuo announces lionilontionmongolol program fareastern surveyy IXZ1.1 february 28 1940 556060

88

119compensated them loss lands another example

194011940 f-riction between mongolsmongels chinese special

monmongolol areas jeholdehol anclanci chine h ow moreover rapid influx chi-

nese settlers due railway construction expansion coal mining

made necessary japaneseTadanesepanese liquidate mongolsimiongolsmongels lands began

120januaryT 1 1940 japanesejavanese plans compensate mongolsmongels com-

mented john stewart

where pressure mongolsmongelsionbor1or oisols resultedopening land public use 15 mionmongolol princes

eight bankbarkbantbarknessbannersbarknersnetsners receive bonds annual sub-sidiessidi1loslessos compensation loss privileges

report already paid 1116000000receive additional m2480000m294301100 121

sum notwithstanding japanese efforts compensate mongol

losses improve economyl22economy 22 anti japanese sentiment gradually rose

japanese economic demands became firmer 123 however never

124i f fseemed grown serious proportion

ilgII11 Q

aberle op cit pep 90

120stewart manchoukuoivianchoulcuo announces mongol procprogramyram op cit 59-60

121121bid1 bid p 60

122 tajtbjibio1

12 aberle3aberlegaberleabcrle 0 cit p 109

ir12 jones oo00op cit p 60

CHAPTER V

SUMMARYSUMIMARY conclusion

order reader better understand mongol question

during japanese period 193119451931 1945 author showed his-

torical precedents infinfluencediuenluenluencenluencedced japanese expansion

asian continent recounted following russo japanese war 1904-

1905 ambitious buddhist priests militant nicherencherenNi sect made

contacts eastern western mongolsmongels toward pan buddhist

idea

fall manchu dynasty 1911 self determination

became obsession eastern western outer mongol nationalist

leaders taking advantage situation russian chinese

suppression mongol autonomous aspirations japanese through semenov

atteattemptedmoted establish pan mongolian state 1919 however move-

ment unsuccessful mainly nonsupportnon support kolchaskolchakskonchaskoiKol chaschaks white

russian regime urga government jebtsundamba khutukhtu

1920s1920 unwise russian chinese policies alienated

mongelsmongolsMon gols religious political purges forced collectivization

forth outer 111ongoliamongolia under soviet rule led number refugees

flee inner eastern mongolia chinese aggrandizement mongol

lands economy system innermlongoliainner mongolia furthered mongol animosity

against chinese

result mongolian desire autonomy became intensified

courseycourselcourse rebellious course never ever tolerated either

89

90

russians chinese until 1932 following manchurian

incident mongol aspirations seriouslyitseriously considered ja-

panese realized formation fl autonomousautonomously mongol region

eastern mongolia advantage therefore 1932 ja-

panese created hsinfanhsingan province eastern mongolia later subdivided

north hsinhsinfanhsinganHs insaningan south hsinfanhsinganHs ingan west hsinfanhsinganHs ingan east hsinganhsinfan

provinces governors these provinces appointed manchukuoManchu kuo gov-

ernmenternment theoretically responsible emperor through office

hsinfanhsingan affairs government manchukuoManchu kuo office hsinfanhsingan

affairs headed11headee mongol directed mongol affairs hsinfanhsingan pro-

vinces mongol banners outside jurisdiction provinces

office served liaison between hsinfanhsingan11singan provinces

central government key positions central provincial

banner governments mongol heads advised japanese councillor

actual administration hands latterearly period japanese occupation eastern mongolia

JajapaneseDanese careful makenake drastic changes

traditional monmongol001011oilolioll society voldavoidavoldvoid losing support

maongMlongmongelsmongolsmlongolsMongoisgolsaoisolsois japanese permitted limlimitedleeiiteIleel autonomy manchu dynasty

traditionally done

whole japanese success bagor mongolsmongels

nonni river vaileyvalley those barga region former

eceere educated reasonsteasonreason tat1bhelie japanese depended latter

rulifullfiillruil administrative posts ehetho nc 71yly created mongol provinces

sisignificancenificance che J establishment manchukuoManchu kuo

republic 1932 constitutiolconstitutionconst aitiontitionti tion n1 l monarchy 1934 solicitsupport 01L

