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Planning and periodization of short and long-term training programs (annual cycles, periods, phases, mesocycles, microcycles and sessions) are a focal point of activity in coaching. Optimum integration and sequencing of technical, tactical, physical and mental components of training and performance (concerning individual and/or team needs) are the key factors of planning. Planning is an intellectual process guided by the “art and science” of coaching. The following schema, the “paradigm of coaching” illustrates athletic preparation from planning (P) through implementation (I) and training (T) to performance (PR), as a function model. Performance is determined by the process of planning, implementation and training. Thus P, I and T are the input and PR is the output.

P + I +T = PR

When the annual cycle is completed at the end of the competitive phase and before the new plan is compiled, each of these components have to be evaluated separately. First, the conditions and the level of performance must be analyzed and evaluated. Then the conditions and processes of training, the processes of implementation, and the content of the plan must be analyzed and evaluated. This is a feedback mechanism, which is illustrated by the following schema:

Thus, the feedback from PR to T to I and to P, as well from T to I, from I to P, and from T to P, will identify the strengths and weaknesses of the various factors on which the plan for the next annual cycle or the new yearly training plan (NYTP) can be based. Evaluation (E) is an integral component of the planning, implementation continuum. The entire process can be formulated as:

Evaluating all components of the annual process will yield the data for the feedforward process during which all relevant information gained from evaluation is integrated and sequenced into a

The Paradigm of Planning Athletic Training and Performance Feedback and Feedforward

Istvan Balyi Advanced Training & Performance – Long-Term Athlete Development

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new plan. Future performance can be modeled on longitudinally or chronologically accumulated data. When designing the new plan, several years (best performance years) can be selected for modeling.

Naturally, the quality and range of the evaluation will contribute to the feedforward process. Both the quality and the range may be low, medium, or high. Mathematical formulas and scientific protocols can be used to design and monitor these processes. Obviously, the more scientific the process of monitoring, the better the evaluation will be. However this does not mean that coaches no longer need to employ the intuitive aspects of coaching when making decision.

Presently, most coaches rely on both the art and the science of coaching to varying degrees when designing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating training, competition and recovery programs. Although technological developments and innovation in the near future will favour the developments of the scientific elements of coaching, the intuitive element of coaching will always have an integral role to play in the planning, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating of training and competition programs.

References

Balyi, I., & Marion, A. Designing and annual training and competition plan: A step-by-step approach. Plan, CAC, 2008

Balyi, I. Way, R. and Higgs, C. Long-Term Athlete Development. Champaigne, IL. Human Kinetics, 2013.

Banister, E.W. and T.W. Calvert. Planning for future performances: implications for long term training. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 5:170-176, 1980.

Banister, E.W. Modeling elite athletic performance. In: Physiological Testing of Elite Athletes, H.J. Green, J.D. McDougal and H. Wenger, (Eds.). Champaign, Il.: Human Kinetics Publishers, pp. 403-424, 1991.

Hopkins, W.G.. Quantification of Training in Competitive Sports. Methods and Applications. Sports Medicine 12(3): 161-183, 1991.

Kellmann, M. (Ed.) Enhancing recovery. Champaigne, IL: Human Kinetics, 2002.

Norris, S.R., & Smith, D.J. Planning, periodization , and sequencing of training and competition: The rational for a competently planned, optimally executed training and competition program, supported by a multidisciplinary team. In M. Kellmann (Ed.) Enhancing recovery (pp.121-141). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2002.

Smith, D. J. A framework for understanding the training process leading to elite performance. Sports Medicine, 33 (15), 1103-1126, 2000.

Whitby, D. The Application of Sport Science to coaching. Paper presented at the Taiwan Coaching Conference, 1996.

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In this article the glossary of periodization will be provided to ensure that common language will be used in the articles describing various concepts and issues of periodization. Mesocycles, an important part of the annual training, competition and recovery cycle, will be described and discussed. Mesocycles are functional units of quantification of training and are considered to be a key element in inducing adaptation to training through homeostatic regulation.

PERIODIZATION GLOSSARY

Periodization—The structuring, or cycling, of short- or long-term training programs to provide optimum performance(s) at the required time(s) or time series. Periodization is a synonym for planning for athletic training and performance.

o Single, double, triple, and multiple periodization—One, two, three, or several distinctcompetitive phases within an annual cycle.

Long-term plan—A multi-year plan, usually 8 to 12 years in duration.

Quadrennial plan—A four-year plan (or Olympic cycle) to optimize long-term training and performance. During each of the four years, a different component of training and performance is emphasized. The objective is to have relatively good performances in each year, but the ultimate goal is to obtain optimum performance at the end of the fourth, or Olympic, year.

Annual plan—A yearly training program consisting of several phases of training. The objective of the annual, or yearly, training, competition and recovery plan is to provide optimum performance(s) at the required time(s) or time series within the year.

Periods of an annual plan—there are three periods within an annual plan: preparation, competition, and transition.

Phases of an annual plan—in principle there are five phases of training in an annual plan: o General preparatory phase (GPP)—A training phase characterized by high volume

and low intensity of training, emphasizing general individual or team-specific fitness andtechnical, tactical training.

Mesocycles and Mesocycle Planning of the Annual Training, Competition and Recovery Cycle

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o Specific preparatory phase (SPP)—A training phase characterized by lower volumeand higher intensity of training, emphasizing individual or team-specific sport and event-specific training.

o Precompetitive phase (PCP)—A training phase characterized by high intensity and lowvolume of individual or team-specific training, emphasizing performance-specific trainingand modeling taper and peak procedures.

o Competitive period (CP)—A training phase characterized by competition-specifictraining, tapering, and peaking for major competitions, tournaments, or leagueschedules, as well as by the maintenance of established fitness and performance levels.

o Transition period (TP)—A training phase characterized by rest and regeneration, in theform of a short of passive and active rest.

Mesocycle—A short training period of two, three, four, or five weeks, or microcycles, of progressive overload training, followed by one or two unloading, or restorative, microcycles (or both).

Microcycle—A period of three, four, five, or six days of training, using a variety of training sessions followed by a recovery or resting day. The most common microcycle is a 6:1 breakdown: six days of training followed by a rest day.

Training: o Volume of training—The quantitative component of training containing the duration or

extent of training.o Intensity of training—The qualitative component of training that includes all training

activities performed in a given unit of time.o Frequency of training—The number of training sessions within a given time frame

(e.g., a day or a microcycle).o Training session—A unit of training with three components: a warm-up, the actual

workout, and a cool-down.o Specificity of training—The content, or “direction," of training performed during a

session or a given period of time; the percentage of training content performed withreference to sport-specific training versus overall, or general, training.

Training load—The qualitative and quantitative components of training (i.e., volume and intensity).

Integration—Including and sequencing all factors of training and performance (stamina, strength, speed, skill [technical and tactical], and suppleness—the five Ss of training and performance) to optimize adaptation to training. Integration in a broader sense refers to the integration of sport-specific technical and tactical activities with sport science and sport medicine support programs.

Interference—The inhibition of one training component by another, or the negative impact of one training component on another, when the two (or more) are performed simultaneously.

Maintenance—Retaining already established fitness levels, sport skills, and mental skills through training, versus developing levels further or losing them as a result of undertraining. Overcompensation after external stimulus has taken place, changes will occur in the internal milieu of the organism. These changes are physiological (increased metabolism, increased

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heart rate and breathing frequency, fluid shifts, increased specific proteins, hormonal changes, etc.), biochemical (blood lactate, hemoglobin, etc.) and psychological (concentration, motivation, aggression, etc.).

The volume and intensity of the stimulus will determine the level of fatigue when the exercise ceases. The level of fatigue will determine the length of recovery (re-establishment of homeostasis). If the recovery or restoration phase (often wrongly called regeneration) between the two stimuli is either too short or too long, there will be no training effect, or overcompensation (also called supercompensation).

Overstress—A condition resulting from increased training load combined with everyday stress.

Overtraining— a state results from an accumulation of training and non-training stressors that has a detrimental long-term effect on performance.

Overreach – is considered to be a normal process of training, is defined as an accumulation as a training and non-training stressors that lead to a short decrease in performance.

Taper—A period of reduced training prior to a competitive performance. Peak performance occurs when fitness and fatigue differences are maximized.

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Table 1. Structure and Hierarchy of Periodization

Athlete Chronological Age Developmental Age Training Age (General) Sport-Specific Training Age

Long-Term Athlete Development Active Start Fundamental Phase Learn to Train Train to Train Phase Train to Compete Phase Train to Perform Phase Active for Life

Annual Plan Single Periodization Double Periodization Triple Periodization Multiple Periodization

Cycles of the Annual Plan:

Periods Preparation Competition Transition

Phases General Specific Pre-Competitive Competitive Transition

Mesocycles Developmental Stabil iz ing Per-Competitive Competitive Restorative Transitional

Microcycles Introductory Developmental Shock Stabilizing Taper Peak Maintenance Restoration Transition

Sessions / Microcycle

6:1 (4; 6; 9; 12; 15; 18; 18+) 5:1 (5; 8; 9; 10; 10+) 4:1 (4; 6; 7; 8; 8+) 3:1 (3; 5; 6; 6+) 3:1 – 2:1 = 5:2)

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MESOCYCLES

Bompa (1985) and Nadori (1985) defined macrocycles as having a duration of three to six weeks, thus describing short-term programs. Matveyev (1972) and Harre (1982) used the term "mesocycle" for the same duration and identified macrocycles as “half year cycles, yearly cycles (in the form of periodical cycles) as well as cycles over several years.” (Harre, 1982) A mesocycle refers to a two to five week training period. Since 2008 the “official” term is mesocycle in NCCP (Balyi and Marion, 2008).

