theology of a mosque the sacred inspiring form function and design in islamic architecture

Architecture

Critical Reviews

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Ahmed Mohaisen –

Alaeddin ElJmassi –

Ali Alraouf -

Amer Moustafa –

Azza Eleish –

Eman Al Assi –

Eslam Al Ghunaimy –

Farid Al-Qeeq -

Galal Abada –

Hani Al Qahtani -

Hasim Altan –

Hassan Radoine –

Jihad Awad -

Khaled Al Sallal –

Khalfallah Boudjemaa -

Magda Sibley –

Mehdi Sabet -

Mirna Nassrah -

Mona Helmy –

Nada Al Nafae -

Nadia Alhasani –

Omar Asfour –

Paola Sassi –

Rabah Saoud –

Rami Daher –

Rania Khalil –

Samer Abu Ghazalah –

Shatha Abu Khafajah -

Yasser Al Rajjal -

Yasser Mahgoub –

Islamic University

Islamic University

Qatar University

American University of Sharjah

Dar Al Hekma College, Heddah SA

Dubai Municipality

Al Khobar University

Islamic University - Gaza

Ain Shams University

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German Jordanian University & Turath

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Scientific Committee – Lonaard Magazine

Volume 2, issue 8, March 2012,

Jamada Al Awwal 1433 Hijri

Lonaard Magazine is a specialised peer-reviewed artand architectural periodical founded in London by DrWaleed Al Sayed and Dr Mashary Al Naim since 2008.

Waleed Al Sayed

Attilio Petruccioli

Ashraf Salama

Eckhart Ribbeck -

Howayda Al Harithy

Mashary Al-Naim

Mohammed Al-Asad

Nasser Rabbat

Nezar Al Sayyad

Sabah Mushattat

Saleh Al Hathloul

Wael Samhouri

Yasser Elsheshtawy

- Polytechnic University of Bari, Italy

- Qatar University

Stuttgart University

Oxford Brooks University / England

American University - Beirut

Dammam University - Saudi Arabia

Chairman/Centre for the Study of the

Built Environment - Amman

MIT /United States

King Saud University

Damascus University - Syria

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- University of Berkeley- California USA

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Farrokh Derakhshani – Director/ Aga Khan Award for Islamic

Architecture – Geneva, Switzerland

Harriett Harriss-

Sarah Fawzi

Amir DuhairMohammed Haddad

All rights reserved, except for brief quotations ina review. Articles and papers, or any partthereof, may not be reproduced, stored in orintroduced into a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recordingor otherwise, without the prior writtenpermission of the editor.

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(Cover photo: Interior of shopping centre in Dubai)

Architecture: Critical reviews

Editorial

Critical reviews: Arab Architects Critics Association (AACA) –

Arab Architectural Mind on Critical Crossroads: The dilemma of Cultural

Dialogue (in Arabic) Aldib Belqasem – Batna University /Algeria

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GUESTS OF THIS ISSUE (DISTINGUISHED WORKS REPUBLISHED)

– (in Arabic only)

Moustafa Elfarra & Samar GhaliResidential Housing in Gaza: Case study of Tell Elhawa

1- Book Series: The Story of (Renaissance, Gothic, Contemporary,Romanesque, Baroque, Modern) Architecture, Prestel, 2012

2- Decoding Theoryspeak, Enn Ots, Routledge, 20113- Architecture in Nineteenth Century Photographs:Ashgate, 20114- The Medina: The Restoration and Conservation of Historic Islamic Cities,

I.B.Tauris, 20125- DecipheringAncient Minds, Thames and Hudson, 20116- Project Japan: Metabolism Talks, Taschen, 2011

Christopher E. LonghurstTheology of a Mosque: The Sacred Inspiring Form, Function and

Design in Islamic Architecture

Ahmad YahyaInterplay of Islamic Ethics and Architecture in an African City

Waleed Al SayyedVernacular Architecture: Seeking an approach

Professor Ashraf Salama (University of Qatar) Media Coverage and

User's Reactions: Al Azhar Park in the Midst of Criticism and Post

Occupancy Evaluation'

– '

,"Media Coverage and Users' Reactions: Al Azhar Park in the Midst of Criticismand Post Occupancy Evaluation," was first published in JFA-METU 25, 1(Summer 2008). JFA-METU is the scholarly journal of the Faculty ofArchitecture, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. Republishingit in Loonard is meant to stimulate the debate on the role of criticism inarchitecture and the objective/subjective nature of discourse in architecture.Al-Azhar Park, one of the important projects in the city of Cairo is taken asa case that triggers such a discourse. Permission to republish was grantedby Prof. Dr. Ali Cengizkan, JAF-METU' editor and Professor of Architecturethe Faculty of Architecture, Middle East Technical University.

A new vision of the philosophy of Dar Al Islam

Djamel Chabane

Lonaard Magazine is a peer-reviewed periodical, publication of Lonaard Group in London Issue 8, Volume 2, March 2012, ISSN: 2045 - 8150

3 Lonaard - Issue 8 2012 |

Theology of a Mosque The Sacred Inspiring Form, Function and Design in Islamic Architecture

Christopher E. Longhurst 1

1. Doctor of Theology and theological aesthetics, Pontificia Studiorum Universitas a Sancto Thoma Aquinate in Urbe, Rome, Italy.