7 eastern Yaongmongelsmongolsyaongolsolsois whose traditional allegiance man

91

chu emperors known ideologically japanese patterned politi-

cal philosophy central governiriqntgovernrment conform concepts

waniyangtaowangtaovitao kodo advocated tradition loyalty emperor

stumbling blocks japanese promotion pan mongolismmongol ism

soviet russia formidable power china weak nevertheless

threat although sovetsoviet russia forced retreatsphere influence north mianchurmanchuria military drive

kwantungKwantung army early 1930s determined relin-quish preeminentpre eminent position outer mongolia far soviet russia

concerned outercuter mongolia111ongoilagolia buffer protect

eastern frontier japanese attack serve buffer against

towinggrowingrowing nationalism china moreover11oreover communized outer mongolia

base operations soviets future make power

influence feltfoilfeit northeast asia

far japanese wore concerned eastern mongolia base

operations basically important politically militarily japan-

ese agents penetrate inner mongolia outer mongolia

creation hsinganhsinfan mongol cavalry 1932 establishment

hsinfanhsingan mongol academy 1934 supestivesuPsucsurestCYestiveve future expansion

1936 hailar key military base mindful japanese military

buildupbuild soviet russia too mobilized soviet mongol forces

expanded combat readiness outer mongol air force

probing enemy defenses along17 outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border

early 1930s japanese soon faced soviet outer mongol

borderhorder patrols lnuinolnumerouswousrous minorninon skirmishes between japanese hsinfanhsingan

mongol soviet cuter mongol troops along outer mongolia border

common occurrence 1935 conference held menchManchmanchulimanchlullManchulilullchullquilquli border

92

town eastern mongolia settle dispute question border

demarcation since japanese russians differed objectives

conference ended abortively duringC conference hsinfanhsinganC mongol

delegates puppets tho japanese outer mongol delegates

russians

few months manchullmanchulimatchullMannanchulichull conference kwantungKwan tung army ar-

rested prominent finganhsingansingan1

1 mongol high officials alleged charges

conspiracy turn barga region russians noted although

full details execution iga19119366 mongolian governor ling

sheng compatriots cannot ascertained time

indications ling sheng framed result inci-

dent commentators speculated possibility soon

stir anti japanese movement alalthough mounting anti

japanese feeling defeat japanese nomonhannoroonhanmonhan did result

insurrections

unlieunlikeunile retreating11 defensive attitude early

middle 1019301301s soviet policy 1939 counteroffensivecounter offensive battle

nomonhannnomonhanmonhanNNo year superior soviet strategy tactics modern

weaponry overwhelmed japanese forces moreover soviet german

nonaggressionaggressionnon pact 1939 peak soviet offensive nomon

han shocked japanese thereafter japan position pro-

voke USSR russianstusZus siansslans although overjoyed defeat

japanese datedarodaredazo continue offensive possibility

having fight teotwo froncfront war europe asia

great distance moscow eastern asia serious logistic

probproblemlern russians besides stalin concerned consolidating

power within russia 1939 until surrender japanese

93

forces 1945 general condition along outer mongol hsinfanhsingan border

stalemate

1937 emergence autonomous government kengchiangmengchiangmengehlanoMengchiang

inner mongolia indicative furthering japanese expansion west-

ern Imongolia these objectives 1 propagandize mongol ideal

pan monmongololismholismism 2 use 1kengchiangmengchianglengehiangMengnengay1ylengechianghiang base future japanese ex-

pansion outer mongolialonionbiorior yoli

essentially 71asterneastern inner 1mongelsmongols111ongols merely puppets

japanese policy without doubt mongoldmongolsongolsgoisgols resented

realized real power hands japanese however

mongelsmongolsMongols noted earlier did instigate concerted anti japanese

demonstrations rebellions during defeat japanese nomonhanmonhan

n 1939 even before annihilation kwantungKwan tungC1Iarmy 1945 al-

though japanese rule became increasingly demanding harsh exi-

gencies war made japanese control restrictions apparent mon

gols general felt better off under japanese rule

under chinese rule likely felt under soviet regime

japanese attempt modernize traditional mongol society

intended aid japanese program expansion terms

exploiting monmongolol questionqueston extend japans hegemony asian

continent attempt ended miserable failure however

conclusion author modemmodern foreign power given

taken less mongelsmongolsmonvlsmonvle 0moranjnrsn7nranjarantoran mongolsmongels ma-

nchuria during japanese period

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appleton john B stake north china asia XXXVI september 1936566574566 574

deatbeatbealdeaibeeldeel edwin G jr 1940 census manchuria far eastern quarterlyIV may 1945 243262243 262

bell charles struggle mongolia ft reprinted journalroyal central asian society XXIV january 1937 467246 72