Within the framework of classical periodization, a mesocycle is defined as a training period with two, three, four, or five weeks (or microcycles) of incremental training (loading microcycles) ending with a decremental or un-loading cycle. Thus, a macrocycle entails the sequencing of a number of incremental microcycles terminating with a decremental or unloading microcycle. This unloading microcycle is often referred to as a "recovery" microcycle. However, it is not a "restorative" or "rest" cycle, since training continues at 70 percent or more of the maximal training load. It should be pointed out that five or six week mesocycles are very rarely used. It is generally accepted in the literature that the common length of a mesocycle is about four weeks or 3:1 (Fry et al.1995). However, a large variety of mesocycles have been used in past decades. Figure 1, illustrates the so called "traditional" mesocycles of classical periodization including the 4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1 mesocycle, referring to the ratio as loading microcycles are followed with an unloading microcycle.

Figure 1. Traditional Mesocycles

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The rationale behind mesocycle planning and microcycle sequencing is related to the need for shorter, more manageable blocks of training than those provided by annual cycles or long phases of training.

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According to Harre (1982), the mesocycle is the training cycle that induces supercompensation. It is widely accepted in the periodization literature that the best way to accomplish supercompensation is through:

• Partial recovery after individual training sessions• Partial recovery between microcycles• Introduction of an unloading microcycle after two to three microcycles, to help

supercompensation at the end of the mesocycle• Implementation of decremental training loads within mesocycles to enhance adaptation.

Types of Mesocycles:

Harre (1982) identified seven different kinds of mesocycles: 1. Introductory2. Basic3. Preparatory or Control4. Supplementary5. Pre-Competitive6. Competitive7. Recovery

Cardinal (1995) after Matveyev, identified six types of mesocycles. These include: 1. Conditioning2. General Basic3. Specific Basic4. Pre-Competition5. Competition6. Recovery-Maintenance

Balyi (1994), after Nadori (1985), described six "traditional" and four "non-traditional" types of mesocycles. Traditional Mesocycles:

1. Developmental2. Stabilizing (consolidating)3. Pre-Competitive4. Competitive5. Restorative6. Transitional

1. Developmental Mesocycle (4:1, 3:1, 2:1)

A developmental mesocycle is characterized by its training content, which develops one or more performance factors within its range. Developmental Mesos may emphasize fitness, skill, or a combination of these two performance factors.

The purpose of the Fitness Developmental Meso is to allow optimum adaptation to training. This involves emphasizing one of the fitness components while the others are maintained. Two or three mesos may be needed before a significant improvement occurs. The basic physiological principles apply as far as stamina, strength, or speed developments are concerned.

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The purpose of the Skill Developmental Meso is to allow optimum adaptation to skill/technical training. All fitness components are maintained (or slightly improved) during this meso thus ensuring that metabolic and central / peripheral nervous system fatigue does not interfere with skill development. The cumulative effects of training must be carefully monitored during this meso. For many sports, the tactical component of performance must also be integrated with skill development.

The Mixed Skill and Fitness Developmental Meso allow skill and fitness levels to be improved simultaneously. This is accomplished through optimum sequencing of daily and weekly training sessions ensuring optimum recovery and regeneration as well as by ensuring proper nutrition and hydration along with mental preparation. However, due to minor interference, the level of improvement experienced following a Mixed Skill and Fitness Developmental meso will be modest compared with the level achieved using a single block loading Fitness or Skill Mesocycle.

The mixed macro is more often used with developing athletes at early training ages, when "adaptation potential" is not limited.6

2. The Stabilizing (Consolidating) Mesocycle (3:1, 2:1):

To stabilize, consolidate fitness and/or skill development from earlier training in the annual cycle, the design and the sequencing of shorter mesocycles can help to optimize the adaptation processes by providing less fatigue and more recovery. An unloading microcycle introduced after two or three loading micros can provide the environment for enhanced adaptation (Cardinal, 1995)

3. Pre-Competitive Mesocycle (3:2, 2:1, 1:1):

Preceding the competitive phase(s) of the annual cycle, the training load (volume and intensity of training) is designed to finalize technical, tactical and mental training as well as sport and/or event specific fitness training. The objective of the pre-competitive mesocycle is to fine-tune the athletes for competitive performances. This is the final stage of technical, tactical, physical and mental preparation before the competitive season begins, therefore the so-called ancillary capacities of the athlete must also be optimized. (Ancillary Capacities refer to the knowledge and experience base of an athlete and includes warm-up and cool-down procedures, stretching, nutrition, hydration, rest, recovery, restoration, regeneration, metal preparation, and tapering and peaking. The more knowledgeable athletes are about these training and performance factors, the more they can enhance their training and performance levels. When athletes reach their genetic potential and physiologically cannot improve anymore, performance can be improved by using the ancillary to full advantage)

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4. Competitive Mesocycle (2:1, 1:1 – in team sports follow the competition calendar)

The objective of the competitive mesocycle is to optimize readiness, to ensure peak performances at required times or time series. Competitive mesocycles are usually short, due to the high intensity and frequency of training, which call for more recovery microcycles.

• For individual sports, occasionally a competition meso can be 4:1 or 3:1, depending onhow much time is available between competitions. Training during this meso can bedetermined by the individual needs of the athletes; however this meso will differ from a3:1 or a 4:1 developmental or skill mesocycle. It will be similar to a pre-competitivemesocycle.

• During the "in season" of team sports, league games are often scheduled everyweekend for eight to twelve or more weeks. CIAU championship series often provide afour-week break for exams and Christmas holidays and then continue with the indoorseason for another eight weeks. Repeating the same microcycle during the entire "in-season" is a major mistake, since the repetitive stimuli will inhibit further adaptations andoptimum maintenance. The following alternative solutions are available for loading andunloading patterns:

o Steady loading pattern: This pattern is the one most commonly used by coaches.It consists of repeating the same weekly pattern of loading and scheduling. Thispattern lacks the varied stimuli. After four to six weeks of competition ortournaments, fatigue will have a negative impact on training and performancelevels.

o Middle unloading pattern: After three weekends of matches or tournaments, anunloading micro is scheduled to provide better recovery. This unloading helps theteam for the next three weekends of competition.

o Biweekly unloading pattern: An unloading microcycle is scheduled for everysecond week of the competitive cycle to optimize training, performance andrecovery. With this distribution, players' fatigue levels are minimized. This type ofscheduling is mostly recommended for teams that have high skill levels and arein excellent physical condition.

o Unloading pattern for the play-offs: by tapering the volume of training andmaintaining or increasing the intensity; this practice will eliminate fatigue beforethe play-offs. No detraining will take place due to the high intensity and frequencyof training. Eventually, due to the delayed effect of the training effect, hardtraining during the last four microcycles adaptation would be established after theplay-offs are over, but players will be tired for the play offs.

The following charts in Figure 2, illustrate the different loading patterns used by team sports during the competition season.

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Figure 2. Team Sport Mesocycles

Team Sport Mesocycles

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Unloading Pattern for the Play-Offs

5. Restorative Mesocycle:

In case of sluggish training and performance levels, or where overtraining or overstress is present, a restorative mesocycle can be scheduled to counteract the effects of unwanted fatigue levels or overtraining. The length and sequencing this meso will be determined by the individual needs of the athlete(s) involved.

6. Transitional Mesocycle:

A short, two to three week mesocycle is warranted at the end of the annual cycle to allow athletes to recover from the physical and mental stresses of the season. Usually one week of rest is followed by two weeks of active rest. Detraining must be avoided during the transitional mesocycle.

Non-Traditional Mesocycles:

A non-traditional mesocycle refers to unorthodox sequencing and loading patterns of microcycles within the mesocycle. Vorobyev (1974) criticized Matveyev’s 3:1 progressive overload mesocycles stating that they are not functional in many sports. In sports where CNS readiness, speed, and power are important training and performance factors, it is impossible to induce any significant adaptation to training after two weeks of loading, including 9 to 12 training session per microcycle, due to the cumulative effects of training.

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o Regression mesocycle: To remedy this situation, it is recommended that aregression or unloading trend within the mesocycle. Thus, the training load(volume and intensity) would be 100 percent for the first microcycle, 70 percentfor second microcycle, and 25 percent for the third microcycle. Regressiveloading ensures adaptation throughout the mesocycle. This type of mesocycleshould not to be implemented in the General Preparatory Phase when mostmetabolic and hypertrophic adaptations occur. However, they can be used whenhigh quality, sport specific training begins, such as during the Specific, Pre-Competitive and Competitive Phases of training.

Figure 3. Regression Mesocycle

Regression Mesocycle

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Accumulation-Intensification mesocycle: the term "Accumulation Microcycle" refers to high volume and low intensity training. There is a belief that the high volume of training induces a "shock" effect on the organism. The cycle is characterized by incomplete recovery. An Intensification Microcycle within the non-traditional mesocycle refers to high intensity and lower volume of training where complete recovery is achieved.

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Figure 4. Accumulation-Intensifcation Mesocycles

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The principle of "pendulum" loading was introduced during the 1970's by (Arosyev, 1974) that referred to the amplitude of loading and unloading trends. This principle is now frequently used in mesocycles for speed and power athletes. The following figure shows the loading-unloading microcycles as well as the trends of loading. Pendulum mesos should not be used for developing athletes.

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Figure 5. Pendulum Mesocycles

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The shock microcycle refers to a supra-maximal load and low intensity. Adaptation microcycle refers to low volume and high intensity of training, when full or complete recovery is scheduled between training sessions. Specificity microcycles are characterized by competition-specific training loads and by complete recovery.

