tools and techniques of data collection_first year presentation

8/7/2019 Tools and Techniques of Data Collection_First year presentation

1/69

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OFDATACOLLECTION

Shilpi Mishra Sharma, PGDHM 14th Bathch, 2010,

IIHMR, Jaipur


2/69

TYPE OF RESEARCH METHODS

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

Quantitative

Qualitative


3/69

Distinction Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Methods

Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods

Provide depth of understanding

Ask why?

Study motivations/intentions/reasons

Are subjective

Enable discovery

Are exploratory

Allow insight into behaviour trends

and so on Interpret

Measure level of confidence

Ask "How many ?" "How often ?

Study action/manifested behaviour

Are objective

Provide proof

Are definite

Measure level of actions, trends

and so on Describe


4/69

QUALITATIVE DATACOLLECTION

TECHNIQUES

Focus Group Discussions

Participant Observation

Key Informant Interviews

Case Studies

Projective Techniques


5/69

PARTICIPATORY RAPID TECHNIQUES

Mapping; SocialMapping, BodyMapping,

ParticipatoryMapping

Seasonal Calendar

Venn/Institutional Diagram Pie Chart/ Histogram

Daily Routine Diagram

Flow/causal Diagram

Time Trends


6/69

QUANTITATIVE METHODS

Methods of Survey/ information collection

Tool - Questionnaire/ Interview Schedule


7/69

METHODS OF SURVEY/INFORMATION

COLLECTION

Self Administered -

y Postal

y Electronic

Advantage -More useful in sensitive issues

Disadvantage - Dropout or non-response is much

higher


8/69

SELF ADMINISTERED - POSTAL

This method has a low cost.

Survey participants can choose to remain

anonymous.

It is not labour intensive.


9/69

SELF ADMINISTERED - ELECTRONIC

This method has a low cost, and on most surveyscosts nothing for the participants and little forthe surveyors.

Questionnaires can be conducted swiftly.

Survey participants can choose to remainanonymous.

It is not labour intensive.

Questions can be more detailed, as opposed to the

limits of paper or telephones. This method works well if your survey contains

several branching questions.

Sample may "self select" and thus not berepresentative of the population.


10/69

METHODS OF SURVEY/INFORMATION

COLLECTION - INTERVIEW


11/69

INTERVIEW - TELEPHONE

Questionnaires can be conducted swiftly.

Rapport with respondents

High response rate

Be careful that your sampling frame (i.e., whereyou get the phone numbers from) doesn't skew

your sample.

y For example - if you select the phone numbers from a

phone book, you are necessarily excluding people who

only have a mobile phone, those who requested an

unpublished phone number, and individuals who

have recently moved to the area because none of

these people will be in the book.


12/69


13/69

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

Highly Structured

Open Ended

The in-depth interview


14/69

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Contingency questions - A question that is

answered only if the respondent gives a

particular response to a previous question. This

avoids asking questions of people that do not

apply to them


15/69

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Closed ended questions - Respondentsanswers are limited to a fixed set of responses.Most scales are closed ended. Other types ofclosed ended questions include:

y Yes/no questions - The respondent answers with ayes or a no.

y Multiple choice - The respondent has several optionfrom which to choose.

y Scaled questions - Responses are graded on a

continuum (example : rate the appearance of theproduct on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being themost preferred appearance). Examples of types ofscales include the Likert scale, semantic differentialscale, and rank-order scale


16/69

ADVANTAGES OF CLOSED ENDED

QUESTIONS

Time saving

Easy comparison of responses of

y different groups

y Same group over different period of time


17/69

RISK OF CLOSED QUESTIONS

Possible answers might be disclosed to the

respondents might introduce bias


18/69

EXAMPLES OF CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

Do you get along with your supervisor?

Is that a photograph of your children?

Are you leaving right at 5:00 today?

Are you awake?