Sent for evaluation on (04 February 2012), and was approved on (21 March 2012) Abstract

“Theology of a Mosque” looks at how the architectural features and decoration of the mosque (Arabic: masjid) stem from Islamic principles and Islam’s kalām. It considers how the mosque is inextricably bound to convey the message of Islam through its architecture and decorative designs according to the mosque’s fundamental purpose as articulated in Qur’ān 24:36-7: “[…] to be erected for the commemoration of His name, where He is glorified morning and evening […].” Ironically, however, looking at the mosque’s architecture theologically will reveal that a distinction between grandeur and simplicity is misleading based on the fact that the mosque is not only an example of religious architectural design but also constructed and decorated in a manner faithful to Islam’s understanding of itself. The paper is divided into two sections. The first part looks at the mosque as the architectural embodiment of Islam’s fundamental message. It emphasises the principle of “oneness and unity” (tawḥīd), and investigates how mosque architecture symbolises heavenly realities and the perfection of nature. The second part looks at how specific mosque features contribute to an understanding of Islam and how these add to or derive from Islamic theology and in turn reflect the Muslim confession of faith.

The limits of the paper are within the Qur’ān and Sunnah, and in particular, texts commenting on the Divine Names

which are seen as a font of inspiration for mosque architecture and decoration. Conclusions reached demonstrate that the typical mosque is more than a religious building or place for Islamic worship. It is a projection into form and matter, colour, shape and volume, of the fundamental message of Islam, the embodiment of “peace” and “submission”—terms defining islām from which the mosque derives its unique architectural typology.

1. Introduction

How to understand the masjid (mosque) “theologically” is a subject that interests architects, art critics and theologians as it overlaps both the arts and religion and provides a focussed appreciation of Islam’s most significant building. It does so in a language underscoring the masjid’s fundamental purpose: “to allow God’s name to be remembered therein.”1 Prescinding from this premise, despite the multifarious functions of the mosque,2 it follows that the masjid’s religious contextualization is its most significant and masjid

architecture and decoration must reflect or be inspired by this objective. A theology of the masjid is, therefore, essential for understanding the masjid’s fundamental significance. This orientation considers the masjid in relation to the standards of its arbitrary architectural designs and decoration made orthodox by theological definition; and its interior space made sacred by collective rituals established according to Islamic principles developed over time. It shows how masājid (mosques) express the grandeur of God in which monumentality and embellishment are significant objectives, and yet maintain the humility of the

Theology of a Mosque

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individual which calls for simplicity and restraint in architectural design and decoration. Paradoxically, a theological approach captures both concepts simultaneously. PART 1

The Message of Islam in Architecture

The basic message of Islam is bound up in a comprehensive worldview that directs towards “peace” and “submission to God.”3 Since submission to God is the essence of divine worship, the place of worship is intrinsic to Islam’s self-identity. This “place” is not a building per se but what is evidenced by the etymology of the word “mosque” which derives from the Arabic “masjid” meaning “a place of sujud (prostration).”4 It also derives from the meaning of the word islām which is related to the Arabic “salam” meaning “peace”. Over time, however, notwithstanding its etymological derivation, “masjid” came to signify a specific building used by Muslims for ubudiyah (public worship)—that is, a physical structure classifiable within the typology of sacred architecture with its own structural and decorative principles rooted deeply in Islam’s message. As such masjid architecture and decoration are inextricably bound to convey the tenets of a religion professing a complex theology based on an uncompromising monotheism—for the Muslim’s first confession of faith is: “There is no god but Allah” (lā ʹilāha ʹilla-Allāh).5 Since Islam does not yield to the demands of any enterprise other than its own, this implies that an architectural theory must “surrender” to the Law and Will of God. This is achieved through the embodiment of Islamic theology in masjid design and decoration, precisely in the theology of the mosque.

Divine Oneness and Unity

Islam teaches that God is one (aḥad) and that His divine oneness is self-evident based on His infinity and omnipresence. Masājid seek to capture this by projecting the principles of tawḥīd—God’s Oneness, aḥadiyya—his divine Unity, and waḥdat al-wujūd—the unity of all creation, into their architectural designs and decoration. In turn these redirect the Muslim’s mind towards their own

realities by the masjid’s overall unity, God-centeredness and conformity to the convergent order and harmony in the universe.

At the mosque tawḥīd is not a merely theoretical concept. It is the first principle that regulates the mosque’s building typology and the conceptual framework of masjid architecture and design. It constitutes how the mosque owes its significant unity to a religious faith and a perennial way of life.

The masjid fosters tawḥīd by harmonizing its parts in accord with divine Oneness and Unity, thereby underscoring the notion of God as Al-Wāḥid (The One, The Unique), and Al-ʹAḥad (The United, The Indivisible). This is achieved by a regular division of space in the use of arches and columns reflecting the cosmic unity and harmonious patterns in the universe as seen at the Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain, and by the use of sacred geometry in masjid decoration which the interior of the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul (Fig. 1) displays so well.