SUMMARY

This article is descriptive in nature, thus the "what" as opposed to the "how to" is emphasized. Future articles will provide more detailed information about how to formulate and compile short and/or long- term training, competition and recovery plans. As described above, mesocycles are a functional component of short and long-term athletic training. Coaches must always take a variety of factors into consideration when establishing mesocycles, including the training age, level of experience, actual capacities of the athlete to deliver developmentally appropriate programs. Mesos are functional units of quantification of training and considered to be a key element in inducing adaptation to training through homeostatic regulation.

Traditional mesocycles are characterized by progressive overloading microcycles and are beneficial for the developmental athletes. Non-traditional or regression mesos are directed towards the needs of the elite athletes, providing higher intensities and a wider variety of stimuli to enhance adaptation to training.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arosyev, D. Methoden der Selbstkontrolle von Sportlem. Leichtathletic, 1974, 6. 193-196.

Balyi, I. and Way, R. Planning for Training and Performance - Part 3. Long-Term Athlete Development Model, "The Training to Train Phase". B.C. Coach, Fall, 1995. 1- 9.

Balyi, I. Planning for Training and Performance - Part 4. "The Training to Compete Phase" B.C. Coach, Winter/Spring 1996. 9 - 14.

Balyi, I. and Hamilton, A Planning for Training and Performance - Part 5. "The Training to Win Phase of Long-Term Athlete Development." B.C. Coach, Summer 1996. 9 - 26.

Balyi, I. and Marion, A.: Designing an Annual Training and Competition Plan: A Step-by-Step Approach. CAC, Ottawa, 2008.

Balyi, I., Way, R. and Higgs, C. Long-Term Athlete Development. Human Kinetics, Champaigne, Ill. 2013.

Bompa, T. The Theory and Methodology of Training. Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, Iowa, 1983.

Cardinal, C.: Planification de l'entraînement en Volleyball, chap. "Planification de la méso-microstructure", Montréal, éd. Fédération de Volleyball du Québec. 1993.

Fry, WR., Morton, AR and Keast, D. Periodisation of Training Stress - A Review. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, Vol. 17, # 3., 1992, 234-240.

Harsanyi, L. Az edzes egy even beluli szakaszai. OTSH, Budapest, 1992.

Harre, D. Principles of Sport Training. Sportverlag, Berlin, 1982.

Mackinnon, L.T. and Hooper, S. Overtraining. State of the Art Review National Sports Research Centre , Canberra, 1991.

Matveyev, L.P. Aspects fondamentaux de l'entrainement. Vigot, Paris, 1983.

Nadori, L. Az edzes elmalete es modszertana. Sportkonyv Kiado, Budapest, 1985.

Nadori, L. Theoretical and Methodological Basis of Training Planning with Specific Considerations within a microcycle. Lincoln, Ne., National Strength and Conditioning Association, 1989.

Platonov, V.N. L'entrainement sport& theorie et methode. Paris, Ed.EPS, 1988.

Satori, J. and Tschiene, P., The Further Development of Training Theory. SPORTS, Ottawa, 1988.

Sleamaker, R Serious Training for Serious Athletes. Champaign, Ill., Leisure Press, 1989.

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Spikermann, M. The Employment of New Formats of Loading in High Performance Sport. Lesitungsport, Vol. 10, # 1. 1989. 73-78.

Verhoshanski, J., et al. Some Principles of Constructing The Yearly Training Cycle in Speed-Strength Sports. Soviet Sport Review, 1991. 189-194.

Viru, A (1995) Adaptations in Sport Training. Roca Baton, 1995.

Vorobyev, AN. Sovremennaya trenirovka tyaseloathleta. Fizkultura I Sport, Moscow, 1964.

Wenger, HA, McFadyen, P.F. and McFadyen, RA. Physiological Principles of Conditioning, in Zachazewski et al, Athletic Injury and Rehabilitiation. W.B.Saunders, Philadelphia, 1995, 189-205.

Yakovlev, N.N. et al. Physiological and Biochemical Foundation for the Theory and Practice of Training. Fizkultura I Sport, Moscow, 1960

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Introduction

This article will focus on the microcycles of the annual training, competition and recovery programs. The main emphasis will be on the definition and description of various types of microcycles; however we will also attempt to explain how a microcycle is designed. The rationale behind the sequencing of daily and weekly training sessions within the microcycles will also be presented. Although some of the principles related to the quantification of microcycles will be introduced, the concept of quantification of training will be dealt with at greater length in the next article in the series.

Microcycles - A Definition

Simply put, microcycles can be defined as easily manageable units of training. Marion (1995) defines microcycles as "the planning and organization of training sessions and recovery periods within a given timeframe, usually a week. The sequencing of training sessions within a given timeframe based on their physiological, technical and psychological demands and their associated fatigue, in order to optimize the amount of stress imposed on the athlete."

Bompa (1985) described the microcycle as "the most important and functional tool in athletic training". A microcycle always consists of several loading days followed by a rest day. It is usually seven days in length, consisting of six training days followed by one rest day. This is represented as a 6:1 ratio of loading to unloading.

Although attempts have been made to implement microcycles with a duration of more than seven days (8:1, 9:1, 10:1 ratios), microcycles of this type were found to contribute to over training, over reach, and/or overuse injuries. Due to the practicality of a seven-day cycle, most sports use the 6:1 ratio microcycles. However, some sports use shorter microcycles such as 5:1, 4:1, or 3:1, as dictated by sport specific requirements. Satori and Tshiene (1988) based on Soviet power sport practices described a 5:2 microcycle (3:1 – 2:1 or 2:1 -3:1) to provide better recovery for the central nervous system (CNS).

At the outset, it must be stated that the training content of a microcycle is always determined by the "chronological location" of the cycle in the annual training plan. That’s to say, the microcycle's distance from the competitive phase, or its location within the general preparatory or specific preparatory or competitive phase of the annual cycle. From the point of view of long-term athlete development, the training age and competency level of the athlete/team (fitness,

Microcycles and Microcycle Planning of the Annual Training, Competition and Recovery Cycle – Part One

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Advanced Training & Performance – Long-Term Athlete Development

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skill and performance levels) will determine the training needs and content of the microcycle. Thus, the long-term (quadrennial or longer), and the actual annual objectives will determine the type of microcycles to be used during the various phases of that annual plan.

Microcycles in Classical Periodization Models

According to Matveyev (1980), a microcycle is usually seven days long because this calendar unit can optimize training and recovery while conveniently fitting into everyday social activities. It is comprised of three different phases, the development stimulating phase, the restorative phase and the rest phase. The first of these three phases uses training loads to induce adaptation, the second phase uses recovery training loads (complementary sessions or active rest), and the third phase consists of complete rest. This pattern can be repeated twice during a microcycle. Matveyev identified four types of microcycles:

1. Developmental microcycles2. Preparation microcycles3. Competition microcycles4. Restorative microcycles

He also noted that the structure and content of a microcycle is determined by the long-term training structure, such as the annual cycle, phases of that cycle, and the mesocycles of the annual cycle.

Bompa (1985) classified microcycles in terms of development, tuning, maintenance and competition cycles, and distinguished one, two or three peak microcycles, referring to the number of maximum training loads. The dynamics of the intensity of training throughout the microcycle are not uniform: high, medium and low intensities are modulated and followed by rest.

Martin (1982), after reviewing the literature and the practical implementations of innovative coaches, concluded that it is not feasible to describe the "universal" or general structure of a microcycle, since individual, sport and event specific needs will determine the final structure of a microcycle.

Contemporary Periodization Models

Platonov (1985) identified maximal, high, medium, and light microcycles. With regard to loading and recovery, after reviewing Soviet empirical research, he concluded that the recovery of an elite athlete is one and a half to two times as faster than a beginner or intermediate athlete, thus the sequencing of microcycles and daily training must be based upon the training age and the capacity of the athlete.

Viru (1995) based his classification of microcycles on the different sequencing of training loads. The two common methods used in this classification are the accumulative load and the varied load microcycle. The accumulation of similar training loads contributes to high fatigue levels and lengthens the recovery/restoration process. “Skillful changing of different training goals will allow athletes to begin their next workout in a recovered state, and to tackle opposite direction training loads." In other words, the sequencing of different stimuli will enhance adaptation and recovery, and lessen cumulative fatigue.

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Viru's concept of accumulative loads is the equivalent of the Western concept of incomplete recovery. Similarly, the concept of varied loads refers to complete recovery. Incomplete recovery is used in the general preparatory phase (GPP) or in the early specific preparatory phase (SPP). Complete recovery is used during the late SPP, the pre- competitive (PCP) and the competitive phases (CP) of training.

Balyi (1997), after reviewing the pertinent literature, described seven different types of microcycles, within which three sub types can be distinguished. These sub types are identified as neural, metabolic and mixed neural-metabolic microcycles:

1. Introductory microcycles2. Developmental microcycles3. "Shock" microcycles4. Stabilizing microcycles5. Competition microcycles6. Restoration microcycles7. Transitional microcycles

In principle, introductory, developmental and shock microcycles should be used in the GPP, developmental, shock and stabilizing microcycles in the SPP, stabilizing and competition micro cycles during the PCP, and restoration and competition microcycles during the CP of the annual cycle. Additional restoration cycles can be used when medical, physiological or psychological reasons require them.

