to the student - pearson education€¦ · public speaking: strategies for success is based on the...

to the Student

i was fortunate to have an excellent education in both high school and college. I had many stimulating and useful courses, interesting and challenging teach-ers, and rewarding and enjoyable experiences. But if I had to single out the most

important course I had, without a doubt it would be public speaking. I think my experience was not unique and I hope yours will be similar.

You may be taking this course because you want to improve your voice or physi-cal delivery, or to overcome speech anxiety, or to organize your thoughts better, or to learn how to do good research. You may have picked this class because a friend is in it, or because it meets at a convenient time, or even because it is required. I'm willing to predict that if you take the course seriously and work at it, you not only will achieve your goals but will go far beyond them. I know I did.

I wanted to become more comfortable in speaking before a group and to learn how to use my voice effectively and how to control distracting mannerisms. I accomplished those goals but also learned how to think analytically, how to orga-nize ideas, how to do research, how to assess an audience, how to inform and persuade. It was not long before I realized that these skills and habits were valuable not just in public speaking, but in every other course and, indeed, in almost every aspect of life. When my daughter and my son each took a public speaking course, they experienced very similar results and, of course, I greatly enjoyed observing the positive effect the course had on each of them.

For over 2,500 years, men and women have studied the art of public speaking, both because it is valuable in its own right and because, in the best sense of the term, it is a liberal art—one that frees and empowers people. It does so by pro-viding the knowledge, cultivating the skills, and modeling the habits of effective thought and expression that can be applied to any area of life. You are the latest link in this chain and I hope that this book, and the course of which it is a part, will help you to have a similar experience.

The title of this book is Public Speaking: Strategies for Success. That title has a double meaning. First, this book is about strategies for success in public speaking. Second, the premise of the book is that public speaking will provide you with strat-egies for success in life. Certainly it does not promise fame or fortune, but it does offer a blend of reflective judgment and carefully chosen action that should enable you, whatever your experience, to enjoy a life well lived.

I have used the term strategy to emphasize that public speaking is about choices. It is an art and not a science. When you speak, you will be faced with situ-ations that offer both opportunities and constraints. You will want to decide how to work within this situation to achieve your goals, and your plan for doing so is a strategy. And even as you make choices in response to a situation, the pattern of your choices actually helps to define what the situation is. It affects you, but you also affect it.

Thinking strategically about public speaking means abandoning the belief that there is an all-purpose magic formula that will always produce a good speech. You will have to make judgments each time you speak about what your goals should be and the best way to achieve them. With experience and practice, you should

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find choices easier to make. Although, as you will see, there are some general norms and expectations, a speech is good not because it follows some formula, but because it deals effectively with a specific situation. A speech that is good in one context may be weak in another. It is always necessary to get down to cases.

For that reason, you will find many examples and case studies in this book. Some come from student speakers and some from speakers in the “real world.” Some are actual situations and some are hypothetical ones that I have designed to illustrate important principles. Some describe what speakers actually did, and some ask you what you might do. Just as lawyers learn the law, in part, through the case method, so you will cultivate and sharpen the skills of public speaking by try-ing them out on specific cases.

Case material will be provided not only by this book, but also by your class. You will have the opportunity not only to present speeches, but to listen to many as well. Listening to speeches is important, not just a necessary evil to be endured while you wait your turn to speak. You develop habits of analysis and memory, you see a large array of choices other students make in specific situations, and you gain skill in assessing whether strategies succeed or fail and in deciding whether or not they are strategies that you might wish to use.

At the same time, Public Speaking does not study cases in a vacuum. It draws on underlying theory to explain these situations. Theory does not refer to that which is impractical; nor does it refer to a lot of fancy terms or ideas that seem isolated from reality. Although sometimes the theory and practice of public speaking are stud-ied in isolation, the premise of Public Speaking is that they need to be integrated at every step. Theory informs our understanding of practice by enabling us to ex-plain what is happening in particular situations. And practice applies and modifies our understanding of theory. What you learn about theories of arrangement, for instance, will help you to organize a speech, but your experience in organizing speeches will also contribute to your thinking about theories of arrangement.

More than 50 years have passed since I first enrolled in a course in public speak-ing. Now you are starting the same journey. This book, your own experience, and the interaction with other students and your instructor are all vital parts of the course. Participate fully and try to get as much from the course as you can. I hope that, like me, you will find that you not only achieve your original goals, but actu-ally transcend them and I hope that a course in public speaking contributes as much to your life as it has to mine.

David Zarefsky

To the Student xix


to the instructor

i f you are using this textbook for the first time, welcome. If you are a previous user, I am grateful for your support and enthusiasm and I hope you will like the approach of this seventh edition.Public Speaking: Strategies for Success is based on the premise that successful public

speaking is strategic. It involves understanding the circumstances in which one speaks, making deliberate choices about how to deal with these circumstances, and planning in order to achieve one’s speaking goals. The key elements in a strategic approach to pub-lic speaking are critical thinking and strategic planning, skills emphasized throughout this book. Equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills, students can learn to make skillful and intelligent choices in public speaking situations throughout their lives.

A consequence of a strategic perspective is the recognition that public speaking is not a science with universally applicable principles or a set of formulas that can be applied mechanically or by rote. It is more complicated than that, involving subjective judgment and human choice. We do our students a disservice if we pretend otherwise. Instead, by equipping them with necessary knowledge and skills, we should help to prepare them to make these choices skillfully and intelligently. That is a goal of this book.

To say that the subject matter is complex, though, is certainly not to say that the textbook must be dull, tedious, or unreadable. I have tried to make the text readily accessible to students without compromising the integrity of the subject matter.

The title of the book, Public Speaking: Strategies for Success, has a double mean-ing. The book offers a strategic perspective that should lead students to become more successful public speakers. And the art of public speaking provides many of the strategies for students to succeed in many different walks of life. I hope that this book will help you to empower your students to achieve those goals.

New to this EditionIn this new edition, Public Speaking: Strategies for Success maintains its solid foun-dations of strategy, practical skills, rhetorical theory, diversity, ethics, and civic par-ticipation, while revising and updating key areas to reflect the needs of today’s beginning speakers. Some key areas revised in this edition include:

1. Further integration of Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives have been re-fined and visually emphasized in the chapter-opening sections; numbered iden-tifiers for each objective appear in the chapter margins near related discussions;

and the objectives now provide the framework for the end-of-chapter summary sections, “What Have You Learned?”

2. Expanded oral citation coverage: More discus-sion of how to create and use oral citations, including examples, gives students additional guidance on this often-challenging aspect of preparing a speech.

3. Updated coverage of technology: Updated discussions of technology-related issues in public speaking include such areas as social media and the public forum, speak-ing for the camera, mediated audiences, search engines,

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69

Learning Objectives

after studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Objective 4.1 Distinguish between hearing and listening and explain why listen-ing skills are important to speakers.