Fig. 1: Fractal geometry in Süleymaniye Mosque (Istanbul, Turkey

Christopher E. Longhurst


Tawḥīd exhibits how an indispensable relationship exists between the external world of forms and the interior world of divine realities. The physical contextualisation of this concept sheds light on the visible and invisible nature of Islam’s architectural and aesthetic ideals—God as Aẓ-Ẓāhir—The Manifest, The Evident, and Al-Bāṭin—The Hidden, The Unmanifest. Islamic scholar Omer Spahic states:

Instead of standing alone amidst the marvels of God’s creation, quite alien to them, [the mosque] rather integrates itself with them as much as its plan, design and utility are able to suggest, identifying its status vis-à-vis the otherworldliness with that of the natural sensations around it.6

Authentic masjid architecture, therefore, seeks to reflect these realities by an integration of form into an overall theocentrism as seen superlatively, for example, in the profound symmetry and verticality at the Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul (Fig. 2) and Pakistan’s Badshahi Mosque in Lahore (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2: Theocentricity in the symmetry and verticality of the Sultan Ahmet Mosque (Istanbul,

Turkey)

This building typology seeks to transcend external material forms to reach tawḥīd within, to understand and reproduce the unity of God and the inner structure of the universe. Spahic mentions: “The beholder’s attention is directed towards the desired end by various ingenious artistic and structural ways and methods which are meant to yield an intuition of the real essence of the

Transcendent and its divine infinity and perfection.”7

Fig. 3: Theocentricity in the symmetry and verticality of the Badshahi Mosque (Lahore,

Pakistan)

Classic masājid are built to be integral structures uniting all of their parts in a cohesive whole consistent with the Islamic doctrine of unity and coherence in the universe. This is why Ayatullah Khamenei explains that the masjid translates tawḥīd into “the objectivity of creation, a planned and computed order in the world […] a sort of dynamism in function and purpose.”8 Khamenei explains: “To describe the sense of space or building typology that tawhid imparts, would be to observe the course of nature and translate it into a materiality occupying space for the purpose of giving praise to God.”9 This underscores the masjid’s communal aspect as a place for collective prayer, especially at the masjid al-jumʹa (Friday Mosque).

Simplicity

In Islam God is a simple being from which every kind of composition, physical and metaphysical, is excluded. The Qur’ān declares: “There is nothing like unto Him.”10 The simplicity of the masjid therefore pays tribute to God’s spiritual essence which Islam affirms rationally, from the fact that God is an intelligent and voluntary first cause and ultimate source of all creation—Al-Khāliq.11 This is implied in His immensity and omnipresence: God as Al-Wāsi' (The Vast, The All-Embracing, The Omnipresent and The Boundless)12 which


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mosque architecture seeks to capture through a congruency of its parts forming a unified whole, perfectly ordered and essentially one.

The first impression upon entering a masjid is how plain the building is. This is an attempt to imitate divine Simplicity. The interior of Faisal Mosque in Islamabad, Pakistan is an excellent example. Islam holds that God is absolutely simple, containing no element of form or matter yet His essence contains every possible element of perfection. Masājid seek to capture this by relative simplicity of form on the one hand and perfection of design and execution on the other.

Masjid internal space directs towards the interior, towards a spiritual awareness that comes not from images or figures, nor from imitation, but from the emptiness of an interiority that seeks to resemble Al-Wāsi'. This affords a spiritually accessible presence justified by its association with Al-Bāṭin—“The Hidden God.”13 George Steiner writes on that “great emptiness” as if it were so intimate—the “great void” (ʹadam) that strives to “make visible the invisible world.”14 This is not a mere absence but rather the signifier of what is perceived by the internal senses, the manifestation of an interior resonance that is pure spirituality. A great silence encompasses the masjid shrouding its interior from the outside world. It is not a dead silence but one pregnant with meaning. Its immensity symbolizes a world above the physical from which all material forms disappear. For Muslims, whose greatest investment is in the invisible, this incites the imagination to contemplate the divine realities without being locked into matter or the superficiality of images.

God-centeredness

Inside the masjid there is little to distract the Muslim from the spiritual nature of God. There are no images or paintings, no statues or altar and no single point to be taken as the centre of divine presence. God is, in fact, everywhere by virtue of His omnipresence—Al-Wāsi'. Everything identifies the divine presence which is never localised.15 A free centring effect is created by architectural simplicity, an apparent emptiness and remarkable schemata of non-figurative decorations that arise

quietly and naturally from the surface. A fine example is the Sheikh Zayed Mosque at Abu Dhabi (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4: Fractal geometry in Sheikh Zayed Mosque (Abu Dhabi, UAE)

Islamic scholar Jale Erzen explains how the enclosed space is organised “around a core.”16 The impression is given, according to Erzen, of “always being in the centre surrounded by space created by a specific arrangement of architectural elements.”17 The interior of the Sheikh Zayed Mosque reflects this principle (Fig. 4). Punctuating Islam’s teaching that God is one, simple and infinitely perfect “spiritual” being that cannot be localized or limited to any particular place or time, it seeks to emulate this principle through the complexity of visual effects.