Sport-Specific Requirements

Classifying sports according to their energy system requirements can be a helpful exercise for coaches who are trying to decide on the type of microcycles to select. Sports with similar energy system requirements can utilize similar microcycles. Physiology text books (Mathews and Fox, 1985; Wilmore and Costill, 1994) classify sports as aerobic, anaerobic lactic and anaerobic alactic. In the literature of classical periodization, the term anaerobic was used to describe both anaerobic alactic and and anaerobic lactic energy systems. (Matveyev, 1980; Harre, 1980; Nadori 1985)

One of the most frequently used classifications refers to cyclical and acyclical sports. Verhoshanski (1991) criticized contemporary theorists, stating that the training principles of cyclical sports had been inappropriately extended to training in general. Balyi (1990) described a similar pattern with weight-bearing than for non-weight-bearing sports. Training loads, intensities and frequencies within microcycles are very different for weight-hearing sports such as athletics, racquet and combative sports and non-weight-bearing sports such as, swimming, canoeing, rowing and cycling. To date, this issue has been neglected in the coaching and sport science literature. Very recently Russall (2013) described Ultra-short Race-pace Training (USRPT), a training format that is superior to the common traditional forms and volumes of swimming practice – as a non-weight-bearing sport. In non-weight-bearing sport traditional periodization practices should be evaluated.

Balyi (1990) categorized sports as neural, metabolic and mixed neural-metabolic sports in order to clarify the short and long term planning and implementation processes of annual training.

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Neural sports are characterized by the predominant utilization of anaerobic alactic sources.Sports such as athletics: sprinting, jumping, throwing, track cycling, fencing and freestyle skiing: aerials and moguls, fall into this category.

Metabolic sports are characterized the traditional by a predominant demand and energy sources supplied by the aerobic energy system and partially by the anaerobic lactic sources. Examples of metabolic sports include triathlon, marathon, long distance running, road cycling, and long track speed skating. Although the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are involved to some degree in regulating skill or technical capacities, high metabolic fatigue will occur before there is any significant CNS or PNS fatigue.

Mixed neural-metabolic sports are characterized by the high demand for and utilization of aerobic and anaerobic energy, as well as by high demands on the CNS and PNS. Athletics: middle distance events, basketball, field hockey, ice hockey, soccer, volleyball, combative sports, and racquet sports fall under this heading. Balyi (1990) also emphasized the idea that generic microcycles must be adjusted to sport, event and individual specific needs. Thus, a generic neural developmental or metabolic taper microcycle has to comply with all these specific needs when implemented.

A set of systematic generic examples will be provided later to describe the variations of neural, metabolic and mixed neural-metabolic microcycles as they relate to the phases of the annual training (GPP, SPP, PCP, CP and TP). Induced adaptation will be the focus of the microcycle examples, since metabolic sports often use neural microcycles and neural sports often implement metabolic or mixed neural-metabolic microcycles. Various team sport perspectives will also be described and illustrated. Obviously, this approach has its limitations, however, it provides simple, easily adjustable and convenient information to help coaches select from the repertoire and modify or adjust those generic microcycles to sport, event and individual specific needs.

It is important to recognize that in contemporary periodization, the distribution and utilization of energy sources is different during training and during competition. Thus a distinction must be made when distributing energy system training during the annual cycle. Nothing is better for improvement than sport-specific training; however, the optimum conditions of sport-specific training have to be created during the GPP and SPP. In other words, while aerobic energy sources may play a direct role in a neural sport during the GPP and/or SPP by providing endurance and recovery capacities, those same sources will have an indirect contribution to performance during the competitive phase. The guidelines periodization describes the annual distribution of the volume and intensity of training through phases, mesocycles and microcycles of the annual cycle. The utilization of this principle is imperative for designing and sequencing microcycles.

Designing Microcycles

For the most part, the available literature only identifies and describes microcycles. Rigler (1995) called this literature "descriptive", referring to the fact that very little can be found about the procedure for the design and quantification of microcycles. What are the decision-making processes behind a quantified microcycle? It all comes down to the basic question of how to quantify training.

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Banister (1980) and Morton (1991) identified the need for scientific planning and although there were several attempts to describe the quantification process, it is still inconclusive4. When it comes to quantification, each coach has his/her own individual procedure, and of course, interpretation of the facts and guidelines.(It is amazing how many different training prescriptions can be arrived at using the same facts and guidelines!)

Microcycles are instruments for controlling and optimizing short term adaptation. The daily level of adaptation (training effect) and fatigue must be systematically monitored. Although the structure of the annual plan has to be plotted with all its training phases and tapers and peaks, it is practically impossible to predict whether or not all the adaptation goals will be achieved.

Since by their nature microcycles are the most easily controlled units of training during the annual training process, they have strategic importance for monitoring the effects of training and for making quick and necessary adjustments when required. Microcycle planning, implementation and monitoring provide flexibility within the annual plan so that adjustments can be made when required.

The objective of athletic preparation is to peak when it counts. Therefore the short and long-term adaptation processes have to be organized in such a way that peak performance will occur annually at the required time frame(s) and longitudinally in each year as the athletes matures. Thus, the key question is what kind of adaptation do we want to achieve through the annual cycle? All components of training have to be modulated to achieve that adaptation.

According to Vershoshansky (1985), the content of the microcycle (volume, intensity, specificity, and the frequency of training sessions) will be determined by the type of adaptation that is induced, or the kind of adaptation that is solicited (stamina, strength, speed, skill or suppleness). In other words, what is the direction of training? The direction of training can be identified through physiological and performance tests, and must be complemented by medical and psychological evaluations. Then, the facts and guidelines of the exercise sciences will provide the information for decision-making for the design and implementation of both short and long term training programs. An interpretation of the test and performance results and the knowledge and intuition of the coach (or the coach and the sport science support group) will identify the training loads for the microcycle, taking into consideration the volume, intensity, specificity, frequency and recovery - regeneration aspects of training. In addition, environmental, nutritional, psychological and medical components have to be considered.

Sequencing of Training Sessions within Microcycles

In many sports, such as swimming, rowing, and canoeing, a high volume and high frequency of daily and weekly training is required due to sport-specific demands (This is questioned now by Rushall (2013). These sports often conduct 12 to 15 (or more) training sessions per microcycle, while other sports such as sprinting, fencing, gymnastics, and alpine diving require six, nine, and twelve sessions per microcycle respectively.

Regardless of these sport-specific requirements, in general, two basic coaching attitudes can be distinguished by practical observations. The first is characterized by and associated with a high volume of training. This is the "more is better" attitude and it is still alive and well, and practiced by many sports, despite all of the scientific information about optimizing training and competition

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loads! The second coaching attitude is characterized by a preference for implementing lower volumes but a higher quality of training.

Nonetheless, practical experience underlines the necessity of the conducting several training sessions during the elite athletes' daily routine. Ozolin (1970) recommended having six to eight basic and seven to twelve supplementary training sessions per microcycle for high performance track athletes. A multi-session training day is made up of one basic workout supplemented by one, two or three additional sessions. "Training two to three times per day will not only allow the athlete to increase his/her training load, but will also allow them to distribute the work more efficiently."

As far as actual adaptation is concerned, the load / fatigue / recovery / overcompensation quadrant is accepted and used worldwide, based on Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome. (1970) Classical periodization adapted Selye's model and Yakovlev, Matveyev, Nadori and Harre used the theory of overcompensation to describe the adaptation processes.

Nadori (1985) described overcompensation as follows:

"After external stimulus has taken place, changes will occur in the internal milieu of the organism. These changes are physiological (increased metabolism, increased heart rate and breathing frequency, fluid shifts, increased specific proteins, hormonal changes, etc.), biochemical (blood lactate, hemoglobin, etc.) and psychological (concentration, motivation, aggression, etc.)."

The volume and intensity of the stimulus will determine the level of fatigue when the exercise ceases. The level of fatigue will determine the length of recovery (re-establishment of homeostasis). If the recovery or restoration phase (often wrongly called regeneration) between the two stimuli is either too short or too long, there will be no training effect, or overcompensation (also called supercompensation).

Adaptation will be enhanced, however, if the stimulus is introduced when the organism is in the overcompensation state. Thus, adaptation will be enhanced if the proper sequencing of the training sessions is ensured. Adaptation will be inhibited when the above sequencing is not optimized. Figure One illustrates the load/fatigue/recovery/overcompensation quadrant.

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Figure 1. Adaptation to Training (Modified after Nadori, 1985)

According to Matveyev (1982) and Nadori (1985) progressive overloading is the principle of increasing training loads within mesocycles. Harre (1982), Kukushkin (1983) and Sleamaker (1989) stated that a shock or crash microcycle as third microcycle before the unloading microcycle is introduced yields the best adaptation results; however, Fry et al. (1992) stated that this argument was "conjectural".

Sleamaker refers to supramaximal workloads as "occasional sharp increases in training loads within the microcycles" or as a whole third microcycle. The introduction of supramaximal training loads is effective in situations where an elite athlete is approaching his or her genetical ceiling limits (diminishing returns phase of training) or when athletes have reached a plateau.

It is interesting to note that, according to Eastern European coaching practices, supramaximal training loads are still within the range of progressive overloading but at the "outer edges". Mackinnon and Hooper (1991) refer to these sessions as "overreach" versus overtraining. Caution must be exercised when introducing supramaximal training loads. The athletes must be monitored very carefully and such loads should never be used when working with developing or intermediate athletes!

Platonov (1985) and Viru (1985, 1998 and 1999) have summarized the adaptation processes of multi factor training loads and the sequencing procedure of those training loads (See further details in "Microcycles and Microcycle Planning of the Annual Training, Competition and Recovery Cycle" Part One and Part Two). Vershoshanski (1991) underlined the importance of using non-traditional approaches when constructing training cycles to improve the efficiency of training.

Platonov (1988) summarized the time needed for complete recovery after the high level of fatigue has been induced in Table 1 below.

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Table 1. Time needed for complete recovery after high level of fatigue

Remember, these numbers must be tempered by the knowledge and the experience of the coach. For example, a maximum strength training session is often used by elite athletes in the particular phase of the annual cycle only every 96 to 120 hours, or aerobic endurance in every 24 hours. Platonov's guidelines have to be considered as normative descriptions of optimal recovery times.