Objective 4.2 Identify obstacles to effective listening.

Objective 4.3 Listen carefully by mapping the central ideas of a speech and by taking notes.

Objective 4.4 Describe how critical thinking is applied in the speaking situation.

Objective 4.5 Evaluate speeches as a result of critical listening.

OutLine

are You really Listening?Why Listening Is Important | Why Listening Is Difficult

Strategies for Careful ListeningMapping | Note Taking

Listening CriticallyCritical Thinking | Applying Critical Thinking to the Speech Situation

evaluating Speeches CriticallyEvaluation Standards | Evaluating Classroom SpeechesEvaluating Speeches Outside of the Classroom | Rhetorical Criticism

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databases and catalogs, and audiovisual media and multimedia presenta-tions, including additional advice for creating slides.

4. Expanded material on creating speeches for diverse audiences: More examples and practical tips are given for how students can respect diversity in their speeches, including areas such as the use of volume and gestures, strategies for building good will, language choices, and respectful uses of reasoning.

5. The rhetorical situation: Discussion of the rhetorical situation appears ear-lier in Chapter 1, linking it more closely to the process of communication, and includes discussion of interference.

6. The public forum: Expanded discussions include effects of social media on the public forum; when the public forum is present; and how informative speeches fit within the public forum.

7. Examples: Along with a variety of updated and revised examples in the text, new examples of complete preparation and presentation outlines from a student speech are included and extensively annotated, and a new student speech is in the appendix. Additionally, examples have been visually distin-guished throughout the text to better highlight them for student learning.

8. Revised appendix of sample speeches: Featuring a more focused collection of student and public speeches, the appendix includes the full text of a new student speech—“The Internet and Intellectual Property,” utilizing a mix of informative and persuasive strategies—and a new “For Further Study” sec-tion recommending additional speeches for analysis and discussion, anno-tated with notes on what students should look for when reading or listening to the speeches.

9. New and updated research: Every chapter includes new or updated research to keep the text current on topics from technology issues and speech anxiety to gestures and language choice.

Public Speaking teaches Strategic PlanningFar too often, students leave a public speaking class with nothing more than a recipe for how to prepare and deliver a seven-minute speech in class. Certainly, being able to prepare and deliver that class-room speech well is a start. The goal of this book, however, is to help students also learn how to apply the skills required for that seven-minute classroom speech to the range of public speaking situations they will encounter throughout their lives. Stu-dents should recognize how often they will find themselves participating in speaking situations, whether as a public speaker or as an audience member. They need to think through and about the public speaking process and to develop strategies to achieve their goals.

Choose a Strategy. The Choose a Strategy boxes in each chapter present students with a case study allowing them to decide how the skills and

To the Instructor xxi

314 Chapter 13 Informing

Now that we have explored delivery, audience analysis, research, reasoning, organization, and language, we are ready to bring these skills together into a complete speech. To do so, we should revisit two related concepts: purpose

and strategy. A speech is designed to achieve a purpose, and strategic planning is the process of deciding how your speech can best do that.

In Chapter 6, we examined seven different kinds of purpose:

• Providing new information or sharing a perspective

• Setting the agenda

• Intensifying or weakening a feeling

• Strengthening commitment to a position

• Weakening commitment to a position

• Converting the audience away from one belief and toward another

• Inducing a specific action

Now the question is which strategies are most appropriate for achieving these purposes?

Planning Your StrategyBroadly speaking, speech goals are achieved through the strategies of informing, persuading, and entertaining. These are sometimes mistaken as resulting in three fundamentally different kinds of speeches. In fact, though, because successful shar-ing of information also affects people’s attitudes, informing and persuading occur together. Likewise, a successful persuasive speech is also entertaining and enjoy-able to listen to, and an entertaining speech usually also conveys new information.

The broad strategies overlap, then, and they do not exclude each other. So if your assignment is to present “an informative speech,” this does not mean that you should avoid saying anything entertaining or persuasive. Rather, you should achieve your purpose primarily through strategies of informing.

Defining Your specific PurposeWhat happens if the assignment does not specify a purpose? Or what if you are speaking outside the classroom setting? Then you must decide what you want to achieve (for example, to teach people something new, to get them to contribute money to a cause, or to make them laugh). You will need to assess how the audi-ence and the occasion create opportunities or constraints. Finally, based on this analysis, you will define your specific purpose.

For example, suppose that many of your listeners believe that the Internet should be regulated to protect children from indecent material. Your own opinion is exactly the opposite, and you would like to change their minds. But you know (or will learn in the next chapter) that people do not usually make major changes in their beliefs because of a single speech. You also realize that although most of your listeners use the Internet frequently, they lack a basic grasp of the decentral-ized and transnational structure of the Web that makes regulation of the Inter-net so difficult. Finally, you will be speaking at an educational conference that is exploring how better to use the Internet in elementary school classrooms. All of

OBJECTIVE

13.1

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Selecting and Arranging Supporting Materials 229

Selection of Supporting materialshow much? Probably the most important question, and the hardest to answer, is “How much support is enough?” You need to offer enough evidence to establish your claims but not so much that the speech becomes repetitive and boring. But how do you know what is the right balance?

The only all-purpose answer to this question is, “It depends.”8 It depends, most of all, on your audience analysis. In examining listeners’ prior understanding of your topic, you may find that your main idea is one with which they are likely to agree. If so, a relatively modest amount of support will be enough. But if the audience is likely to find your main idea controversial, you will need more support to convince doubters.

For example, a speaker who tells a college audience that the legal drinking age should be lowered to 18 is probably “preaching to the choir.” These listeners have likely already accepted the claim, and so the speaker needs only a few pieces of reliable supporting material. But a speaker who tells the same audience that the legal drinking age should be kept at 21 will probably need to supply much more evidence to convince listeners that the disadvantages of change would outweigh the benefits. In contrast, if the audience were composed of older people, the re-verse would likely be true: The speaker who wants to raise the drinking age might need less supporting material than the speaker who wants to lower it.

Besides listeners’ beliefs about the specific topic, their common knowledge and experience will affect how much supporting material you need. Also, if they are skeptical by nature, you will want to add more support. If they are impatient or are not good listeners, you will want to keep the speech short and the supporting ma-terials simple. If they are accustomed to asking questions after a speech, you will want to anticipate their major questions and to incorporate supporting material that prepares you to answer them.

The general principle to follow is: The greater the distance between the audience’s cur-rent views and the position you wish listeners to adopt, the more supporting material will be required. Yet you also must be careful not to stereotype or to assume that all listeners would identify their position on an issue in the same way.