Symbol of Nature The typical masjid has immense symbolic value as a microcosm of the natural world. It is built according to Islam’s fundamental religious significance of imitating the laws of nature and the harmony in the natural world. Nitin Kumar’s article on Islam mentions how the masjid is “a recreation of the harmony, order and peace inherent in nature.” Kumar explains: “While praying in a traditional mosque, the Muslim in a sense returns to the bosom of nature, not externally but through the inner nexus which relates the mosque to the principles and rhythms of nature.”18 Spahic explicates: “Because the whole universe constitutes a mosque (masjid) with everything in it [...] Islamic architecture aspires to add to this exhilarating set-up.”19 The use of floral and vegetal



decorative motifs alluding to the masjid as a projection into architecture of nature’s beauty conveys this sense. The masjid thus represents dunya—the entire world, as a “place of prostration.” It recalls that “all creation bears witness to His Divine Oneness.”20 Symbol of Heavenly Realities On the other hand, masjid architecture strives to embody a cosmological understanding of the heavenly world by prefiguring al-Djanna (Celestial Garden). This is achieved especially by virtue of its interior decoration which will be discussed shortly. Spahic writes:

[…] the Muslim builder, powered with the spirit of tawhid and a desire to fulfil the will of a higher order or cause, always tries his best to make his edifices come into sight adhering to the existing spiritual paradigms of the natural environment.21

By the same token Erzen explains: As a sacred space, the interior of a mosque is made to remind one of paradise, of a garden of fragrant flowers and crystal ponds. A light ambiance, sparkling, scintillating, reflecting surfaces, tones of blue on vertical planes to give a sense of peace and harmony, rugs of vibrant colours on the floor to resemble meadows full of flowers, all in all an atmosphere of joy and peace […].22

Samer Akkach, professor of Middle Eastern Architecture at Adelaide University, speaks of how the masjid, as a symbol of the promised world, recreates the cosmic archetypes of spatial orders through its symmetry, floral and vegetal designs and geometric elements.23 An outstanding example is Shah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran (Fig. 5). Nasr describes how these features mark the presence of the spiritual in the material as if “an echo from Heaven [were] to remind earthly man of his heavenly origin.”24 In so doing the masjid establishes an outward harmony upon which the Muslim returns inwardly to his origin—to Al-ʹAwwal (The Source).

Fig. 5: Sacred Geometry at the Shah Mosque (Isfahan, Iran) Photo: Pedram Veisi

Masjid Decorative Features Decoration is a major unifying factor in masjid architecture. Since all Muslims adhere to the same fundamental belief system, and all, despite national and ethnic differences, share the same customary religious observances of Islam, a strong sense of identity and consistency tends towards a universally recognisable aesthetic signature on masājid. This signature is rooted in Islamic theology and the Muslim sense of community. Imbued with the principles of tawḥīd and waḥdat al-wujūd mosque decoration underscores God’s divine attributes: Al-Bāṭin (The Invisible) and Al-Mājid (The Magnificent). It highlights Al-Wāsiʹ (The Vast, The All-Embracing, The Omnipresent and The Boundless) as a cosmic presence, and Al-Bāqīy (The Immutable, The Infinite and The Everlasting).

As the confession of Muslim faith declares: “There is nothing like unto Him,” so Islamic theology holds that God is, by implication, beyond representation—Al-Bāqīy (The Infinite-transcendent).25 Consequently, only non-figurative formulations of God are made. These become sensible through recurring geometrical shapes and abstract patterns which capture the notion of God’s infinity, boundlessness and perfection as seen inside the dome of Sheikh Loft Allah’s mosque at Isfahan (Fig. 6)

The challenge to express God indirectly is met well by the arabesque. This style conveys a general aura of spirituality through an underlying unity,


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inherent proportion and balance. Its harmony and wholeness help to abolish notions of separateness from nature and within humanity. Inside the masjid the arabesque becomes, as it were, a living pattern dedicated to the praise of God. An example is the Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6: Arabesque and aniconic design in masjid decoration (Isfahan mosque decoration)

The arabesque also affords a correlation between cosmic and corporeal elements alluding to a connection between heavenly and earthly spheres. Continuity and harmony are suggested and through variety an echo of the unity in multiplicity is resounded. Moreover, since symmetrical designs always come to a centre, the arabesque punctuates the concept of tawḥīd. Such decoration is used in preference to figurative images in order to conjure the most sacred concepts achieved through the use of a high degree of complexity and sophistication demonstrable by the perfection and harmony of various tessellations, in particular the rub-el-hizb.

