Theories of Instructional Design Psychological Foundations, Learning Environments & Learner Motivation

Jordan Carswell

February 4, 2008

Assignment 2

INST 5131

Philosophical Foundations Many psychological theories have contributed to the field of instructional design.

Underlying them all, however, is the belief that instruction will lead to learning.

(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

  The central hypothesis of cognitive science is that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures.

Sensory Memory

•  Perceive, recognize, and code patterns

Short-term Memory

•  Temporary holding; make connections

Long-term Memory

•  Remember and apply information over time

(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

Mind as Computer

(Stanford University, 2007, para. 9)

The Learning Sciences

  Grounded in the cognitive sciences

  Learner as active agent, responsible for creating understanding

Design Research

  Formative experiments

  Learning takes place within the context of research

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models,” which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.

(Funderstanding, 2001, para. 1) (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

Defining Characteristics

  Learning takes place within a community of practice

  Knowledge is gained in the process of participating in the activities of the community

Individual

Community

Organization

Learning as Participation

(Wenger, 1998, as cited in Reiser and Dempsey 2007) (Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

The activity in which knowledge is developed and deployed, it is now argued, is not separable from or ancillary to learning and cognition.

(Brown, 1989, p. 32)

Defining Characteristics   Diversity of opinions

  Connecting nodes of information

  Learning can reside anywhere

  Connections must be nurtured

  Recognition of connections

  Staying current with information

  Individual decision-making

Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and self-organization theories.

Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of shifting core elements – not entirely under the control of the individual.

(Siemens, 2004, paras. 25-27)

design

cognitive

constructivist

situational

connectivist

Learning takes place in diverse settings. No one theory holds true for all situations.

Therefore, good design is agnostic, analyzing each unique problem and finding the appropriate solution whatever the source.

Learning Environments Whether in a lecture hall, on the job, or from a home computer, learning is shaped by place.

The learning environment is a key component of any theory of instructional design.

Learning Environment

Students observe the practices of experts as they learn to perform tasks on their own

  Abstract tasks are presented in a real-life context

  Task’s processes are visible to all learners

  Tasks are varied to encourage skill transfer by learners

In ancient times, teaching and learning were accomplished through apprenticeship: We taught our children how to speak, grow crops, craft cabinets, or tailor clothes by showing them how and by helping them do it.

(Collins, 1991) (Collins, 1991, para. 1)

Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.

Key Attributes

1   The Domain Shared competence and identity

2   The Community Shared activities and information

3   The Practice Shared experiences and resources (Wenger, n.d., para. 3)

(Wenger, n.d.)

PLEs aren’t an entity, structural

object or software program in the

sense of a learning management

system.

Essentially, they are a collection of

tools, brought together under the

conceptual notion of openness,

interoperability, and learner control.

What constitutes a PLE?

  Learner constructed environment

  Iterative, constantly open to revision and growth

  Mash-ups of web-based tools– not one size fits all

(Siemens, 2007, para. 2)

iCamp iCamp is a research and development project funded by the European Commission under the IST (Information Society Technology) programme of FP6. The project aims at creating an infrastructure for collaboration and networking across systems, countries, and disciplines in Higher Education.

Pedagogically it is based on constructivist learning theories that puts more emphasis on self-organised learning, social networking, and the changing roles of educators.

(iCamp, n.d., para. 1)

  Facilitators and learners in a

single virtual environment

  Comprised of a collection of

open source software tools

  Social constructivist approach

(iCamp, n.d.)

learn more: http://www.icamp.eu/

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Project   Lecture and hands-on lab

experiments combined

  Classroom redesigned for group interaction

  Media-rich software for simulation and visualization

  Technology-based learning materials

Learning Problem

Physics students were not engaged in the lecture hall environment (MIT, 2006)

Initial Results

Students significantly improved their understanding of physics in the TEAL environment (Dori and Belcher, 2005) (MIT, 2006)

On Visibility…

“As a web design instructor, I noticed that the quality of my students’ mastery of a task improved when they were able to observe the work of their classmates.”