CHOOSE A STrATEgy: Organizing your Speech

The SituationYou and a number of other students are dismayed by your uni-versity’s decision to limit Internet access to certain sites on campus. You’ve been attending rallies against the policy and have been invited to speak at the next student government meeting about your objections.

Making Choices1. How should you decide what main points you want to relay to

your audience, and in what order should you present them?

2. What do you know about the school board’s position that would affect your organizational choices?

3. What kind of supporting material would be important to include—and where in the speech should you in-clude it?

What If…How would your organizational decisions change if the follow-ing were true?1. There was evidence of illegal Internet activity among the

student population.

2. The university had asked for student feedback before making the decision to limit Internet access.

Watch the Video “Persuasive Speech: Secondhand Smoke” at MyCommunicationLab

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xxii To the Instructor

concepts discussed can be adapted to a concrete rhetorical situation. Although these open-ended situations usually have no “correct” solutions, they train students to size up a situation, understand its opportunities and constraints, assess ideas, and reason with an audience in mind.

Public Speaking teaches rhetorical theory and Critical thinking SkillsGrounded in the tradition of the art of rheto-ric, this text provides students with a begin-ning knowledge of rhetorical theory as they learn how to speak in public. Theory and practice are integrated as a seamless fabric, explaining clearly what students should do and why.

A full chapter focuses on reasoning in the context of the entire speaking situation (not limited to persuasive speeches).

178

Chapter

8Reasoning

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Strategies for Analyzing the Audience 113

communication that a woman uses at work is not the same standard that she uses as a wife or mother at home.

Similarly, we may think of speech topics as representing different fields, or subject-matter areas, with different norms and assumptions. For example, most of us regard religion, politics, science, and art as distinct fields. We would not expect an audience to listen to a political speech with the same standards in mind that they would use in assessing a religious discourse. Nor would we expect science and art to evoke the same standards of quality.

In using roles or fields to simplify audience analysis, you should emphasize the particular role or field that seems most relevant to your speech. When addressing an audience at your church, for example, focus on members’ moral and religious commitments. When speaking at a rally for student government candidates, focus on the common field of campus politics. And when giving a speech to the local Parents and Teachers Association, focus on listeners’ common concerns for chil-dren rather than on their highly diverse concerns as employees and taxpayers, men and women, and people of different ages.

In using simplifying devices to analyze an audience, keep in mind that gener-alizations often lead to stereotyping. Whether your assumptions about listeners’ shared characteristics are true or not, you also want to show sensitivity to the many differences among audience members.

fieldsSubject-matter areas with distinct norms or assumptions.

rhetorical Workout

Learn About Your ListenersYou have been asked by the head of the non-profit organiza-tion where you volunteer once a week to give a presentation to several people who want to start their own non-profit or-ganization on how to use the Internet for publicity. Before you prepare your speech, you want to understand more about your audience in order to decide what to cover.1. What clues about your listeners have you been given so

far, in the above description?

2. The head of your non-profit will be hosting the presenta-tion. What are some questions you could ask her ahead of time that would help you prepare?

3. Which of the following audience demographics, if known, might affect how you approach your speech topic: audi-ence size, diversity of views, age, gender, religion, eth-nicity, native language, educational level, socioeconomic status? Choose one you think is important and explain how it could affect your speech.

4. You know a person who has spoken to a different group of people interested in non-profits on a different topic. What are some questions you could ask him that would help you?

5. You learn that all those who will be present receive a monthly newsletter via e-mail, and you are able to find the back issues online. How might this information help you analyze your listeners?

6. You do some research to learn more about people in-terested in starting a non-profit. How useful would each of the following be for you: (1) a national statistic that 75 percent of people who wish to start a non-profit have no experience with Internet publicity; (2) an ar-ticle profiling people wishing to start non-profits in an-other state who have limited budgets for promotional activities; (3) the history of your own non-profit; (4) a list of people interested in starting non-profits and the businesses in which they previously have worked? Explain why.

7. If you prepared for an audience of 10 people and 30 show up, what are some ways you might have to adapt for this? If you assumed that your audience would be eager to learn how to create Internet publicity but ob-serve that a few people seem skeptical of its value, how might you adapt for this?

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rhetorical Workout. The Rhetorical Workout feature in each chapter offers students a focused, step-by-step application of public speaking concepts. Each workout strengthens the student’s public speaking skills just as a physical workout strengthens the muscles.

Critical thinking Skills. Practical applications of critical thinking skills are emphasized throughout, such as active listening skills, topic analysis, and reasoning. These and many other applied concepts are recapped through the Checklists.

Evaluating Speeches Critically 85

national budget surplus would justify a tax cut may not square with another belief you hold—that there are significant needs for increased spending on education and health care that the surplus would make possible.

These four sets of questions are intended to help you de-velop a clear understanding of what a speaker is asking you to think about, to believe, or to do. They will help you to form a careful and reflective judgment about whether to agree with the speaker. But listening critically does not mean that you have to subject a speaker to an inquisition before accept-ing anything he or she says. Rather, it is a way to “trust, but verify”—to accept the ethos of the speaker but not to depend entirely on that in deciding whether the speech makes sense.

Evaluating Speeches CriticallySo far, we have considered one dimension of critical listening: judging whether a speaker’s ideas are sound. We saw that the basic skills of critical thinking are used as well in thinking strategically about the thesis and supporting ideas of a speech. Now we will consider a second dimension of critical listening: assessing the strength of the speech as a speech. This evaluation centers on three questions:

1. Did the speech demonstrate the principles and techniques of public speaking?

2. What was strong and what was weak about the speech?

3. How might the speaker improve the speech?

This dimension of critical listening is especially important in a public speaking class.

critical thinking about a speech❒ Are the main ideas identifiable?❒ Are the links among the ideas reasonable?❒ Are the ideas supported where necessary?❒ How does accepting or rejecting the thesis

affect my other beliefs?

CHECKLIST 4.2

CHooSE A STRATEgY: Listening Critically

The SituationYou and a small group of classmates are working together to practice your speeches for an upcoming presentation. Bansi has asked you to listen to a practice run of her speech on Iran’s nuclear enrichment program and the threat it poses to world peace. You feel Bansi’s speech is well organized, but you don’t understand why she picked this topic or its relevance to you as a college student. Halfway through her speech you find yourself thinking about plans for the evening—your dinner date, finishing your own project, doing laundry, and preparing for class the next day.

Making Choices1. What strategies could you use to help listen more care-

fully to Bansi’s speech?

2. What questions could you ask to help better understand Bansi’s topic and its relevance?

3. How can you use critical-thinking skills to provide useful feedback to Bansi? What recommendations might you have for her?

What If…How would your listening strategies change if the following were true?1. You are in the nuclear energy business.