Fig. 7: Non-figurative mosque decoration “aris[ing] quietly and naturally from the surface.” (Wazir

Khan Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan)

From a theological standpoint masjid decoration seeks to create a sense of divine omnipresence and simplicity by focusing on harmony and balance without regard for excess or grandeur. The richness of mathematical designs affords a style generating a non-localized centre symbolizing Al-Wāsiʹ and underscoring the Qur’ānic verse: “wherever you turn there is the face of God.”26 The notion of Al-Qādir (The Omnipotent) is evoked by fractal geometry while a continuous generation of geometric patterning suggests Al-Bāsit (Divine Immensity), Al-ʹAwwal (The Infinite), and Al-Azalī (The Eternal).27 This represents the celestial, intelligible world, the archetypes which God creates and sustains in the universe also underscoring the notion of tawḥīd. Kumar mentions:

It is also significant that these infinitely extensible designs are themselves made up of individual, self-replicating units. In the Islamic context these have been interpreted as visual demonstrations of the singleness of [G]od and his presence everywhere. They represent “unity in multiplicity” and “multiplicity in unity”.28

Professor Khawaja Muhammad Saeed—University of the Punjab, Lahore, explains:

[masjid decoration] is the result of the manifestation of Unity upon the plane of multiplicity. It reflects in its own idiosyncratic manner the Unity of the Divine Principle - the dependence of all multiplicity upon the One-Allah (God).29

This requires a wide variety of architectural features and decorative devices—despite difference in place, material or style, to come together in a unified whole imitating al-mizan—the universe as a balanced whole. Kumar points out: “[f]lexibility of scale is matched by the interchangeability of the designs, which can contract or expand to fill different areas, indicating the all-pervasiveness of the one, unified divine principle.”30 Purity and orderliness evoke a sense of transcendent beauty which frees the intellect



from the illusions of figurative representation and the temporality of material structures. It is, in sense, a form of art without narrative seeking, above all, to capture Islam’s stance on the non-representationality of God’s immaterial essence while reflecting His divine attributes.

Qur’ānic Influences

Given Islam’s prohibition of figurative representation nearly all masājid have some kind of surface inscription taken from the Qur’ān. This is the hallmark of the masjid’s aniconic setting. In fact, since Islam holds that no image can represent the invisible and incomprehensible God, primacy of place in masjid decoration is given to calligraphy—the aesthetic manifestation of Islam’s kalām Allāh (Divine Word of God), a kind of creative lettering embellishing both masjid interior and exterior. Various Qur’ānic themes contribute to masjid architecture and design among which are the notions of creation’s perfection reflected in a concentrated effort on balance and order: “You see not in the creation of the All-merciful any disorder”;31 the divine quality of light: “Allah is the light of heavens and the earth”;32 and the unknown and unimaginable—ğayb ash-shahādah: “With Him are the keys of the secret things; none knows them but He.”33 The latter is reflected in masjid architecture’s preoccupation with the dissolution of matter, along with its hidden symbolism and patterning which produce a pervasive sense of other-worldliness. (Cf. Figs. 5 & 6).

The Divine Names

Some of the “Most Beautiful Names” of God enumerated in the Qur’ān and in commentaries on Sūrah Al-ʹIsrā34 and Sūrah Al-Hashr 35 also inspire masjid architecture and decoration. The most significant are:

Al-Waḥīd: Since the basic message of Islam is the worship of God alone, the principle of God as One and Unique is the overriding principle of Islamic theology and masjid architecture and decoration seek to reflect this.

Al-ʹAḥad: From tawḥīd flows a rich understanding of God as “Unity” and “Indivisible”. The mosque’s sense of space and use of fractal geometry capture this principle.

Al-Bāqīy: God as “Immutable”, “Infinite” and “Everlasting”, is reflected in the mosque’s interior surface decoration particularly in repetitive patterning and the arabesque.

Aẓ-Ẓāhir: By imitating nature masjid architecture reflects God as “The Manifest”, “The Evident”, “The Outer”.

Al-Bāṭin: The mosque’s non-figurative representation echoes a God who is Hidden, Unmanifest, Inner. Its spatial concept displays a sense of divine presence consistent with Islam’s emphasis on God’s immateriality, associating Muslims with the invisible spiritual order.

Al-Wāsiʹ: Masjid architecture reflects God as The Embracing, The Omnipresent, and The Boundless through its interior sense of open voluminous space and multiple interfacing surfaces.

Al-Khāliq: The mosque’s overall “submission” reflected in its imitation of nature’s beauty and order, and in its forms emulating the contours of the earth and archetypes of the universe, pays tribute to God as Creator of all things, the All-Knowing.

PART 2

Masjid Architectural Modules

The mosque’s theological significances are also witnessed in its individual architectural modules. These are resplendent with spiritual imagery inspired by Islamic theology.

Dome or qubba

The qubba, though not a requirement for masjid design, is, nevertheless, one of the mosque’s most emblematic features.36 As a spiritually significant shape the qubba is a significant factor in the creation of masjid sacred space. Its shape


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augments a sense of tawḥīd by uniting space. Form and volume combine to produce a “God-centeredness” by drawing the eyes, if not the spirit, upward. In this sense the qubba facilitates a connection between earthly and spiritual realms especially during ṣalāt.

The qubba also has the aesthetic advantage of introducing a differentiated spatial concept into masjid interiors by enclosing and separating space from the outside though simultaneously retaining it as open. This creates a hemisphere resembling the heavenly vault, thus domes of early Islamic buildings were called “qubbat al-khaḍrā’” (dome of the sky).37 Such a spatial conception contributes to the notion of divine immensity—God as Al-Wāsiʹ, and His superior relationship to space and transcendence of temporal limitations—God as Al-Mutakabbir (The Highest, The Greatest).