Training sessions within microcycles can he classified as uni-directional or multi-directional. During a uni-directional training session, one major component of training is emphasized after the warm up. Multi-directional training sessions are those where two or more components are emphasized. Sequencing a multi-directional training session requires a subtle interpretation of the rules of thumb described below. If the training activities are not properly sequenced, interference will inhibit the adaptation processes, and frequently result in staleness and/or overtraining.

Balyi (1997), describing the cardinal rules for sequencing training activities within a microcycle, concluded that quality should come first, followed by lower quality training within the complementary training sessions:

1. Technical skill work (such as learning new skills) should always be performed after thewarm up and before the CNS or the PNS is fatigued by any other types of training. Thiskind of training should be performed at the beginning of the microcycle, after a lighttraining day, or after a half-day rest within the microcycle (see later sequencingexamples).

2. Based upon the same principles, pure speed (alactic power) should be trained asdescribed in #1.

3. Skill learning may interfere with pure speed training, therefore conduct skill and speedsessions on alternate days within microcycles.

4. The anaerobic alactic system should be trained before the anaerobic lactic system. Theanaerobic lactic system must be trained before the aerobic system.

5. Higher quality aerobic training (e.g., MAP) should he trained before lower qualities (e.g.,Fartlek, LSD)

6. Of course for special adaptation purposes this sequencing can be adjusted (e.g., trainingspeed or technique when tired – modeling race or competitive situations)

In coaching jargon, the above is interpreted as skill before speed, speed before power , power before strength, and strength before endurance.

Other important rules, which are often neglected during the FUNdamentals, Learn to Train, and Train to Train stages of Long-Term Athlete Development are:

Speed 24 hours Strength 48 – 72 hours Aerobic Lactic System 48 hours Maximal Aerobic Power 48 – 56 hours Aerobic Endurance 48 – 56 hours

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1. Three training sessions per microcycle is maintenance and will provide very slowimprovement of capacities of beginner and/or intermediate athletes on longer terms.

2. A minimum of four training session per week are required for beginner and intermediateathletes to induce significant improvements.

3. The effect of the "ceiling limit" or of diminishing returns requires elite athletes to train withhigh frequency 9 /12 to 18/22 session per week.

Bompa (1985) recommended using the principles of succession of training. During training sessions, coaches may train technique and/or tactical elements, speed development and/or muscular endurance, strength and general endurance.

He also quoted Ozolin on the optimal succession of training activities: • Learn and perfect technique with medium intensity.• Perfect technique at sub-maximal and maximal intesity.• Develop speed of short duration (alactic power)*.• Develop anaerobic endurance (lactic power & capacity)*.• Improve strength utilizing a load of 90-100 % of one's maximum.• Develop muscular endurance using medium and low load.• Develop muscular endurance with maximal intensity.• Develop cardio-respiratory endurance with maximal intensity.• Develop cardio-respiratory endurance with moderate intensity.

Nadori (1989) described two main trends in the implementation of successive training loads. One theory postulates that a training session should be carried out right at the time when supercompensation takes place. Another view holds that individual workouts should be sequenced so that each session is scheduled when the athlete is in the incomplete recovery state; thus complete and incomplete recovery plans.

Marion (1995) based upon Platonov (1985), and Wieneck (1990) reflects on these theories and suggests that the effects of fatigue on the development of specific performance factors should be considered. The optimum training of some key factors of performance can only be done in a fully recovered state, while others can be trained during the incomplete recovery state.

Qualities that cannot be improved or developed in a state of fatigue: • Pure speed• Acquisition or refinement of new motor patterns (technical skills)• Coordination or technical execution at high or specific speed• Speed-strength• Maximal strength

Thus, these qualities have to be trained under optimal conditions, without any cumulative or residual fatigue:

Qualities that can be improved or develop in a state of low fatigue: • Speed endurance (alactic capacity - lactic power)• Strength endurance• Technical skill - if the objective is to stabilize the motor pattern under a variety of

conditions

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These qualities can be sequenced towards the middle of the microcycle, or as secondary or complementary training sessions, after the basic workout. A six-hour break (passive and/or active rest) is recommended between the basic and the complementary workout);

Qualities that can be improved or developed in a state of moderate fatigue: • Lactic capacity• Aerobic power• Specific sub-maximal aerobic endurance (i.e. race pace for marathon or distance

walking)• Technical skills - if the objective is to stabilize the motor pattern under a variety of

conditions (i.e. performing skills in overtime games)

The training of these qualities can be sequenced toward the middle or the end of the microcycle, or as secondary or complementary training sessions, depending on the kind of fatigue levels that were induced during the basic training session. Again, a six-hour break is recommended between the basic and complementary training session.

Qualities that can be improved or developed in a state of moderate to high fatigue: • General aerobic endurance• Flexibility

The training of these qualities can be sequenced quite freely. General aerobic endurance can facilitate recovery and could contribute to the maintenance of the established aerobic capacity of the athlete, especially during the pre-competitive and competitive phases of training session. It must be noted that there are several new developments in the theory of stretching, which will be described in a later article.

The above information is relevant to the effect of training, or the level of induced fatigue, considering neural and metabolic fatigue. This information will provide baseline data for the actual sequencing the training sessions. When sequencing those activities within microcycles, interference between training factors must be avoided. Interference is the inhibitory effect of one training component on another. (Information about interference, detailed sequencing and quantification will be provided in the forthcoming article.)

Traditionally the physical, technical and tactical factors of training were well integrated during an annual cycle. With the advancement of the integration processes of periodization, a need for the integration of all training factors has become imminent. Balyi (1996) recommended using a new planning model, which integrates the physical, technical, tactical, mental, nutritional, regeneration and social factors. By identifying the objectives of the training sessions and assigning the physical, technical, tactical, mental, nutritional and regeneration components of training, while taking into consideration the social environment, the coach will have a much better planning model to avoid interference and optimize all factors of training. The combined effects of training as outcome of this integration will be optimized also. This planning model will make a significant contribution to the athletes' knowledge base, which is a very important factor in the training of the elite athletes.

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Table 2.

The following tables summarize the most common distribution of daily training sessions within microcycles. The sequencing of the Five S's of Training and Performance (Stamina, Strength, Speed, Skill and Suppleness) are not included, since so many variations are possible. The recommended training load (or the volume and intensity of training) will be illustrated in the second part of this article.

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Table 3. 6:1 / 6 Sessions

Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 AM School School School School School Rest Rest PM Train Train Train Train Train Train Rest

This table shows six days of training followed by a rest day. All the training sessions are in the afternoon, taking into consideration school or work schedules.


Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 AM Train Train Train Train Train Train Rest PM Train Rest Train Rest Train Rest Rest

Table 4 shows six days of training followed by a rest day. Quality training sessions are implemented in the morning when the CNS and PNS is fresh, and every second day an afternoon rest is introduced to enhance freshness or readiness in the next morning training session, as well to lessen the cumulative effects of fatigue. This kind of sequencing is very popular with elite athletes, training age 6 - 8 +, after all of the basic capacities are well trained.


Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 AM Train Train Train Train Train Train Rest PM Train Train Train Train Train Train Rest

Table 5 shows the distribution of the training sessions for an intermediate or an elite athlete, training twice a day, for six days, followed by a rest day. One training session is considered to be the "main" session, while the other is the "complimentary" session. If the athlete is a "full time" athlete, the morning sessions are the quality sessions. However, if sport-specific conditions require competing in the afternoon/evening, the main training session must be scheduled for the afternoon from the specific phase (SPP) onwards. For the developmental athlete, the main session must be the afternoon session. Modeling will also influence the training schedule since training must model he competition schedules and requirements during SPP, PCP and CP.


Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 AM Train Train Train Train Train Train Rest PM Train Train Train Train Train Train Rest PM Train Rest Train Rest Train Rest Rest

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Due to sport-specific requirements, many sports, such as rowing, modern pentathlon, triathlon, and canoeing must organize two to three training session a day. Usually the first training session is a complimentary session. The main session will follow in approximately six hours and the last one is a recovery session. There are "only" two sessions every second day to contribute to better recovery. Usually high, medium and low daily training loads are modulated during the microcycle in order to minimize the cumulative effects of training. Modeling could help to determine which session is the main or the complementary session, taking into consideration competitive schedules.


Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 AM Train Train Train Train Train Rest PM Train Rest Train Rest Train Rest

Many sports with high involvement of the CNS and PNS, such as alpine skiing, freestyle skiing, fencing, and the sprinting, throwing and jumping events in athletics, require shorter microcycles to provide full recovery. The 5:1 / 8 microcycle almost provides the same number of training sessions as the 6:1 /9 but provides more frequent rest days. This microcycle is often implemented during the PCP and CP periods of the annual cycle.


Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 AM Train Train Train Train Train Rest PM Train Train Train Train Train Rest

This is an alternative to the 10 to 12 training sessions per week microcycle; however, it allows more frequent rest days during the annual cycle. Winter sports including alpine skiing, freestyle skiing and short track speed skating are using this microcycle for summer dryland training, modeling shorter on-snow or sport-specific requirements. High, medium and low daily training loads are modulated through the microcycles.


Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 AM Train Train Train Train Rest PM Train Train Train Train Rest

This microcycle is a variation of the 5:1 / 8 or 5:1 / 10 cycles. In neural sports, the cumulative effects of training cannot be ignored. However, in metabolic sports, a rest day introduced every fifth day can enhance the adaptation of the well-trained elite athlete without detraining capacities that have already been established. High, medium and low daily training loads are modulated through the microcycle.

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Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 AM Train Train Train Train Rest PM Train Rest Train Rest Rest

This is a cycle for neural sports or it could be a taper, or peak cycle for metabolic sports.


Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 AM Train Train Train Rest PM Train Train Train Rest

A typical microcycle employed by some winter sports during sport-specific high altitude training. The rest day every fourth day contributes to CNS and metabolic recovery. Some neural sports are also using this microcycle as part of the tapering and peaking process. High, medium and low daily training loads are modulated through the microcycles.


Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 AM Train Train Train Rest PM Train Rest Train Rest

This is another variety of microcycle for high quality training. The recovery on the second day could enhance CNS or metabolic recovery (or freshness) for the last day of the cycle.

Table 13. 5:2 (3:1-2:1) 8 Sessions

Days Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7 AM Train Train Train Rest Train Train Rest PM Train Rest Train Rest Train Rest Rest

This hybrid microcycle is widely used by neural sports, mostly by throwers and jumpers Bondarchuk (1980). Three days of training are followed by a day of rest, then two days of training are followed by another rest day. The high frequency and recovery training provides excellent training adaptations during the specific and pre-competitive phases of the annual cycle for neural sports. Despite the rest and recovery half-days, high, medium and low daily training loads are still used.

The above microcycles can be used by individual and team sports respectively, depending on the phase of the annual cycle or the kind of adaptation is that is dictated by the long and short-term needs. Due to the differences between individual and team sports, some distinctively

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specific features of team sport microcycles also have to be discussed. When the league or competitive season begins, for team sports, a regular weekly pattern will characterize the training and competition activities such as a match every weekend and/or the occasional mid-week match. (See later specific microcycle designs). In individual sports, when the competitive phase begins competitions can be selected to suit the specific needs of the athletes. Thus, the coach and the athlete can select the most important competitions and build a hierarchy of train-through, tune-up, important, and major competitions.

Part two of the article will be published shortly. It will contain the charts of volume, and intensity of training for the neural, metabolic and mixed neural-metabolic microcycles under the following classifications:

1. Introductory Microcycle2. Developmental Microcycle3. Shock Microcycle4. Stabilizing Microcycle5. Competitive Microcycle:

a. Taperb. Peakc. Competitive maintenanced. Modeling

6. Restoration Microcycle7. Transitional Microcycle

End of Part One

Bibliography

Arosyev, D. Methoden der Selbstkontrolle von Sportlern. Leichtathletic, 1974, 6. 193-196.

Balyi, I. and Hamilton, A. Planning for Training and Performance - Part 5. "The Training to Win Phase of Long Term Athlete Development." B.C. Coach, Summer 1996. 9 - 26.

Balyi, I. Need to Know Task # 12 NCCP Level 4/5 Course Outline. CAC. Gloucester, Ontario. Canada. 1997.

Banister, E, Modeling Elite Athletic Performances. In: Physiological Testing of Elite Athletes. Des. Green, Hi., McDougall, D., and Wenger, H. Champagne, Ill.: Human Kinetics, 1991.

Bompa, T. The Theory and Methodology of Training. Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, Iowa, 1983.

Fry, W.R., Morton, A.R and Keast, D. Periodisation of Training Stress - A Review. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, Vol. 17, # 3., 1992, 234-240.

Harre, D. Principles of Sport Training. Sportverlag, Berlin, 1982.

Harsanyi, L. Az edzes egy even beluli szakaszai. OTSH, Budapest, 1992.

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Mackinnon, L.T. and Hooper, S. Overtraining. State of the Art Review . National Sports Research Centre , Canberra, 1991.

Martin, D. Das Kombinationstraining in Schuler and Jugendberich Systematisierung des Trainingprozess. Leistungssport 6. 493-502.

Marion, A. Need to Know Task # 1 NCCP Level 4/5 Course Outline. CAC. Gloucester, Ontario, Canada. 1997.

Marion, A. Dictionary of Terms Used in NCCP Courses. (Draft.) CAC. Gloucester, Ontario, 1995.

Matveyev, L.P. Aspects fondamentaux de l'entrainement. Vigot, Paris, 1983.

Morton, R.H. The Quantitatvie Peridoization of Athletic Training: A Model Study. Sports Medicine 3:19-28, 1992.

Nadori, L. Theoretical and Methodological Basis of Training Planning with Specific Considerations within a Microcycle. Lincoln, Ne., National Strength and Conditioning Association. 1989.

Ozolin, N.G. Szovremennaja szisztcma szportivnoj trenirovki. Fizkultura I Sport. Moscow, 1970.

Platonov, V.N. L'entrainement sportif: theorie et methode. Paris, Ed.EPS, 1988.

Satori, J. and Tschiene, P. The Further Development of Training Theory. SPORTS, Ottawa. 1988.

Selye, H., Stress. New York. Doubleday. 1970. Tschiene, P. A Modern Theory of Training. Keynote lecture at the International Coachiung, School. Victoria, B.C. 1997.

Verhoshanski, J., et al. Some Principles of Constructing The Yearly Training Cycle in Speed- Strength Sports. Soviet Sport Review, 1991-189-194.

Viru, A. and Viru, M. The Specific Nature of Training on Muscle: A Review. Sports Medicine, Training and Rehabilitation, Vol.4. 79-98, 1993.

Vorobyev, A.N. Sovremennaya trenirovka tyaseloathleta. Fizkultura I Sport, Moscow, 1964.

Wenger, H.A., McFadyen, P.F. and McFadyen, R.A. Physiological Principles of Conditioning, in Zachazewski et a.1, Athletic Injury and Rehabilitiation. W.B.Saunders, Philadelphia. 1996, 189-205.

Wicneck, J. Optimales Trainingh. Erlangen: Verlag, 1980.

Windmore, J.H and Costill, D.L. Training for Sport and Activity. The Physiological Basis of the Conditioning Process. Dubuque: W.C.Brown, 1988.

Yakovlev, N.N. et al. Physiological and Biochemical Foundation for the Theory and Practice of Training. Fizkultura I Sport, Moscow, 1960.

Table 1A Schematic Overview of Microcycle Distribution

(Balyi and Way, 2015)

Active Start FUNdementals

Well structured multi-sport activities.Activities that develop the ABC’s of

athleticism. Agility, Balance, Coordination, Speed, Run, Jump, and Throw.

Let children play and have FUN!

Train to Train Train to Compete Train to Win Active for Life

Stages of Long-Term Athlete Development

Microcycles

Type of Microcycle

The size of the box indicates the relative importance or amount of useage of that microcycle in that stage.

Optimum Frequency Training Sessions

Higher Volume

Lower Intensity

Higher Intensity

Lower Volume

Introductory Developmental Stabilizing Shock PeakTaper Restoration

Introductory

Stablizing

Taper

Restoration

Developmental

Developmental Stablizing

Taper

Peak

Restoration

Shock

Developmental

Taper

Peak

Restoration

6–9 times per week(6 main 3

complimentary)

9–12 times per week(6 main 3–6

complimentary)

9–15 times per week(6–9 main 3–6 complimentary)

Active 4–6 times per week

The Relationship Between theVolume and Intensity of Training

(Modified from Schollish Balyi and Way 1998)

Intensity

Intensity:

Volume

Volume:

M = Maximal

SM = Submaximal

Me = Medium

L = Low

In principle, as is illustrated by this chart, when the volume of training is high, the intensity is low or medium (except in competition or in simulated competition) and conversely, when the intensity is high, the volume is medium or low (except again, in competition). Both volume and intensity are manipulated through the microcycle. A strong daily modulation of high, medium and low is necessary to ensure overload and recovery, which will enhance adaptations. The failure to vary volume and intensity during a microcycle will contribute to mal-adaption and staleness. Thus, variety is an essential component of training.

The following examples illustrate the relationship between the volume and intensity of training during the GPP, PCP,CP, and TP.

is the amount of work performed in agiven unit of time (Quality of Training)

the duration or extent of the exercise(Quantity of Training)

M

SM

Me

L

L

1

!Glossary((S4L,LTAD(

(Active(for(Life(is!the!age!of!transition!from!physical!literacy!and!competitive!sport!to!lifelong!physical!activity.!A!smooth!transition!from!developing!physical!literacy!to!lifelong!physical!activity!and!participation!in!sport,!or!from!the!sport!excellence!stream!to!competitive!for!life,!fit!for!life!or!engagement!as!a!sport!and!physical!activity!leader.!(!.!!

• Competitive(for(Life!embodies!all!sport!that!functions!under!a!set!of!rules,!with!the!exception!of!the!excellence!pathway,!which!is!defined!by!Train!to!Train,!Train!to!Compete!and!Train!to!Win.!!

(• Fit(for(Life!includes!all!physical!activity!such!as!hiking,!gardening,!yoga,!aerobics,!skiing!

and!walking,!as!well!as!non?organized!sport!(self?determined!rules)!such!as!pick?up!games!in!the!school!yard!or!park.!!

• Sport(and(Physical(Activity(Leaders!includes!those!individuals!who!contribute!in!ways!other!than!being!an!athlete!or!participant!in!the!sport!or!activity!itself.!This!group!encompasses!coaches!and!instructors,!officials,!administrators!in!both!a!volunteer!or!professional!capacity,!and!those!involved!in!sport!science!and!medicine.!