98

bisson T outer mongolia new danger zone far east 1 I

foreign policy reports XI november 30 1935t1935 227236227 236

trend toward dictatorship japan foreignforeio polipollpoilpolicycyreports X february 13 1935t1935 31832831832318 323288

0 altheilthe dismemberment china foreign policy reports X

april 11 1934t1934 425242 52

byas hugh driftsrifts war clouds asia MXIVXXXIV september 1934521524521 524

chamberlain william H japans stake empire asia XXXV november1935 654661654 661

dorfman ben two years manchoukuo regime foreign policy reportsrerortsX september 12 193401934 170180170 180

manchurian incident 1931 11 harpers CLXI septem-ber 1934 44952449 52

dull paul assassination chang tso lin far eastern quarterlyquarterquerterII11 august 1952 55363553 63

duranty walter russia watches east well west asia XXXVI

february 1936 818581 85

ferrell robert H mukden incidentincidents september 18019 1931 journalmodem Histobistohistoryrysryt XXVII march 195591955 667266 72

field frederick V american far eastern policy 193119371931 1937 11 pacificaffairs X december 1937 377392377 392

friters gerard M prelude outer mongolian independence 911 pacific

affairs X june 1937 168189168 189

hanwell norman D japans inner mongolia wedge far eastern surveyssurveyVIII june 21 1939 147153147 153

hodges charles tin japan imperial way authorized interviewwar minister araki asia 34 february 1934 868786 87

hudson G F mongolia manchuria nineteenth centuryCXVII january june 1935 162171162 171

hume peter mongolsmongels under new orders journal royal asiansociety XXVIII july 1941 245255245 255

lattimore owen chinese colonization manchuria geographical reviewXXII april 1932 177195177 195

inner mongolia chinese japanese mongol pacific AfaffairsfairstX march 1937 647164 71

mongolia enters world affairs pacific affairs VII march1934 152815 28

99

lattimore owen wickedness being nomadstnomadsNomadnovadsmadsst asia XXXV octobersoctober1935 598605598 605

mongol destiny manchoukuo astagasiaasla XXXIV aprilaprils 1934208213208 213

outer mongolia frontiersfrontier forelforeignp Affairaffairssi XXIV july194611946 648660648 660

irrhearrhe phantom mengkukuo pacific Affairaffairsss X december 193701937419427419 427

cheittheatthe unknown frontier Mancmanchuriahurias foreign Afaffairsfairst II11january 1933 315327315 327

michael franz background fight mongolia contemporary reviewCLII september 1937 316324316 324

orchard dorothy J manchuria pattern new order eastasia asia XL january 1940 363936 39

ping shang chu spirit hsieh ho huihuthul concordia associationsassociation 111

pan pacific III111illtii october december 1939 283128 31

smallwood ii st C manchuriaManchurlaslag land promise japan society XXX

forty second session 1932331932 33 212721 27

snow edgar japan gates red Monmongoliagolias asia XXXVI Janujanuaryarys1936t1936 9139 13

spinks charles N man behind japan ysiayslaasiaastaasla Ameriamerlamericascass XLIIIapril 1914 218221218 221

steeleysteelesteeles T mongol border asia XXVI augustsaugust 1936 494502494 502

stewart john R manchoukuomanchoultuo announces mongol programprograms far easternsurvey IX february 28 1940t1940 586058 60

manchuria today international affairs XX january 1944688068 80

open door manchuria far eastern surveysurveys VI december1 1937q1937 271276271 276

timperley H F japan manchoukuo foreignaffairsforeign affairs XII Janujanuaryarys193411934 295305295 305

manchoukuo open door asia XXXV Janujanuaryarys 1935161816 18

walter ellery russia faces japan across manchoukuo asia XXXIV

june 1934 362365362 365

white oswald japanese administration korea manchuria journalroyal central asian society XXX january 1943 193619 36

100

yakhontoff victor mongolia target screenScreesereennV pacific affairs IXmarch 1936t1936 133313 33

documents

foreign relations united states 1931 vol illIII111liiili far eastwashington government printing officesofficeofflee 1946

foreign relations united states 1935 vol illIII111liiili washingtongovernment printing office 1953

foreign relations united states 1936 vol IV washingtongovernment printing office 1954

newspapers

ekins 11 E free mongolsmongels watch ponder new york times may 7

1933t1933 4

fisher sterling russia faces japan vast asian front newyork times april 5 1936 5

new york times august 6 1933

january 27 1935

april 19 1935

june 15 1935

july 7 1935

october 22122 1935

april 13 1936

april 15 1936

june 25 1939

july 14 1939

august 27 1939

unpublished materials

chen hsiaoeslao hsin development transition public administrationinner mongolia mengchiangmenlwhiangkengchiangMengchiang 1930 1945 unpublished MA

thesis department political science brigham young university1966

101

beissigheissigissig walter derper mongolischeMongolische kulturwandel den hsinfanhsingan provinzenprovindenmandschukuoamandschukuos unpublished doctoral dissertation der universitatwien 1941

hyer paul V lamaist buddhism japanese policy mongolia unpublishedMA thesis department history university california 1953

moses larry W battle nomonhan khalkhin golcolgoi unpublished man-uscript indiana university march 25925 1966