19/69

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Open ended questions - No options or predefinedcategories are suggested. The respondent supplies theirown answer without being constrained by a fixed set ofpossible responses. Examples of types of open endedquestions include:y

Completely unstructured - For example, What is youropinion of questionnaires?

y Word association - Words are presented and the respondentmentions the first word that comes to mind.

y Sentence completion - Respondents complete an incompletesentence. For example, The most important consideration inmy decision to buy a new house is . . .

y

Story completion - Respondents complete an incompletestory.

y Picture completion - Respondents fill in an emptyconversation balloon.

y Thematic apperception test - Respondents explain apicture or make up a story about what they think is happeningin the picture


20/69

ADVANTAGES OF COMPLETELY OPEN

ENDED QUESTIONS

Allows to probe more deeply

New issues might be explored

Information provided might be useful as an

example Possibility of different interpretations


21/69

RISK OF OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS

Focus might be loosed

Less information might be collected

Analysis time consuming


22/69

PARTIALLY CATEGORIZED QUESTIONS

If one has others category

Advantages

y Quick recoding of answers

y Easy analysis

Risks

y Loss of a lot of interesting and valuable information

y Interviews might try to get the response from thecategories

y Interviewer might only receive one answer

y Interviewer might introduce the possible answer

y Very little space provided for recording the response


23/69

EXAMPLES OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

Tell me about your relationship with your

supervisor.

How do you see your future?

Tell me about the children in this photograph. What is the purpose of government?

Why did you choose that answer?


24/69

QUESTION SEQUENCE

Questions should flow logically from one to the next.

The researcher must ensure that the answer to aquestion is not influenced by previous questions.

Questions should flow from the more general to themore specific.

Questions should flow from the least sensitive to themost sensitive.

Questions should flow from factual and behaviouralquestions to attitudinal and opinion questions.

Questions should flow from unaided to aided

questions. According to the three stage theory (also called the

sandwich theory), initial questions should bescreening and rapport questions. Then in the secondstage you ask all the product specific questions. In thelast stage you ask demographic questions


25/69

ART OF ASKING QUESTIONS

Opening Remarks

Establishing Rapport

Neutrality of Interviewers

Closing the interview General guidelines about interview


26/69

QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION ISSUES

Knowing about

y how (and whether) one will use the results of

research before one start.

y for example, the results won't influence your decision

or you can't afford to implement the findings or the

cost of the research outweighs its usefulness, then

save your time and money; don't bother doing the

research.

The research objectives and frame of reference

should be defined beforehand, including the

questionnaire's context of time, budget,

manpower, intrusion and privacy.


27/69


28/69


The topics should fit the respondents frame ofreference.

y Their background may affect their interpretation ofthe questions.

y Respondents should have enough information orexpertise to answer the questions truthfully.

The type of scale or index to be used shall bedetermined.

The level of measurement Important for

Analysis The types of questions (closed, multiple-choice,

open) should fit the statistical data analysistechniques available and your goals.


29/69


Questions and prepared responses to choose fromshould be neutral as to intended outcome. A biasedquestion or questionnaire encourages respondents toanswer one way rather than another. Even questionswithout bias may leave respondents with

expectations. The order or natural grouping of questions is often

relevant. Prior previous questions may bias laterquestions.

The wording should be kept simple: no technical orspecialized words.

The meaning should be clear. Ambiguous words,equivocal sentence structures and negatives maycause misunderstanding, possibly invalidatingquestionnaire results. Double negatives should bereworded as positives.


30/69


Care should be taken to ask one question at a

time.

The list of possible responses should be

collectively exhaustive.y One might include other specify----------------

The possible responses should also be mutually

exclusive.

y for example in both the married category and the

single category - there may be need for separate

questions on marital status and living situation.


31/69


Conversational writing style

Sequencing of the questions

Correct skipping pattern


32/69


Presentation of the questions on the page (or

computer screen) and use of white space, colors,

pictures, charts, or other graphics may affect

respondent's interest or distract from the

questions.

Numbering of questions may be helpful.

Clear, detailed instructions for the interviewers


33/69

SCALING TECHNIQUES

The basic principle of scaling is a part of

everyday life.

When one meets people for the first time we try

to build up a picture of them: we developimpressions of their friendliness, intelligence,

trustworthiness and so forth.

These impressions rarely rely on one piece of

information but are a composite picture based on

a number of clues.


34/69

SCALING TECHNIQUES

Differential Scales

Summated Scales

y Likert Scale


35/69

LIKERT SCALE

scale most frequently used in the study of

attitudes follows the pattern devised by Rensis

Likert (1932) and is referred to as a Likert type

scale.

In fact, most scales currently used in social

science research are Likert-type scales.

In such a scale, the respondents are asked to

respond to each item in terms of several degrees

of agreement or disagreement:

for example, (1) strongly approve. (2) approve, (3)

undecided, (4) disapprove, (5) strongly

disapprove.


36/69

Rating the Items.