(Adaptation!refers!to!a!response!to!a!stimulus!or!a!series!of!stimuli!that!induces!functional!and/or!morphological!changes!in!the!organism.!The!level!or!degree!of!adaptation!is!dependent!upon!the!genetic!endowment!of!an!individual.!However,!the!general!trends!or!patterns!of!adaptation!are!identified!by!physiological!research,!and!guidelines!are!clearly!delineated!of!the!various!adaptation!processes,!such!as!adaptation!to!muscular!endurance!or!maximum!strength.!(Adolescence!is!the!period!during!which!most!bodily!systems!become!adult,!both!structurally!and!functionally.!It!is!a!difficult!period!to!define!in!terms!of!the!time!of!its!onset!and!termination.!Structurally,!adolescence!begins!with!an!acceleration!in!the!rate!of!growth!in!stature,!which!marks!the!onset!of!the!adolescent!growth!spurt.!The!rate!of!height!growth!reaches!a!peak!(PHV),!begins!a!slower!or!decelerative!phase!and!finally!terminates!with!the!attainment!of!adult!stature.!Functionally,!adolescence!is!usually!viewed!in!terms!of!sexual!maturation,!which!begins!with!changes!in!the!neuroendocrine!system!prior!to!visible!physical!changes!and!terminates!with!the!attainment!of!fully!mature!reproductive!function.!(Malina,!Bouchard!and!Bar?Or,!2004)!!Adolescent(growth(spurt(in!height!refers!to!the!acceleration!in!growth!at!this!time.!\in!girls,!it!starts,!on!the!average,!at!about!9!or!10!years!of!age,!peaks!about!12!years!of!age,!and!stops!about!16!years!of!age.!In!boys,!the!acceleration!begins,!on!average!,!at!about!10!or!11!years!of!age,!peaks!at!about!14!years!of!age,!and!stops!about!18!years!of!age.!((Aerobic(endurance!is!the!ability!of!the!heart,!lungs,!and!vascular!system!to!supply!oxygen!to!the!working!muscles!during!exercise.!

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!

Age((• Chronological(age!refers!to!the!number!of!years!and!days!elapsed!since!birth.!Growth,!

development!and!maturation!operate!in!a!time!framework;!that!is,!the!child’s!

chronological!age.!!

• Developmental(age!refers!to!the!degree!of!physical,!mental,!cognitive!and!emotional!

maturity.!Physical!developmental!age!can!be!determined!by!skeletal!maturity!or!bone!

age!after!which!mental,!cognitive!and!emotional!maturity!is!incorporated.!

• Skeletal(age!refers!to!the!maturity!of!the!skeleton!determined!by!the!degree!of!

ossification!of!the!bone!structure.!It!is!a!measure!that!takes!into!consideration!how!far!

given!bones!have!progressed!toward!maturity,!not!in!size,!but!with!respect!to!shape!and!

position!to!one!another.!!

!

• Relative(age(refers!to!differences!in!age!among!children!born!in!the!same!calendar!year.!

• General(training(age(refers!to!the!number!of!years!in!training!in!different!sports.!

• Sport,specific(training(age(refers!to!the!number!of!years!since!an!athlete!decided!to!

specialize!in!one!particular!sport.!!

!

Agility!is!the!ability!to!change!direction!of!the!entire!body!quickly!and!with!accuracy!while!moving!from!one!point!to!another.!(Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!2003)!

!

Ancillary(Capacities!refer!to!the!knowledge!and!experience!base!of!an!athlete!and!includes!warm?up!and!cool?down!procedures,!stretching,!nutrition,!hydration,!rest,!recovery,!

restoration,!regeneration,!metal!preparation,!and!tapering!and!peaking.!!

!!

The!more!knowledgeable!athletes!are!about!these!training!and!performance!factors,!the!more!

they!can!enhance!their!training!and!performance!levels.!When!athletes!reach!their!genetic!

potential!and!physiologically!cannot!improve!anymore,!performance!can!be!improved!by!using!

the!ancillary!!!to!full!advantage.!

(Anaerobic(exercise(high!intensity!exercise!of!short!duration!that!does!not!depend!on(the!body’s!ability!to!supply!oxygen,!as!in!sprinting!in!track!and!swimming.!(Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!

2003)!

(Awareness(stage(in!the!disability!LTAD!model!(No!Accidental!Champions)!is!to!inform!the!

general!public!and!prospective!athletes!with!disabilities!of!the!range!of!opportunities!available.!

!

Balance(the!ability!to!maintain!one’s!equilibrium!in!relation!the!forces!of!gravity!and!

minute!alterations!in!the!body!when!it!is!placed!in!various!positions.!(Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!

2003).!

!

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Canadian(Sport(for(Life((CS4L)!is!a!movement!to!improve!the!quality!of!sport!and!physical!activity!in!Canada.!It!links!sport,!education,!recreation!and!health,!and!aligns!community,!provincial!and!national!programming.!CS4L’s!vision!is!quality!programs!for!all!Canadians!based!on!developmentally!appropriate!sport!and!physical!activity.!CS4L’s!mission!is!to!improve!the!health,!wellness!and!sporting!experiences!of!all!Canadians!by!advancing!physical!literacy,!improving!performance!and!increasing!life?long!participation!in!physical!activity.!When!enacted,!CS4L’s!values!and!principles!link!and!integrate!programs!delivered!by!health,!recreation,!education!and!sport,!and!align!programming!in!clubs,!provincial/territorial!and!national!sport!and!multisport!organizations.!CS4L!addresses!the!overarching!system!and!structure!of!sport!and!physical!activity!in!Canada,!including!the!relationship!between!school!sport,!physical!education!and!organized!sport!at!all!levels,!from!policy!to!program!delivery.!!!

• Active(for(Life!is!a!movement!within!Sport!for!Life!in!which!Canadians!become!active!for!life!by!developing!physical!literacy.!Along!with!physical!literacy!and!sport!excellence,!Active!for!Life!is!one!of!CS4L’s!three!key!outcomes.!This!stage!can!be!entered!at!any!age,!beginning!with!developing!physical!literacy!in!infancy,!and!evolves!to!being!Competitive)for)Life,!Fit)for)Life!and/or!Sport)and)Physical)Activity)Leaders!through!all!phases!of!adulthood.!!!

• Competitive(for(Life,!within!Active!for!Life,!is!the!final!LTAD!stage!of!CS4L,!where!Canadians!are!active!for!life!through!participation!in!competitive!sport.!!

• Fit(for(Life,!within!Active!for!Life,!is!the!final!LTAD!stage!of!CS4L,!where!Canadians!are!active!for!life!through!participation!in!recreational!physical!activity.!!

• Sport(and(Physical(Activity(Leaders,!within!Active!for!Life,!is!the!final!LTAD!stage!of!CS4L,!where!Canadians!contribute!to!the!sport!and!physical!activity!experience!as!coaches!or!instructors,!officials,!either!professional!or!volunteer!administrators,!or!through!sport!science!and!medicine.!

(Childhood!ordinarily!spans!the!end!of!infancy!—!the!first!birthday!—!to!the!start!of!adolescence!and!is!characterized!by!relatively!steady!progress!in!growth!and!maturation!and!rapid!progress!in!neuromuscular!or!motor!development.!It!is!often!divided!into!early!childhood,!which!includes!pre?school!children!aged!one!to!five!years,!and!late!childhood,!which!includes!elementary!school?age!children,!aged!six!through!to!the!onset!of!adolescence.!!(Competition(Review(and(Restructuring(refers!to!the!process!when!the!existing!system!and!structure!of!competition!is!reviewed,!rationalized!(i.e.,!periodization!of!the!competition!calendar)!and!restructured!accordingly.!!!Coordination(is!the!ability!to!integrate!separate!motor!systems!with!varying!sensory!modalities!into!efficient!movement,!as!in!kicking!or!dribbling!a!ball.!Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!2003!!Deliberate(play(refers!to(free,!unstructured!play!

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(Deliberate,(Well?Structured!Practice(is!focused,!programmatic,(carried!out!over!extended!periods!of!time,!guided!by!conscious!performance!monitoring,!evaluated!by!analyses!of!level!of!expertise!reached,!identification!of!errors,!and!procedures!directed!at!eliminating!errors.!(Ericsson!et!al,!2006)!!Development!refers!to!“the!interrelationship!between!growth!and!maturation!in!relation!to!the!passage!of!time.!The!concept!of!development!also!includes!the!social,!emotional,!intellectual!and!motor!realms!of!the!child.”!(Malina,!Bouchard!and!Bar?Or,!2004)!!Developmentally(appropriate(training(refers!to!training!programs!which!takes!into!consideration!physical,!mental,!cognitive!and!emotional!development!level!of!the!athletes!and!provides!adequate!programs.!In!LTAD!the!programs!are!geared!to!the!stage!of!motor!development!of!children/athlete.!!Developmentally(appropriate(competition(refers!competition!programs!which!takes!into!consideration!physical,!mental,!cognitive!and!emotional!development!level!of!the!athletes!and!modifies!competition!structure!and!system!and!matches!those!needs.!!First(Contact/Recruitment(stage!is!to!ensure!that!a!persons!with!disabilities!have!a!positive!first!experience!of!an!activity!and!remain!engaged!in!the!activity.!!Flexibility!is!the!ability!of!the!various!joints!of!the!body!to!move!through!their!full!range!of!motion.!Flexibility!is!joint!specific!and!can!be!improved!with!practice.!!Frequency(of(training(refers!to!the!number!of!training!sessions!within!a!given!timeframe,!e.g.,!a!day,!or!micro!cycle(!!Fundamental(movement(skill(is!an!organized!series!of!basic!movements!that!involve!the!combination!of!movement!patterns!of!two!or!more!body!segments.!Fundamental!movement!skills!may!be!categorized!as!stability,!locomotor,!or!manipulative!movements.!Twisting!and!turning,!running!and!jumping,!and!striking!and!throwing!are!examples!of!fundamental!movement!skills!from!each!of!these!categories,!respectively.!(Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!2003)!(Fundamental(sports(skill(is!fundamental!movement!skill!or!combination!of!fundamental!movement!skills!that!have!been!applied!to!the!performance!of!a!specific!sport?related!activity.!Thus!the!fundamental!movement!skills!of!twisting!the!body!and!striking!an!object!may!be!applied,!in!their!horizontal!form,!to!batting!in!a!game!of!baseball!or,!in!their!vertical!forms,!to!playing!golf!or!serving!a!tennis!ball.!(Modified!after!Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!2003).!!Gross(and(Fine(Movement(A!gross!motor!movement!involves!the!large!muscles!of!the!body.!Most!sport!skills!are!classified!as!gross!motor.!Fine!motor!movement!involves!limited!motion!of!part!of!the!body!in!the!performance!of!activities!requiring!precision.!(Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!2003).!