2. You are critiquing Bansi’s speech for a graded assignment.

OBJECTIVE

4.5

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xxiii

Public Speaking Stresses analysis, research, and Evaluating SourcesThe investigation and research process is covered in detail, with specific advice and guidance for analyzing a thesis to discover new subtopics and approaches. Emphasizing critical evaluation of sources, the research chapter helps students learn how to choose effective supporting material, how to judge if a source is credible, and how to cite sources. Evaluation of Internet sources receives special attention.

In addition, Chapters 7 and 15 incorporate the information technology that students know and use today, both for research and for pre-sentation aids. With the distinction between electronic and printed materials becoming more blurred, each chapter offers a unified perspective, treating research sources and visual aids without regard to their medium.

Evaluating Evidence 167

The Quality of Internet EvidenceThere are additional concerns that relate to evidence obtained from the Internet. The Internet has been described as the most democratic means of publishing there is. Virtually anyone can post virtually anything on the Web. As a consequence, there is al-most no editorial or quality control except whatever is exercised by the producer of the site. An online version of a printed pub-lication—an electronic copy of a print journal article, for exam-ple—can be assumed to reflect the same editorial judgment as the printed publication itself. At the other extreme, an individual’s personal website may not have been checked at all. And some organizations whose mission is to promote a particular viewpoint can be deceptive, presenting propaganda as if it were scholarship.

Search engines attempt to distinguish between reliable and unreliable websites, but they cannot do so perfectly. And whether the site looks “professional” is not a reliable indica-tor either, because it is easier to design a sophisticated-looking site than it is to produce a book. In fact, sophisticated websites that look like those of easily recognized organizations have been created for the purpose of coaxing individuals to reveal their Social Security and credit card numbers in order to facilitate identity theft. This, of course, is fraud.4 Extra vigilance is needed to be sure that you take only reliable evidence from the Web. For these reasons, the responsibility to evaluate Internet evidence rests with you. We need, therefore, to note some special pre-cautions about supporting materials from electronic sources. The following ques-tions are especially pertinent:5

• Does the site meet the basic standards of credibility? At a minimum, a credible website should contain the name of the sponsor, identification of expert and believable author(s) or contributor(s), and information that is cur-rent, appropriate, and capable of being checked for accuracy.

• Who set up the website? If you cannot tell who sponsors the site, be suspi-cious of its contents. People or organizations with an ax to grind can disguise their motivations or identity, leading you to regard biased information as though it were neutral. One clue to a site’s reliability is its domain name—the last portion of its URL. As a general rule, URLs that end in .gov (government agency) or .edu (educational institution) may be more reliable sites than those ending in .org (organization) or .com (commercial source).

• What are the source’s credentials? To determine whether the author has expertise on the subject, you should check a credentials page. You may need to trace back in the URL (Internet address) to find one. If the author has a specific agenda or ideology, take that into consideration when you evaluate the source.

• What is the purpose of the website? If the goal is to sell a product or ser-vice or to campaign for an individual or a point of view, you should examine the content more skeptically than if the goal is simply to provide information. Sometimes the site’s purpose will not be apparent from its title and the name of the source. You will need to read through the material on the site in order to form a judgment.

CheCKLIST 7.3

testing the credibility of supporting Material6

❒ Is the evidence available for inspection?❒ Is the evidence accurate?❒ Is the source credible?❒ Is the source making statements within his

or her expertise?❒ Is the evidence internally consistent?❒ Is the evidence contradicted by the best evi-

dence from other sources?❒ Is the evidence recent enough?❒ Is the evidence relevant to the point that it

supports?


To the Instructor xxiii

table 7.3 bibliographic Formats

American Psychological Association (APA)—References

Type of Source Sample Format

Book White, R. C., Jr. (2009). A. Lincoln: A biography. New York, NY: Random House.

Chapter from an edited book

Hauser, G. A. (2008). Rethinking deliberative democracy: Rhetoric, power, and civil society. In T. F. McDorman and D. M. Timmerman (Eds.), Rhetoric and democracy: Pedagogical and political practices (pp. 225–264). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.

Magazine or newspa-per article (online)

Stolberg, S. G., & Zeleny, J. (2009, September 10). Obama, armed with details, challenges Congress. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

Magazine or newspa-per article (print)

Stolberg, S. G., & Zeleny, J. (2009, September 10). Obama, armed with details, challenges Congress. New York Times, p. A1.

Journal article (online) Howell, B. W. (2008). Reagan and Reykjavik: Arms control, SDI, and the argument from human rights. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 11, 389–415. doi: 10.1353/rap.0.0045

Journal article (print) Bostdorff, D. M. (2009). Judgment, experience, and leadership: Candidate debates on the Iraq war in the 2008 presidential primaries. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 12, 223–277.

Web page Mehltretter, S. A. (2009). John F. Kennedy, “Inaugural Address,” 1961. Voices of Democracy. Retrieved from http://www.voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/documents/Mehltretter-Kennedy.pdf

Personal interview* *Interviews are not listed in References. Cite in outline or text as: (O. Winfrey, personal communication, August 15, 2009).

172 CHAPTER 7 Researching the Speech

(continued )


Public Speaking Integrates theory and PracticeAn approach that views public speaking as a set of formulas or rules to be fol-lowed is of limited value. Few actual speaking situations will match exactly those for which the “rules” were written; students need instead to be able to adapt to the particular situations in which they find themselves. In order to do that, they must understand the theory behind the rules. Recognizing this fact, some books try to “import” theory, including all the latest specialized terms and jargon. This book instead integrates theory into the underlying discussions of practice, not by highlighting obscure writers or technical terms, but by explaining clearly what stu-dents should do and why. The book is solidly grounded in rhetorical theory, but no prior knowledge of that field is either required or assumed. Theory and practice are treated as a seamless fabric.

Note Taking 173

table 7.3 bibliographic formats

American Psychological Association (APA)—References

Type of Source Sample Format

Book White, R. C., Jr. (2009). A. Lincoln: A biography. New York, NY: Random House.

Chapter from an edited book

Hauser, G. A. (2008). Rethinking deliberative democracy: Rhetoric, power, and civil society. In T. F. McDorman & D. M. Timmerman (Eds.), Rhetoric and democracy: Pedagogical and political practices (pp. 225–264). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.

Magazine or newspaper article (online)

Stolberg, S. G., & Zeleny, J. (2009, September 10). Obama, armed with details, challenges Congress. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com

Magazine or newspaper article (print)

Stolberg, S. G., & Zeleny, J. (2009, September 10). Obama, armed with details, challenges Congress. The New York Times, p. A1.

Journal article (online) Howell, B. W. (2008). Reagan and Reykjavik: Arms control, SDI, and the argument from human rights. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 11, 389–415. doi: 10.1353/rap.0.0045

Journal article (print) Bostdorff, D. M. (2009). Judgment, experience, and leadership: Candidate debates on the Iraq war in the 2008 presidential primaries. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 12, 223–277.