The next step is to have a group of judges rate

the items. Usually you would use a 1-to-5 rating

scale where: = strongly unfavorable to the concept

= somewhat unfavorable to the concept

= undecided

= somewhat favorable to the concept = strongly favorable to the concept


37/69

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

1. I feel good about my work on the job.

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

2. On the whole, I get along well with others at work.

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

3. I am proud of my ability to cope with difficulties at work.

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

4. When I feel uncomfortable at work, I know how to handle it.

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

5. I can tell that other people at work are glad to have me there.

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

6. I know I'll be able to cope with work for as long as I want.

StronglyDisagree

SomewhatDisagree

SomewhatAgree

StronglyAgree

7. I am proud of my relationship with my supervisor at work.

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

8. I am confident that I can handle my job without constant

assistance.

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

9. I feel like I make a useful contribution at work.

Strongly

Disagree

Somewhat

Disagree

Somewhat

Agree

Strongly

Agree

10. I can tell that my coworkers respect me.

Example: The Employment Self Esteem ScaleHere's an example of a ten-item Likert Scale that attempts to estimate the level of self esteem a person has

on the job. Notice that this instrument has no center or neutral point -- the respondent has to declare

whether he/she is in agreement or disagreement with the item.

INSTRUCTIONS: Please rate how strongly you agree or disagree with each of the

following statements by placing a check mark in the appropriate box.


38/69

QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES


39/69

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)

A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a group discussion of

6-12 persons guided by a facilitator, during which group

members talk freely and spontaneously about a certain

topic.

FGDs are not used to test hypotheses or to produce research

findings that can be generalized


40/69

PURPOSE OF FGD

1.To focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by

exploring in greater depth the problem to be investigated and

its possible causes.

2.To generate new ideas. A group works best to build on the

ideas generated.

3.To formulate appropriate questions for more structured, large-

scale surveys.

4.To supplement information on community knowledge, beliefs,

attitudes, and behaviour already available but are incomplete

or unclear. For example, reasons for low women's participation

in development programme can be understood by a focusgroup discussion among women.

5.To develop appropriate messages for the education programme.

6.To explore controversial topics.


41/69

Purpose Composition Process

Research definition and

refinement

Development of

hypotheses

Generation of

vocabularies

Formulation of questions

for interview schedules

Provision of

supplementary

information on

community beliefs,

perceptions and attitudes

Advance selection by

random sampling or

alternative criteria

Homogeneous withrespect to major social

divisions

Anonymity of

participants

Preferred

Day, time and place

determined in advance

Discussion guidelines

need to be pre-tested

More than one focus

group must be held

Moderator and note-

taker require training

Key Features of the FGD


42/69

Participant Guidelines Role of

Facilitator/Moderator

Role of Note-

taker/Recorder

Focus group runs 90

minutes, tape

recorded with

supplementary notes

Speak clearly, one at a

time

Want everyone's

opinion - no

right/wrong answers

Courage of conviction

Facilitates but does not

dominate discussion

Introduces new issues

for discussion

Monitors participant

involvement andinteraction, encourages

active participation

Keeps conversation

flowing, Maintaining

focus but allowing

for flexibility

Maintains a written

record of the focus

group, including;

Community, date, time

(start and finish) and

place held

Number and descriptionof participants

Major issues covered in

focus group

Group dynamics,

including non- verbalinteraction

Discussion details,

including Speaker

identity - supplements

tape

Back-up to moderator


43/69

SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF FGD

Preparation

y Recruitment of Participants

y Physical Arrangements

y Preparation of FGD Guideline

Conducting the session

y Moderator's Functions

y Recorder's Functions

Number and Duration of Sessions


44/69

SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF FOCUS GROUP

ORGANIZATIONS

Methodological Issues

y Appear to reduce the chance of questions being

misunderstood by respondents, and to reduce socially-

desirable answers

y

The informal atmosphere of the group also shouldencourage participants to express views frankly and freely

y chances of introducing error in focus group research is

particularly high in cases where the interview is conducted

in the indigenous language and then translated.

y A major concern is the validity of conclusions from the

focus group session, where quality of data is so dependent

on the moderator whose individual skills are central to the

quality and quantity of the data obtained.


45/69

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Involves establishing rapport in a new community

There are five reasons as to why Participant Observation(PO) should be insisted upon in the conduct of a scientificresearch about cultural group:

1. PO is not a method of collecting just qualitative data. In

fact, it is not really a method at all. It is a Strategy, whichfacilitates data collection in the field all kinds of data,both quantitative and qualitative.