On Modeling…

“Teaching faculty and staff how to use a new technology, I first show them how to do an activity and then sit with them as they repeat the activity on their own.”

Learner Motivation Human performance technology recognizes three influences on performance which must be addressed in successful instructional design.

Of these, motivation is critical as it plays a decisive role in whether a learner chooses to choose a goal or pursue an activity.

(Reiser and Dempsey, 2007)

I’d rather be kayaking…

•  Attention • Relevance • Confidence •  Satisfaction

Motivation

(Keller, 2006)

Design Process   Recognize elements of

human motivation

  Analyze and determine motivational requirements

  Identify instruction that will stimulate motivation

  Apply and evaluate plan

Behavior

Personal Factors

Environmental Factors

  Learners’ motivations and actions are based more on what they believe to be true than what is actually true

  Learners’ beliefs about their abilities often outweigh knowledge, skill, or experience in determining success

  Success can be predicted based on what learners believe themselves capable of achieving

(Pajares, 2002)

Reciprocal Determinism

(Adapted from Pajares, 2002)

Success is variously attributed to internal factors within one’s control or external factors outside one’s control.

Learner’s interpretations are based on self-perceptions and a desire to maintain a positive self-image.

Internal Attribution

  Success is determined by personal ability and effort

External Attribution

  Success is determined by outside factors, i.e. task, environment, or others

(Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2001)

(Vockell, n.d.)

  Focused on the uncovering the key properties of a goal

  Specificity and difficulty level

  Goal effects on the individual, group and organization

  Learning vs. performance goals

  Mediators and moderators of goal effects

  Goals as mediators

  Goal source (self, assigned, group)

Self-efficacy

Personal Goal

Assigned Goal Performance

(Locke and Latham, 2002, p. 714) (Adapted from Locke and Latham, 2002, p. 709)

  Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1988). Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning.

Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Center.

  Brown, J. S. (n.d.). New Learning Environments for the 21st Century. Retrieved February 2,

2009 from: http://www.johnseelybrown.com/newlearning.pdf

  Collins, A. (1991). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Making Things Visible. American Educator: The

Professional Journal of the American Federation of Teachers. 15 (3), 6-11,38-46.

  Dori, Y. J., & Belcher, J. (2005). How Does Technology-Enabled Active Learning Affect

Undergraduate Students' Understanding of Electromagnetism Concepts? JOURNAL

OF THE LEARNING SCIENCES. 14 (2), 243-279.

  Funderstanding (2001). Constructivism. Retrieved February 2, 2009 from:

http://www.funderstanding.com/content/constructivism

  Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology (2001). Attribution theory. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2699/is_0003/ai_2699000382

  iCamp (n.d.). Crossing the border to the future of education. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from:

http://www.icamp.eu/

  Keller, John (2006). What are the elements of learner motivation? Retrieved February 4, 2009

from: http://www.arcsmodel.com/Mot%20dsgn%20A%20cate.htm

  Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and

Task Motivation. American Psychologist. 57 (9), 705-17.

  Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2006). Technology Enabled Active Learning (TEAL).

Retrieved February 3, 2009 from: http://icampus.mit.edu/projects/TEAL.shtml

  Pajares (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retrieved February 4,

2009 from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html

  Reiser, R.A. & Dempsey, J.V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology

(2nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

  Siemens, George (2004). Connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved

February 3, 2009 from: http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm

  Siemens, George (2007). PLEs – I Acronym, Therefore I Exist. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from:

http://www.elearnspace.org/blog/2007/04/15/ples-i-acronym-therefore-i-exist/

  Vockell, Edward (n.d.). Attribution Theory. Retrieved February 4, 2009 from:

http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdpsyBook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm

  Wenger, E. (n.d.). Communities of practice. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from:

http://www.ewenger.com/theory/index.htm