APPENDIX

MAPS

103

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APPENDIX B

CHARTS

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JAPANESEJAPADESE ATTEMPT SOLVE

MONGOL QUESTION MANCHURIA

193119451931 1945

abstract thesis

presented

department history

brigham young university

partial fulfillment

requirements degree

master arts

richard D kwak

august 1966

abstract thesisqthesis richard D kwak accepted

present form department history brigham young

university satisfying thesis requirements degree

master arts

ftchairman advisadvisorwadvisory committee01

toutopt VLr wernermemberaemberaemmer advfsadvisadvfsorycommiyommiammi ateettee

fchaiiimancha iman major department f

typed kerstin H kramer

following manchurianManchurlan incident september 18 1931t1931

subsequent occupation eastern mongolia northwestern manchuria

japanese faced crucial mongol question question it-self complex dealt problem governing

150000011500000 mongelsmongols vast nomadic region problem

winning support promotion japanese expansion

1932 contact mongolsmongels new japanese

early february 1919 japanese through collaboration semenov

sponsored dauria government 11 anti bolshevik pan mongol movement

however january 1920 movement ended abortively after-

math manchurian incident another opportunity arose japan-

ese chenchiatungchenchlatung toltoitoikatonteikatonToiTei katon february 18 1932 mongol leaders

various banners eastern mongolia gathered express de-

sire autonomy japanese promise autonomy protection fur-

ther chinese colonization aided winning support eastern

mongelsmongolsMongols shortly thereafter autonomous hsinganhsinfan province crea-

ted eastern mongolia within few years subdivided

north hsinganhsinfanHs ingan west hsinfanhsinganHs ingan south hsinfanhsingan east hsinganhsinfan provinces

each headedbyhead edby mongol governor 10 advised10advised japanese cou-

ncillor like government manchukuoManchu kuo these autonomous mongol pro-

vinces merely facades real administrators japanese

office 11singanhsinganhsinfan affairs liaison between central govern-

ment provinces provincial banner level nominal head

office mongol official

japanese saw traditional mongol society frus-

trate ambitious aims eastern mongolia Thereforthereforeeq decided

2

decided modernize society program reform education

played major role young lamaist monks sent japan indo-

ctrinationtrination schools established programs sanita-

tion medical services stockbreedingstock breeding farmingfanning etc instituted

context then said japanese made con-

tributiontribution general wellbeingwell being mongelsmongols long1ongiongbong pro-

grams promote development japanese imperialistic almsaims

however events 1930ts1930s presaged eventual military con-

frontationfrontation between japan soviet union 193291932 japanese

permitted hsinfanhsingan mongolsmongels own army hsinganhsinfan mongol

academy established wangyehmiaowangyehmiaoin 1934 193611936 massive

japanese military buildupbuild hallarhailar mobilization japanese

iisingan11singan mongol troops area saw commensurate buildupbuild

outer mongol air force fortifications mobilization soviet

outer mongol troops outer mongolia

ideally occupation outer mongolia enhance japanese

image possible benefactor pan mongolismmongol ism Hohoweverwevers soviet russia

determined defend preeminencepre eminence outer mongolia spite

previous retreating policy north manchuria

short japanese plans extend hegemony outer

mongolia through eastern mongolia failed 1 japanese mi-

scalculated strength soviet power border skirmishes along

outer mongol hsinganhsinfan border 193519361935 1936 led defeat japan-

ese forces battle nomonhanmonhan 1939 final annihilation

kwantungKwantung army 1945 result japanese defeat

pacific 2 japanese policy shortsightedshort sighted failed comprehend

3

mongol aspirations self determination 3 japanese administration

hsinganhsinfan provinces paternalistic bound arbitrary

resultresuitresultsresulto japanese sponsored autonomous mongol provinces eastern

MonmongoliamonfoliaFolia came end

the japanese attempt to solve the mongol question in

Documents