Web page Mehltretter, S. A. (2009). John F. Kennedy, “Inaugural Address,” 1961. Voices of Democracy. Retrieved from http://www.voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/documents/Mehltretter-Kennedy.pdf

Personal interview* *Interviews are not listed in References. Cite in outline or text as: (O. Winfrey, personal communication, August 15, 2009).

(continued )

was posted on the Internet (if that is available) and, for some citation styles, on when you obtained the information. If you think that the Internet source may play a large role in your speech, it is a good idea either to print or to download the elec-tronic document, preserving it in the form in which you consulted it.

Citing sources in notes or a bibliography is an essential part of your research. When you cite the source orally, during the speech itself, the process is a bit differ-ent. We will consider that issue in Chapters 9 and 11, when we discuss incorporat-ing supporting materials into the speech and the presentation outline.

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Public Speaking Features a Variety of Challenging Examples and applicationsBecause public speaking is situation-specific, this book includes a large number of cases and examples encompassing a wide range of topics and issues. Some

examples come from actual speaking situations, and others are hypothetical examples to illustrate points in the text. Also, some examples compare speeches in the classroom with speeches in the field, and there are both brief examples and some extended examples that can be followed throughout an entire chapter. The ex-amples emphasize a need to analyze and respond to audiences as an integral part of the strategic thinking

process. Both histori-cal and contemporary examples are featured. In keeping with the book’s emphasis on c iv i c engagement , many of the examples come from the realm of public affairs.

60 Chapter 3 Presenting the Speech

Impromptu presentationWhen you have little or no time to prepare specifically for a speech, you make an impromptu presentation. Perhaps someone at a meeting says something that in-spires you to respond, and so you raise your hand to offer your views. You thereby give a speech seemingly without any preparation at all. In fact, you may have “spent a lifetime” preparing for that speech. The issues are important to you, and you’ve thought about them a great deal. But you never imagined that you would be speaking about them on this particular occasion.

Structure an impromptu presentation as simply and clearly as possible. Because you do not have a chance to plan the speech in detail, you may become entangled in the web of your thoughts. The key is to focus on a very small number of main ideas, previewing and summarizing them so that listeners have no doubts about your thesis or how the ideas develop it. Impromptu speaking also often takes cues from previous speakers, referring to their specific points and suggesting how their message relates to yours.

Memorized presentationA memorized presentation is the opposite of impromptu; you pay such close attention to your text that you commit it to memory. This mode of speaking was highly valued in the past. School children studied famous orations and recited them by rote. Great orators often wrote out their entire speeches and then com-mitted them to memory.

Today few theorists advise anyone to memorize a speech. Besides the unnec-essary investment in energy, speaking from memory has other problems. First,

CHooSE a STraTEgy: Presenting your Speech

The SituationYou are a teacher at a grade school and your principal has asked you to present the new curriculum plan to the parents in your community and also to answer any questions they may have regarding these changes. There have been several major additions to the curriculum, and you want to make sure that each change is explained clearly to the parents. You will be presenting in the school gymnasium where a microphone and podium will be set up the evening of your speech—which is two weeks from today.

Making Choices1. Which presentation mode do you plan to use? Why?

What are the benefits and/or drawbacks of this mode?

2. How will you incorporate the podium into your presenta-tion, if at all? Will you use the microphone? Why or why not?

3. How will you prepare for your speech? How will you pre-pare to answer the audience’s questions?

What If…How would your presentation strategies change if the fol-lowing were true? Would your mode of presenting change? Would your practice strategies change? Why or why not?

1. You are presenting to a group of parents in a small classroom.

2. You have met each of the parents on an individual basis and know that they support the curriculum changes.

3. You have met with each of the parents on an individual basis and know that they do not support the curriculum changes.

4. Your principal planned to make this presentation but has become ill at the last minute. You need to give this presentation tomorrow.

impromptu presentationA mode of presentation in which the speaker has done little or no specific preparation for the speech.

memorized presentationThe opposite of speaking impromptu; the speaker pays close attention to a prepared text and commits it to memory.

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Proof, Support, and Reasoning 183

what the supporting material literally says, we feel justified in doing so because similar inferences in the past have usually led to acceptable results.3 Exploring dif-ferent kinds of inference and how they work is the primary purpose of this chapter.

an example of rhetorical proofAfter introducing a speech about the effect of tax increases on a family's budget, student Catherine Archer claimed

Taxes have taken a bigger bite out of the average paycheck each year. Just look at the record. Our state sales taxes have gone up faster than our income. Local property taxes have gone through the roof. And now the federal government is proposing to raise gaso-line taxes again. Where does it all stop?

After the speech, she invited questions from the floor. “What about Social Secu-rity?” one woman asked. Catherine replied

Thank you. That's still one more example of a tax that has gone up faster than income. In fact, many people today pay more in Social Security tax than in their income tax.

Then a man in the audience said, “Since you mentioned income taxes, I want to remind you about the significant cuts in income tax rates that were passed by Con-gress and signed by President Bush in 2001 and 2003. Congress also has cut taxes on capital gains and on dividends. Many of these tax cuts were extended in 2004 and 2006, and President Obama's budget left many of these tax cuts in place, so it's not true that the government always raises taxes.”

This man seemed to imply that Catherine had not considered all the possible taxes and had jumped to a conclusion. She didn't disagree with the man but re-stated her claim: “You're right about some of these specific cuts, but other taxes have gone up so much that my main point is still true. Besides, not all of these proposed tax cuts actually were enacted.”

This example illustrates five important aspects of rhetorical proof:

1. Reasoning plays the crucial role in linking supporting material to the claim. Catherine's reasoning connected specific examples to her claim that taxes take a larger share of the paycheck each year.

2. Reasoning depends on an inference but cannot guarantee that the inference is “right.” Nonetheless, we still can apply tests of soundness. In this case, for instance, do the examples really represent the overall tax picture, or has Catherine left out some important categories?

3. An inference often takes the form of an implicit statement that a general rule is being followed. Catherine's reasoning implied, “These examples of tax in-creases are significant and representative.”

4. The speaker and listeners together decide whether the inference is sound. This audience participated by asking questions that helped to identify pos-sible problems with Catherine's inference, and she had a chance to address their concerns. Together, speaker and audience probably became more con-fident about the inference. Even if audience members do not explicitly voice concerns, the speaker needs to think about what a critical audience might be asking and then build answers to those potential questions into the speech.

5. Nothing can guarantee that the inference of a rhetorical proof is correct, but tests have evolved over time to distinguish between good and bad inferences. Asking whether Catherine's examples represent all categories of taxes is one such test.


xxiv To the Instructor

Public Speaking Emphasizes Ethics and respect for Diverse audiencesEvery aspect of public speaking is affected by the need to be ethical and to under-stand and respect diversity in audiences.