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(Individual(appropriateness((or!developmentally!appropriate)(is!the!key!concept(LTAD,!it!is!based!on!the!central!proposition!that!each!child!has!unique!his/her!unique!timing!and!pattern!of!growth!and!development.!!!!Intensity(of(training(is!the!qualitative!component!of!training,!containing!all!training!activities!performed!in!a!given!unit!of!time!(

!Kaizen(the!concept!is!drawn!from!the!respected!Japanese!industrial!philosophy!known!as!continuous!improvement.!!(Long,Term(Athlete(Development((LTAD)!is!a!multi?stage!training,!competition!and!recovery!pathway!guiding!an!individual’s!experience!in!sport!and!physical!activity!from!infancy!through!all!phases!of!adulthood.!LTAD!is!athlete!centered,!coach!driven!and!administration,!sport!science!and!sponsor!supported.!Sequential!stages!in!the!LTAD!pathway!provide!developmentally!appropriate!programs!for!all!ages!to!increase!participation!and!optimize!performance.!Key!to!LTAD!is!a!holistic!approach!that!considers!mental,!cognitive!and!emotional!development!in!addition!to!physical!development,!so!each!athlete!develops!as!a!complete!person.!Based!on!CS4L!principles,!LTAD,!in!a!sport?specific!context,!promotes!system!alignment!and!integration!between!sport!club,!provincial/territorial!and!national!sport!organizations.!!Long,Term(Community(Development((LTCD)(applies!“the!thinking!globally!acting!locally”!to!the!domain!of!sport!and!physical!activity.!!Meaningful(competition:(!Meaningful!competition!is!characterized!by!a!“near?win”!where!the!score!or!race!is!relatively!close.!!The!competition!result!is!not!predictable!and!competitors!believe!they!have!a!chance!to!win.!!Meaningful!competition!provides!useful!information!for!both!winners!and!losers!to!improve!their!stage!specific!skills.!Meaningful!competition!is!intended!to!provide!competitors!with!a!“we!can!get!better”!attitude!as!they!work!to!improve!their!skills!using!developmentally!appropriate!training!as!outlined!in!the!sport!LTAD!framework.!!Menarche(is!the(onset!of!the!menstrual!cycle.(!Mental(fitness(promotes!the!idea!of!a!dynamic!concept,!not!a!fixed!outcome:!it!is!in!constant!flux!and!development!throughout!and!athletes’!lifecycle.!Although!athletes!can!reach!high!levels!of!mental!fitness!as!they!progress!through!LTAD!stages,!their!mental!capabilities!will!constantly!be!challenged!as!the!demands,!conditions,!and!pressures!they!face!continue!to!change.!((Motor(development(is!progressive!change!in!one’s!movement!behavior!brought!about!by!interaction!of!movement!task!with!the!biology!of!the!individual!and!the!conditions!of!the!learning!environment.!(Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!2003).!!

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Movement(Preparation!focuses!on!incorporating!and!improving!fundamental!movement!skills!and!fundamental!sport!skills!into!activity.!It!prepares!the!body!for!movement!and!enhances!the!way!you!move!for!short?term!(fitness/ability)!and!long?term!(injury?risk!reduction)!benefits.!!Movement(skill(refers!to!the!development!of!motor!control,!precision,!and!accuracy!in!the!performance!of!both!fundamental!and!specialized!movements.(Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!2003).!!Muscular(endurance!is!the!ability!of!the!body!to!exert!force!against!an!object!external!to!the!body!an!object!external!to!the!body!for!several!repetitions!without!fatigue..!!Muscular(strength(is!the!ability!of!the!body!to!exert!a!maximum!force!against!!an!object!external!to!the!body!an!object!external!to!the!body.!!Outdoor(deficit(disorder(refers!to!the!lack!of!outdoor!physical!activity!(DC)((Peak(height(velocity((PHV)!is!the!maximum!rate!of!growth!in!stature!during!the!adolescent!growth!spurt.!The!age!of!maximum!velocity!of!growth!is!called!the!age!at!PHV.!!!!

!!(

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Periodization(The!structuring,!or!cycling,!of!short?!or!long?term!training!programs!to!provide!optimum!performance(s)!at!the!required!time(s)!or!time!series.!(Periodization!is!a!synonym!for!planning!for!athletic!training,!recovery!and!performance.!

• Single,(double,(triple,(and(multiple(periodization—!refers!to!one,!two,!three,!or!several!distinct!competitive!phases!within!an!annual!cycle.!

• Phases(of(an!annual(plan—in!principle!there!are!five!phases!of!training!in!an!annual!plan:(• general(preparatory(phase((GPP)—A!training!phase!characterized!by!high!volume!

and!low!intensity!of!training,!emphasizing!general!individual!or!team?specific!fitness!and!technical,!!tactical!training.!

• specific(preparatory(phase!(SPP)—A!training!phase!characterized!by!lower!volume!and!higher!intensity!of!training,!emphasizing!individual!or!team?specific!sport!and!event?specific!training.!

• precompetitive(phase((PCP)—A!training!phase!characterized!by!high!intensity!and!low!volume!of!individual!or!team?specific!training,!emphasizing!performance?specific!training!and!modeling!taper!and!peak!procedures.!

• competitive(period((CP)—A!training!phase!characterized!by!competition?specific!training,!tapering,!and!peaking!for!major!competitions,!tournaments,!or!league!schedules,!as!well!as!by!the!maintenance!of!established!fitness!and!performance!levels.!

• transition(period((TP)—A!training!phase!characterized!by!rest!and!regeneration,!in!the!form!of!a!short!of!passive!and!active!rest.!!

• Mesocycle—A!short!training!period!of!two,!three,!four,!or!five!weeks,!or!microcycles,!(of!progressive!overload!training,!followed!by!one!or!two!unloading,!or!restorative,!microcycles!(or!both).!

• Microcycle—A!period!of!three,!four,!five,!or!six!days!of!training,!using!a!variety!of!training!sessions!followed!by!a!recovery!or!resting!day.!The!most!common!microcycle!is!a!6:1!breakdown:!six!days!of!training!followed!by!a!rest!day.!

!Power(is!the!ability!to!perform!one!maximum!effort!in!as!short!a!time!as!possible.!!Puberty!is!defined!as!the!beginning!of!the!preadolescent!growth!spurt!and!the!development!of!secondary!sex!characteristics.!!!Readiness!refers!to!the!child’s!level!of!growth,!maturity!and!development!that!enables!him/her!to!perform!tasks!and!meet!demands!through!training!and!competition.!Readiness!and!sensitive!periods!of!trainability!during!growth!and!development!of!young!athletes!are!also!referred!to!as!the!correct!time!for!the!programming!of!certain!stimuli!to!achieve!optimum!adaptation!with!regard!to!motor!skills,!muscular!and/or!aerobic!capacity!and!power.!(Malina,!Bouchard!and!Bar?Or,!2004)!!

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Recovery(refers!to!rest!and!regeneration.!Rest!refers!to!resting!time!in!between!sets!and!repetitions,!between!two!or!three!training!session!a!day,!rest!for!the!next!day’s!training!sessions.!Regeneration!is!the!means!of!enhancing!recovery;!optimal!hydration!and!nutrition,!water!therapies,!massage!and!sleep.!!Sensitive(periods(are!a!broad!timeframe!or!window!of!opportunity!when!the!learning!of!a!specific!skill!or!the!development!of!a!specific!physical!capacity!is!particularly!effective.!The!entire!period!of!childhood!can!be!viewed!as!a!sensitive!period!for!mastering!fundamental!movement!skills!(Gallahue!and!Donnelly,!2003).!!Specialization!refers!to!athletes!limiting!participation!to!a!single!sport,!which!they!train!for!and!compete!in!on!a!year?round!basis.!There!are!sports!that!require!either!early!or!late!specialization!in!order!for!an!athlete!to!succeed.!!Speed(is!the!ability!to!move!from!one!point!to!anther!in!the!shortest!time!possible.!!Sport(for(Development(,!sport!and!physical!activity!used!as!a!powerful!tool!to!enhance!!individual(and!social!growth!and!development.!!!Stamina!refers!to!aerobic!capacity!and!aerobic!power.!!Suppleness!is!flexibility.!!Trainability!refers!to!the!genetic!endowment!of!athletes!as!they!respond!individually!to!specific!stimuli!and!adapt!to!it!accordingly.!Malina!and!Bouchard!(1991)!defined!trainability!as!“the!responsiveness!of!developing!individuals!at!different!stages!of!growth!and!maturation!to!the!training!stimulus!!Training(variables(

• Volume!• Intensity!• Frequency!!

!Volume(of(training(is!the!quantitative!component!of!training!containing!the!duration,!length!or!the!extent!of!exercise.((

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References:(!Canadian!Sport!for!Life!–!Long?Term!Athlete!Development.!2.0,!2013!!D.L.!Gallahue!and!F.!C.!Donnelly.!Developmental!Physical!Education!!for!All!Children.!Human!Kinetics,!2003.!!K.A.!Ericsson,!N.!Charness,!P.J.!Feltovich,!R.R.!Hoffman!eds.,!The!Cambridge!Handbook!of!Expertise!and!Expert!Performance.!Cambridge!University!Press,!2006.!!R.M.!Malina,!C.!Bouchard,!and!O.!Bar?Or:!Growth,!Maturation,!and!Physical!Activity.!Human!Kinetics,!2004.!!!!(

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