Minaret or manāra

The word manāra is etymologically linked to notions of fire and light, thus, from a theological viewpoint the manāra (minaret) stands as a symbol for spiritual “illumination.”38 It is attached to the exterior of the masjid and serves as a landmark and in the daily life of community prayer. Its architectural importance rests in its height as a tower and a beacon both used to indicate the place of divine worship. From an architectural viewpoint the manāra is claimed to be the most truly “Islamic” of all Islamic architectural features.39 Despite no longer being a functionary requirement for ādhān (call to prayer), a case is still made for the manāra to be incorporated into modern masājid designs as a component for the mosque’s identification.40

Muṣallā, Miḥrāb and Qiblah Wall

As masājid are principally, though not only, places for community prayer (ṣalāt) and tilawa (Qur’ānic recitation), the essential design requirements are directly related to these practices, namely, a muṣallā—prayer hall, and a miḥrāb—alcove in the qiblah wall from where prayers are led.41 The qiblah wall is the essential feature of the muṣallā insofar as it marks the direction of Mecca. The front of the muṣallā sits along this wall. The

openness of the muṣallā and the tranquillity it evokes reflect the pacifying presence of God’s Divine Word. The real importance of the muṣallā, however, lies in guiding the faithful physically and psychologically into the place of prayer by creating a sense of unity, directionality and universality. In so doing it underscores the notions of tawḥīd and waḥdat al-wujūd.

Ablutions Area

Before ṣalāt Muslims wash themselves in a ritual called wuḍū. This is performed in order to prepare the body and mind for prayer. Wuḍū symbolizes cleansing and purification of the soul (tazkiyah) to make one worthy to pray. The place of ablutions symbolises a transition from uncleanliness to purity—a “demi-sacred” place. Wuḍū is therefore carried out in an area considered contemplative as well as functional in order to assist in the psychological process of purification and in preparation for ṣalāt.

Courtyard

The masjid’s courtyard is typically constructed in a serene and noble manner resembling the stillness and inner nature of things. It serves to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers and to assist in the process of preparing for ṣalāt by acting as an intermediary between the public space of urban life and the spiritual space of the muṣallā. As such it helps the Muslim to pray by acting as a staging area before entering the muṣallā in order that Islamic ritualism may become true prayer.

Portal

When masājid are obscured by interfacing buildings such as those in congested urban centres like Fez, Morocco, or Cairo’s old city, the exterior focus is on the portal. This is retained in modern masjid designs where monumental portals are erected to give the impression of passing into another world—a spiritual homeland. It also serves to mark off the sacred space from ordinary worldly space.

Conclusion



In sum, this theologizing on the mosque establishes how Islamic theology plays a significant role in masjid architecture and decoration, and how the masjid’s definitive architectural integrity resides in the manner in which its material components and vast assortment of decorative motifs strike a successful balance with the spiritual and aesthetic values of Islam. It demonstrates that masjid architecture and decoration underwrite the mosque’s religious status and that these features are inspired by and reflect Islam’s fundamental message—“to surrender to the Law and Will of God.” In fact, looking at the mosque theologically confirms that this message is communicated through masjid architecture—the crystallization of Islamic spirituality, and its decoration—the aesthetic formulations of God’s irrepresentativity, to the point where any alleged distinction between the sacred and the secular in Islam is effectively inexistent. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Works Cited Akkach, Samer. “In the Image of the Cosmos Order and Symbolism in Traditional Islamic Architecture, Part 1” in The Islamic Quarterly, vol. XXXIX/1. 1995. Al Radwany, Mahmoud Abdul Razek. “Of the 99 Names Of Allah That We Repeat: Only 69 Are Authentic” in Al Ahram. 18 November 2005. Böwering, Gerhard. “God and His Attributes” in Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, Encyclopédie de l’Islam, Nouvelle Édition, eds. P. J. Bearman, T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs. Vols. IV & XIII. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2009. Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, eds. P. J. Bearman, T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, B. Lewis and C. H. Pellat. Vol. VI. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987. Erzen, Jale N. “The Aesthetics of Space in Ottoman Architecture” in Understanding Islamic Architecture. London: Curzon, 2002. Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir. The Mosque: The Heart of Submission. New York: Fordham University Press, 2006.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Islamic Art and Spirituality. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990 and Ipriwich, Suffolk: Golgon Press, 1987. Qu’ān. Various internet sources with C. E. Longhurst’s textual transliterations. Rippin, Andrew. “Desiring the Face of God: The Qu’ranic Symbolism of Personal Responsibility” in Literary structures of religious meaning in the Qur’an. London: Curzon, 2000. Saeed, Khawaja Muhammad. “Islamic Art and Its Spiritual Message” in International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, vol. 1 no. 2. February 2011. Sahīh Muslim (Siddiqui). Translated by Abd-al-Hamid Siddiqui. Text used in the USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. Steiner, George. Real Presences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. The Meaning of the Holy Quran. Beruit: Al-Aalami Publications, 2001. Turner, Jane, ed. The Dictionary of Art. Vols. 16 & 22. New York: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1996. Internet Sources Arabic/Islamic design, Towards a definition of Islamic design, online: http://catnaps.org/islamic/design2.html (accessed 10/11/2011). Khamenei, Ayatullah al-Uzma Sayyid Ali. Essence of Tawhid, online: Essence of Tawhid || Imam Reza (A.S.) Network (accessed 12/12/2011). Kumar, Nitin. Islam: Aesthetics of a Mystic Religion, online: http://www.exoticindia.com 2001 (accessed 02/01/2012). Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Principles of Islamic Art. A lecture given in Lahore, 1995, trans. M. S. Umar, online: http://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/apr02/08-Principles %20of %20Islamic%20Art.htm (accessed 12/11/2011). Spahic, Omar. A Conceptual Framework for Sustainability in Islamic Architecture: The Significance of the Islamic Concepts of Man and the Environment, online: http://ipac.kacst.edu.sa/edoc/1430/182508_1.pdf (accessed 12/12/2011). The Earth as a Mosque, online: http://medinanet.org/urban-planning/172-the-earth-as-a-mosque (accessed 17/12/2011).