Some textbooks have a single chapter on ethics, as if it could be studied in isola-tion. In contrast, this book reflects the view that ethical issues are involved in virtu-ally every aspect of public speaking.

a Question of Ethics. Each chapter includes the feature A Question of Ethics to highlight ethical issues students should consider as they prepare their own speeches or listen to the speeches of others. While some ethical standards—such as avoidance of plagiarism or racial s t e r e o t y p i n g — a r e clear-cut, many involve subjective and case-specific judgments. For this reason, many of the ethical issues are presented as problems about which students s h o u l d t h i n k a n d deliberate.

22 Chapter 1 Welcome to Public Speaking

A Question of Ethics

Ethnocentric AssumptionsIt is important for speakers to avoid making ethnocentric assumptions about the audi-ence. However, sometimes you will know quite a bit about your audience that could help you to target a message to your listeners. For instance, your audience may be people of the same age group, from the same community, or with the same religious beliefs. If you tailor your message to take advantage of this knowledge, is that ethnocentric? Is it pandering to the audience? Is it acceptable to be ethnocentric if your audience is in fact homogeneous? How do you maintain a balance between appealing to your audience and being careful not to pander to their prejudices?

respect for Your topicPresumably, you will be speaking about a topic that matters to you, and you will have something important to say. When you speak, you are putting yourself on the record; your words will outlast the actual speaking situation. You are also asking listeners to accept you as a credible source of ideas about the topic. To justify their confidence in you, and to meet your own high standards, you need to know what you are talking about in enough detail that you can present it clearly and fairly. You must demonstrate that you care enough about the topic to study it thoroughly. Otherwise, why should the audience take your ideas about the topic seriously?

responsibility for Your statementsA public speaker makes claims on the audience, and so you must take responsibil-ity for the accuracy and integrity of your statements. This is every bit as important in speaking as it is in writing, and similar guidelines apply.

Particularly in speaking (because listeners cannot see the printed word), you need to distinguish between fact and opinion, being careful not to misrepre-sent one as the other. Additionally, whether you are presenting fact or opinion, a statement is made in a particular context, and you must represent that cor-rectly; if not, you will mislead or deceive the audience. The film critic who writes, “Nothing could be better than this film if you are looking for a cure for insomnia,” does not want to be quoted as saying, “Nothing could be better than this film.” Likewise, stating that military spending has declined as a percentage of the gross domestic product over the past five years is not fair to the context unless you tell listeners that the source also said that actual military spending has increased by several billion dollars but that the economy grew at an even faster rate.

As in writing, one of the most irresponsible things you can do as a speaker is to present another person’s words or ideas as though they were your own. Such plagiarism is nothing less than theft. Usually it results from carelessness rather than malice, but the problem is the same.

To avoid plagiarism:

1. Never present someone else’s unique ideas or words without acknowledging it.

2. Specify who developed the ideas or said the words that you present (“As dis-covered by Professor Jones,” “Socrates said,” and so forth).

plagiarismUsing another person’s words as if they were your own.

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xxv

Strategies for Speaking to Diverse audiences. Far from being a “buzzword” or an emblem of “political correctness,” diversity of audiences on virtually every dimension is a fact with which speakers must be prepared to deal. It is a condition that affects every aspect of public speaking. Accordingly, throughout the book diversity is reflected in precepts and examples, and every chapter includes a feature entitled Strategies for Speaking to Diverse Audiences that includes tips on how that chapter can be applied in an increasingly diverse environment.

Public Speaking Emphasizes the Public ForumThis book grounds public speaking in the concept of the public forum and illustrates these speaking situations with both historical and contemporary ex-amples. Beginning speakers will learn what makes a healthy public forum and how to apply strategies to situations outside of the classroom—on campuses, in communities, and in other realms of public affairs.

I believe that public speaking is the single most important course in the curricu-lum because of the immense contribution it can make to students’ lives. Good luck as you work to make that happen. I hope that this book will help you.

David Zarefsky

To the Instructor xxv

358 Chapter 14 Persuading

Strategies for Speaking to Diverse audiences

Respecting Diversity Through PersuadingSuccessful persuasion meets listeners where they are and adapts to the opportunities and constraints of a situation. These factors are all more complex when an audience is di-verse. Here are strategies for success in persuading diverse audiences:

1. With diverse audiences, identification is both more important (since it cannot be taken for granted) and more difficult (since you must acknowledge the variety of your audience members’ beliefs and commitments). Identify with your listeners before moving them to a new commitment.

2. Consider the diversity of values and commitments. For in-stance, “family values” in Mexico include the expectation

that children live with their parents until they are married, whereas this is much less common in the United States.

3. Consider how different cultures may present you with dif-ferent constraints or opportunities. If your emotional ap-peal relies on a culturally specific value, then you may need to plan ahead and think about other possible strate-gies you might use.

4. Suggest actions that are appropriate and “do-able” for your specific audience. Calling on an audience to solve the Israel-Palestine conflict not only is asking for too much but may alienate certain audience members who think you are trivializing the issue.

5. Establish a positive ethos that invites trust from members of a diverse audience.

argue for the Solution. The final step in the problem–solution speech is to convince listeners that your solution really works—that it resolves the problem, is feasible, and produces benefits that outweigh its costs. Speakers too often neglect this final step, as though the value of the solution were self-evident. But if that were so, the solution would probably have been tried already!

Instead of taking the value of your solution for granted, give listeners rea-sons to believe that your solution is the best option. In the tobacco example, this final section of the body of your speech might be organized in the follow-ing way:

IV. The comprehensive solution I have proposed is the best way to deal with the use of tobacco among teenagers.A. It will stop tobacco use at the source when possible.B. It will deter the sale of tobacco products to teenagers.C. It will improve the quality of life for both smokers and nonsmokers.

From this example, you can see that the basic problem–solution organiza-tional pattern adapts easily to persuasive speeches. Although each step of the structure includes informative elements, the principal purpose of the speech is to affect the audience’s beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions—in other words, to persuade.

the Motivated SequenceA sequential scheme for achieving persuasion in a speech was developed many years ago by Alan H. Monroe.15 His motivated sequence is similar to the prob-lem–solution speech, but it is organized with respect to the audience’s motiva-tion, not the specific subject matter of the speech. The sequence has five steps (see Figure 14.2).

motivated sequenceA persuasive message that is organized in terms of steps in the audience’s motivation rather than in terms of the specific subject.

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18 Chapter 1 Welcome to Public Speaking

rhetorical Workout

Find the Public Forum in Your NeighborhoodYou and several of your neighbors would like to plan a neigh-borhood rummage sale. You set up a meeting to talk about when to have the sale and how to work together to promote it. Let's look at what makes this meeting a public forum.