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Photo Credits

Fig. 1 - Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey (Creative Commons) photo: Ggia.

Fig. 2 - Sultan Ahmet Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey (Shutterstock 94500190) copyright: Evren Kalinbacak.

Fig. 3 - Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan (Shutterstock 41528110) copyright: Naiyyer.

Fig. 4 - Sheikh Zayed Mosque at Abu Dhabi (Shutterstock 83469085) copyright: Vinnikava Viktoryia.

Fig. 5 - Shah Mosque, Isfahan, Iran (Shutterstock 92617246) copyright: Ko.Yo.

Fig. 6 - Interior dome, Sheikh Loft Allah Mosque, Isfahan, Iran (Shutterstock 46754929) copyright: javarman.

Fig. 7 - Wazir Khan Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan (not copyrighted).

Notes

1 Cf. Qur’ān 24:36. The English transliterations of Qur’ānic verses throughout this article are made by C. E. Longhurst and taken from The Meaning of The Holy Quran (Beruit: Al-Aalami Publications, 2001). The given quotation cited in this footnote is abbreviated from Sūrah Al-Nūr (On Light). The entire section of the verse would read: “[…] in houses which God has allowed to be exalted so that His Name shall be remembered therein.” 2 The mosque is more than just a place where Muslims go to worship, however, worship is undoubtedly its primary purpose. It also serves as a community center and has other functions in the life of the Muslim community as Martin Frishman and Hasan-Uddin Khan articulate in their volume The Mosque: History, Architectural Development & Regional Diversity. Cf. Martin Frishman, Hasan-Uddin Khan, eds., The Mosque: History, Architectural Development & Regional Diversity (London: Thames & Hudson, 2002). 3 The word islām means “to surrender (to God).” Cf. Encyclopédie de l’Islam, Nouvelle Édition, eds. P.J. Bearman, T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2009) vol. XIII, 296. The term also derives from the Arabic ʹaslama, which means “to submit” or “resign oneself.” It is also related to the Arabic word “salam” meaning “peace” and the Syriac ʹaslem – “to make peace” which in turn is

related to the Semitic stem of ʹslem which means “to be complete.” Cf. Ibid., vol. IV, 179-84. 4 The word masjid is derived from the verb sa-jada which literally means “to prostrate one’s self.” Its earliest origins denote “a place of prostration in prayer.” The term is also associated with the Nabataean msgdʹ meaning a votive stele, and with the Ethiopian mesgad meaning a church or temple. In Islam the mosque is also called a muṣallā, a place where one prays (ṣallā) and more commonly jāmiʹ (pl. jāwāmi‘) meaning “a gathering place.” Cf. The Dictionary of Art, ed. Jane Turner (New York: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1996), vol. 22, 195, article: Mosque, §2 (iii). See also Rusmir Mahmutćehajić, The Mosque: The Heart of Submission (New York: Fordham University Press, 2006), x. 5 Cf. Qur’ān 3:2, 2:255, 40:3. 6 Omer Spahic, A Conceptual Framework for Sustainability in Islamic Architecture: The Significance of the Islamic Concepts of Man and the Environment, 5.1, online: http://ipac.kacst.edu.sa/edoc/1430/182508_1.pdf (accessed 12/12/2011). 7 Omar Spahic, A Conceptual Framework for Sustainability in Islamic Architecture, op. cit., 5. 8 Ayatullah al-Uzma Sayyid Ali Khamenei, Essence of Tawhid, online: Essence of Tawhid || Imam Reza (A.S.) Network (accessed 12/12/2011). 9 Ibid. 10 Qur’ān 42:11. 11 Cf. Qur’ān 6:101, 15:87, 21:30, 33, 41:37, 55:3-9, 57:1-3, 59:24, 65:12. 12 Cf. Qur’ān 2:268, 3:73, 5:54. 13 Cf. Qur’ān 57:3. 14 George Steiner, Real Presences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 222. 15 Cf. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Principles of Islamic Art, a lecture given in Lahore, 1995, trans. M. S. Umar, online: http://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/apr02/08-Principles %20of %20Islamic%20Art.htm (accessed 12/11/2011). 16 Cf. Jale N. Erzen, “The Aesthetics of Space in Ottoman Architecture,” in Understanding Islamic Architecture (London: Curzon, 2002), 58. Erzen points out that everything is centred, or rather there is a centring of all that is—both immediate in the muṣallā and remotely through the qiblah wall and miḥrāb directing towards Mecca. 17 Ibid. 18 Nitin Kumar, Islam: Aesthetics of a Mystic Religion, online: http://www.exoticindia.com 2001 (accessed 02/01/2012). Kumar, scholar on the Vedas, Puranas, and the Brahma Sutras has authored several articles on this website. 19 Spahic is citing a hadith reported by Imam Bukhari and Imam Muslim which states: “the whole earth is created as clean and pure (tahur), and as a place of worship, as a masjid (mosque).” Cf. Omer Spahic, The Earth as a Mosque, online: http://medinanet.org/urban-planning/172-the-earth-as-a-mosque (accessed



17/12/2011). Spahic refers to Al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Tayammum, Hadith 323. Cf. Spahic, A Conceptual Framework for Sustainability in Islamic Architecture, op. cit., 5.2. 20 Cf. Qurʾān 2:115. 21 Omer Spahic, A Conceptual Framework for Sustainability in Islamic Architecture, op. cit., 5.2. 22 Jale N. Erzen, “The Aesthetics of Space in Ottoman Architecture,” in Understanding Islamic Architecture (London: Curzon, 2002), 63. 23 Cf. Samer Akkach, “In the Image of the Cosmos Order and Symbolism in Traditional Islamic Architecture, Part 1,” in The Islamic Quarterly, vol. XXXIX/1, (1995), 6-9. 24 Cf. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990), 65. 25 Qur’ān 42:11. 26 Qur’ān 2:109. Cf. Andrew Rippin, “Desiring the Face of God: The Qur’ānic Symbolism of Personal Responsibility” in Literary structures of religious meaning in the Qur’an, (London: Curzon, 2000), 117ff. 27 Despite this ornamentation, it is quite intentional, however, that the muṣallā would have simplified decoration in order not to interfere with divine worship. The miḥrāb is quite commonly an exception to this being one of the most decorated features of the mosque. 28 Ibid. 29 Khawaja Muhammad Saeed, “Islamic Art and Its Spiritual Message” in International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, vol. 1, no. 2; (February 2011), 228. 30 Nitin Kumar, op. cit. 31 Qur’ān 67:3. 32 Qur’ān 35:24. Light is a pervasive theme at the masjid. It is conceptually more resplendent than ordinary physical light, and its use is not based on practical considerations only but to create of a sense of transcendence and awareness as well. 33 Qur’ān 6:59. 34 Cf. Qur’ān 17:110 “Call upon Allah or call upon the Most Merciful. Whichever [name] you call, to Him belong the best names”; and various commentaries on the Divine Names, e.g., Gerhard Böwering, “God and His Attributes” in Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, and Sahih Muslim, 35:6475, and the article by Mahmoud Abdul Razek Al Radwany, “Of the 99 Names Of Allah That We Repeat: Only 69 Are Authentic” in Al Ahram (18 November 2005). 35 Cf. Qur’ān 59:24 “He is Allah the Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner; His are the most excellent names.” 36 Many modern mosques such as the Hassan II Mosque at Casablanca, Morocco, and several in the US and Canada are cutting-edge architecture constructions without domes. In fact domed mosques developed outside of Arabia only as late as the Ottoman dynasty (1281AD). Cf. The Dictionary of Art, ed. Jane Turner (New York: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1996), vol. 22, 195, article: Mosque, §2 (iii).

37 Cf. The Dictionary of Art, ed. Jane Turner (New York: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1996), vol. 16, 137, article: Islamic art, §1, 8 (x). 38 In fact the word manāra, used most frequently in literature to refer to the minaret, means candlestick or a stand in which light is placed; also lighthouse, watch-tower or signpost. Cf. Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, eds. P. J. Bearman, T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. Van Donzel, B. Lewis and C.H. Pellat, vol. VI (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987), 361. 39 Cf. Arabic/Islamic design, Towards a definition of Islamic design, online: http://catnaps.org/islamic/design2.html (accessed 10/11/2011). This position would seem to be based more on tradition than on architectural design. 40 Traditionally the manāra severed as the place from where the muezzin sounded adhan—the Muslim call to prayer. Despite modern sound equipment replacing this function, there is still a strong feeling among Muslims that the manāra, like the qubba, should remain an essential masjid module. 41 Unlike an altar which is a church’s focal point, the immediate focus inside the mosque is the qiblah wall. The remote or overall focus is one far-off—the ka’bah at Mecca. The only exception to this is Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām—the mosque at Mecca, inside which the ka’bah is located.

theology of a mosque the sacred inspiring form function and design in islamic architecture

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