1. What are the issues or problems affecting the group collectively? What kinds of issues might affect you and each of your neighbors individually? Outside of your group, who might be affected by what you decide?

2. Why is cooperative action needed in your meeting? Is it important for every person to participate in the deci-sion? Why or why not?

3. In the public forum, a decision requires subjective judg-ment, which means there is no one obvious solution and the participants may all have different opinions. How might this factor play out in your neighborhood meeting?

4. Why is a decision needed in your meeting?

5. Suppose you have recently moved in and don't know your neighbors very well yet. How can your speaking and communication skills help you contribute to the meeting and the group's decision?

budget may eclipse discussion of new academic programs in the public forum. This knowledge will help you to decide what to speak about and determine the specific questions you may want to address.

the health of the Public ForumAs you become skilled in public speaking, you become a more effective participant in the public forum. You are able to analyze important issues of public concern, to articulate your ideas and to relate them to others, to listen carefully and critically to other points of view, to weigh and evaluate arguments and evidence, and to bring your best judgment to issues that have no easy or automatic answer. As you exercise these skills, you strengthen the ties that unite participants in the public forum into a community or society. This is a benefit above and beyond the gains in personal self-

esteem and performance on the job that come with competence in communication.

Traditionally, the public forum has been associated with political questions. But the boundary between public and private is always shifting, and any subject might eas-ily find its way into the public forum. Styles in popular music, for example, become more than just private or individual choices in response to claims that the noise level is harmful to health or that the content leads children to violence. Personal choices of de-odorants or clothing are no longer just pri-vate matters when they are alleged to cause destruction of the ozone layer or exploitation of Third-World labor markets. And specu-lating in the stock market becomes a pub-lic matter when one’s investment choices

“Citizen comment” periods at city council meetings permit representatives of local groups to speak on their behalf. You might find yourself in this role.


The Public Forum 15

arrangementThe structuring of materials within the main ideas, the organization of main ideas within the body of the speech, and the overall structure of introduction, body, and conclusion.

the speech, then you conduct research to determine what ideas are support-able, and then you select the most effective materials for your purpose and audience.

• Arrangement is the structuring of ideas and materials in the speech. This includes the organization of materials for each main idea, the ordering and connecting of main ideas within the body of the speech, and the overall structure of the introduction, the body, and the conclusion.

• Style is the distinctive character that may make a speech recognizable or memorable. Style is achieved primarily through language, and it reflects the speaker’s awareness of how language can be used both to “show” and to “tell”—both to evoke emotions and to convey descriptive meaning.

• Delivery is the presentation of the speech. Whereas the preceding activi-ties are performed by the speaker alone, delivery involves actually sharing the message with the audience. Skillful delivery involves the effective use of voice, gesture, facial expression, physical movement, and visual aids.

• Memory was an extremely important category of skills at a time when most speeches were memorized. Today, however, most speakers use ei-ther extemporaneous presentation (referring to an outline) or manu-script presentation (reading a written script). Even so, some dimensions of memory are still very important—for example, keeping track of main ideas, phrasing ideas so that listeners will remember them, and precisely wording an effective introduction and conclusion. Memory skills also are critical in rehearsing your speech mentally and in practicing it aloud be-fore presentation.

The Public ForumThe word public in “public speaking” is important in at least two respects. First, it designates speaking that is open and accessible by others. A person who speaks publicly is inviting others to listen carefully and to think about and appraise the message. The speaker’s goal is that of informed choice, not forced compliance, on the part of the audience.

Second, speaking is public when it affects people beyond the immediate audi-ence. If you urge classmates to lobby for higher student activity fees, your remarks will have consequences for people who are not even present to hear you. If you explain how to examine the terms of a lease before signing it, listeners can follow your directions in ways that will affect others as well.

From the speaker’s point of view, giving a speech means entering into the public forum. Centuries ago, the forum was a physical place where citizens gathered to dis-cuss issues affecting them. Today, the public forum is not an actual place to which we go; instead, it is an imagined “space” that exists wherever people have the freedom to exchange ideas about matters that affect themselves and others. For example, in the United States religion usually is thought to be a private matter, but religious freedom is an important public value. So when, in early 2012, the federal government proposed rules requiring religious institutions to offer health insurance coverage for contracep-tion, the resulting controversy prompted vigorous debates among citizens who wrote letters and made telephone calls to express their opinions.

OBJECTIVE

1.4

manuscript presentationA mode of delivery in which the speaker reads aloud the prepared text of the speech.

extemporaneous presentationA mode of delivery in which the speech is planned and structured carefully but a specific text is not written in advance nor memorized.

memoryMental recall of the key ideas and the basic structure of the speech.

deliveryThe presentation of the speech to an audience.

styleThe distinctive character that may make a speech recognizable or memorable.

public forumA space (imagined, rather than physical) in which citizens gather to discuss issues affecting them; discussion characterized by certain assumptions about the need for cooperative action and subjective judgment to resolve a problem.

publicOpen to or accessible by others; affects others.


A wide array of additional instructor and student resources are available with this book, including

• Instructor’s Resource Manual

• Test Bank

• MyTest Computerized Test Bank

• PowerPoint Presentation Package

• Pearson Public Speaking Video Library

For a current, complete list of accompanying student and instructor supplements, visit www.pearsonhighered.com/communication. Select instructor supplements are available at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc (instructor login required).

Instructional resources


Instructional Resources xxvi xxvi

MyCommunicationLab is an online homework, tu-torial, and assessment program that truly engages students in learning. It helps students better prepare for class, quizzes, and exams—resulting in better per-formance in the course—and provides educators a dynamic set of tools for gauging individual and class progress. And, MyCommunicationLab comes from Pearson, your partner in providing the best digital learning experiences.

MyCommunicationLab Highlights:

■ MediaShare: This comprehensive file upload tool allows students to post speeches, outlines, visual aids, video assignments, role plays, group projects, and more in a variety of file formats. Uploaded files are available for viewing, commenting, and grading by instructors and class members in face-to-face and online course settings. Integrated video capture functionality allows students to record video di-rectly from a webcam and allows instructors to record videos via webcam, in class or in a lab, and attach them directly to a specific student and/or assignment. The MediaShare app is available via iTunes at no additional charge for those who have purchased MediaShare or MyCommunicationLab access.

■ The Pearson eText: Identical in content and design to the printed text, the Pearson eText lets students ac-cess their textbook anytime, anywhere, and any way they want—including downloading to an iPad. Students can take notes and highlight, just like a traditional text.

■ Videos and Video Quizzes: Videos provide students with the opportunity to watch and evaluate chapter-related multimedia. Many videos include automatically graded quiz questions.

■ PersonalityProfile: PersonalityProfile is Pearson’s online library for self-assessment and analysis. Online resources provide students with opportunities to evaluate their own and others’ communication styles. In-structors can use these tools to show learning and growth over the duration of the course.

■ Study Tools: A personalized study plan, chapter assessment, key term flashcards, an audio version of the text, and more provide a robust range of study tools to focus students on what they need to know, helping them succeed in the course and beyond.

■ Class Preparation Tool: Finding, organizing, and presenting your instructor resources is fast and easy with Pearson’s class preparation tool. This fully searchable database contains hundreds of resources such as lec-ture launchers, discussion topics, activities, assignments, and video clips. Instructors can search or browse by topic and sort the results by type. Personalized folders can be created to organize and store content or download resources, as well as upload your own content.

www.mycommunicationlab.com


acknowledgments

xxvii

reviewers for the Seventh EditionArticulating this perspective on public speaking in a textbook that is accessible to students has been a stimulating chal-lenge. All or part of the manuscript was read by Marty Birkholt, Creighton University; Jodi Gaete, SUNY Suffolk County Com-munity College; Laura Keimig, Creighton University; James L. Leighter, Creighton University; Daryle Nagano, El Camino College; Lynette Sharp Penya, Abilene Christian Univer-sity; Samuel Rindell, Three Rivers Community College; Brent Sleasman, Gannon University.

reviewers of Previous EditionsElizabeth R. Alcock, Bristol Community College; Ellen Arden-Ogle, Consumnes River College; Susan Baack, Montana State University; Ernest Bartow, Bucks County Community Col-lege; John Bee, Ohio State University; Sandra Berkowitz, Wayne State University; Vincent Bloom, California State University–Fresno; Barbara Blackstone, Slippery Rock University; Robert Bookwalter, Marshall University; Kristine S. Bruss, University of Kansas; Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University; C. Leilani Carver, University of Kansas; Leah Ceccarelli, University of Washington; Faye Clark, DeKalb College; Lisa Inzer Coleman, Southwest Tennesee Community College; Melanie Conrad, Berry College; Marion Couvillon, Mississippi State University; Marilyn Cristiano, Paradise Valley Community College; Jim Dittus, Highland Community College; Michael Howard Eaves, Valdosta State University; Susan Redding Emel, Baker Uni-versity; Patricia Faverty, Thomas More College; Mindy Fenske, University of South Carolina; William Fusfeld, University of Pittsburgh; Kathleen Galvin, Northwestern University; John Giertz, Bakersfield State University; Joseph Giordana, Univer-sity of Wisconsin–Eau Claire; William Goodbar, Old Domin-ion University; Andrea Gregg, Penn State University; Mark A. Gring, Texas Tech University; Rose Gruber, Gloucester County College; Richard Halley, Weber State University; Kelby K. Ha-lone, Clemson University; Katherine L. Hatfield, Creighton University; Diane Hill, Providence College; Heather Hundley, California State University—San Bernardino; Stephen K. Hunt, Illinois State University; Carol Jablonski, University of South Florida; Karla Kay Jensen, Texas Tech University; Richard Jen-sen, University of Nevada–Las Vegas; Jack Johnson, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Nicole Johnson, Berry College; Wil-liam Jordan, North Carolina State University; Douglas Kresse, Fullerton College; Elizabeth Lamoureux, Buena Vista Uni-versity; Amy London, Oxnard College; Thomas A. Marshall II, Robert Morris College; Al Montanaro, SUNY Plattsburgh; Craig Monroe, California State University, San Bernardino; John M. Murphy, University of Georgia; Daryle Nagano-Krier, El Camino College; Stephen Neilson, University of Nevada–Las Vegas; Patrick O’Sullivan, Illinois State University; Cate Palc-zewski, University of Northern Iowa; Jay Pence, University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill; Bonnie Peterson, University of

Wisconsin-Parkside; Lee Polk, Baylor University; Benjamin Pon-der, Ponder Media; Kenna J. Reeves, Emporia State University; Kurt Ritter, Texas A&M University; Kellie Roberts, University of Florida; Rebecca L. Roberts, University of Wyoming; Paul Sa-belka, Iowa Wesleyan College; Noreen Schaefer-Faix, Kutztown University; David Schneider. Saginaw Valley State University; Deanna Sellnow, North Dakota State University; Ryan Shepard, University of Kansas; Kenneth G. Sherwood, Los Angeles City College; Calvin Smith, Eastern Illinois University; Cynthia Du-quette Smith, Indiana University, Bloomington; Jessica Stowell, Tulsa Junior College; Robert Terrill, Indiana University; Denise Vrchota, Iowa State University; Beth Waggenspack, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Rita Kirk Whillock, Southern Methodist University; Roy Wood, University of Denver; Quentin Wright, Mountain View College.

The comments and suggestions of the reviewers listed above were quite helpful and often pointed the way for substantial im-provement in the manuscript. The responsibility for what I have written, of course, remains with me.

additional thanksMy debt to Leah Ceccarelli, now on the faculty at the University of Washington, continues from the first edition. She helped in the development and selection of examples and end-of-chapter features and helped significantly to shape the tone of the book. I also appreciate the work of those who prepared supplementary materials for previous editions: Victoria Gallagher, North Caro-lina State University; Glen Williams, University of Akron; Melissa Beall, University of Northern Iowa; Robert Brookey, Northern Illinois University; Robert Bookwalter, Marshall University; Calvin Troup, Duquesne University; Terry Doyle, Northern Virginia Community College; Sherilyn Marrow, University of North-ern Colorado; Renee Brokaw, The University of North Carolina, Charlotte; and Kristine Greenwood, Marshall University.

I am grateful to those who assisted in the preparation of this seventh edition. Elliot Heilman, currently a Ph.D. candi-date at Northwestern University, helped me with the revision and updating of examples, the reorganization of key chapters, the enhanced coverage of technology, and additions to the end-of-chapter discussion questions and activities. Additionally, I am grateful to Thomas Lessl of the University of Georgia, who prepared the Instructor’s Resource Manual; Kristine Greenwood of Marshall University, who prepared the Test Bank; and Bjorn Stillion Southard of the University of Georgia, who prepared the PowerPointTM presentation package for this edition.

At Pearson, Steve Hull and Joe Opiela first persuaded me to undertake this project and Bill Barke placed his faith in my abil-ity to complete the book in a reasonable period of time. For this edition I again worked closely with Brenda Hadenfeldt, whose keen insights and editorial suggestions strengthened the book considerably. I have benefited from the editing of Karon Bowers, Carol Alper, Shannon Morrow, Brian Wheel, and Cate Dodson. I also am grateful for the diligent efforts of all the production staff at Pearson, often working against short deadlines.


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