2. PO reduces the problem of reactivity among respondents.Lower reactivity means higher validity of data.

3. PO helps you formulate sensible questions in the native

language.4. PO gives you intuitive understanding of what is going on

in a culture, and allows you to speak with confidenceabout the meaning of data.

5. Many research problems cannot be addressed adequatelyby anything except PO.


46/69

IMPORTANT SKILLS REQUIRED TO BECOME

AN EFFICIENT PARTICIPANT OBSERVER

1. learning the native language

2. Building explicit awareness

3. Building memory

4. Maintaining naivete

5. Building writing skills


47/69

Non participant observation:

The observer does not actively participate in the

group activities but observes the group from a

distance and the observer is fully aware that he/she

is entirely apart from the object of observation.

Non-controlled observation:

The observation is done without managing,

organising and directing the normal activities/surroundings by any internal force, it is called non-

controlled observation. This type of observation needs

to be supplemented by structured observation or

schedules of information (see Goode & Hatt, 1952)


48/69

KEY INFORMANTS (KI) INTERVIEW

An important qualitative method, particularly in

areas where the entry has not yet been made


49/69

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF KI INTERVIEWS

Selection of KI

KI should;

y articulate,

y willing to participate,

y trustworthy andy should have other personal attributes conducive to

conducting detailed interviews.

y Has unique position in the community

Conducting Interviews

y The interview should be characterized by Silent Probe

Phased assertion.


50/69

CASE STUDIES

A fairly exhaustive study of a person or group is

called a life or case history or case study. It

deepens our perception & give us clear insight

into life. Because of its aid in studying behaviour

in specific, precise detail, Burgess termed thecase study method, `the social microscopes'

(Young, 1973)

A case study explores the social process whilestatistical technique reveals the extent & degree

of association


51/69

THE MAJOR CRITERIA FOR LIFE HISTORY

STUDY

Behaviour of an individual must be viewed as a

response to definite social stimulations.

The subject (he/she) must be viewed as a member

of a cultural group/community.

The continuous related character of experience

from childhood through adulthood should be

stressed.

The social situation must be studied to

understand the degree of social pressures, social

participation exercised by the subject


52/69

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE

In a projective test, an individual supplies

structure to unstructured stimuli in a manner

consistent with the individuals own unique

pattern of conscious and unconscious needs,

fears, desires, impulses, conflicts, and ways ofperceiving and responding

Projective methods were initially used by

psychologists and psychiatrists for the diagnosisand treatment of emotionally disordered patients


53/69

ASSUMPTIONS

The more ambiguous the stimuli, the more

examinees reveal about their personality.

Projection is greater to stimulus material that is

similar to the examinee.

Every response provides meaning for personality

analysis.

There is an unconscious.

Subjects are unaware of what they disclose.


54/69

EXAMPLE - BODYMAPPING

It is a projective technique in which respondentsdraw maps of human body (see Ulinetal, 2002).

This method is useful to study peoplesperceptions about human physiology,

reproductive health issues. It is a comfortable means of expression for those

respondents who feel shy to speak aboutreproduction and sexuality.

In this method respondents are asked to sketchreproductive organs or to label body parts andexplain the functions, researchers thus canidentify gaps that could be addressed throughinterventions.


55/69

IMPORTANCE OF COMBINING DIFFERENT

DATACOLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Mix of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Techniques

Reduction in chances of bias

More comprehensive understaing of study topic


56/69

BIAS IN INFORMATION COLLECTION

Defective Instruments

Observers Bias

Effect of the interview on thr informant

Information Biasy These affect the validity and Reliability of the study


57/69

PRETESTING AND PILOT STUDIES

Pre-test helps in

y evaluating the different questions,

y the language,

y questionnaire format and

y Interview process.

It can also be used to familiarise interviewers with the

questionnaire or schedule.


58/69

IN THE PROCESS OF PRE-TESTING

The questionnaire is checked for clarity and

understanding and the prospective respondents

are informed about the same.

After this is established, interviewer can ask the

respondent what came to his mind when the

question was put forward.

Respondent's answer helps the researcher in

understanding whether the question evokes what

it was supposed to evoke or not. If it does not, then the wording of the question

ought to change. In this way, confusing words

and phrases can be avoided.


59/69

IN THE PROCESS OF PRE-TESTING

When a respondent hesitates to answer or is unable tounderstand a question, additional questions intended toovercome hesitancy or misunderstanding help in modifyingthe questionnaire.

The researcher who developed the questionnaire shouldhimself/herself conduct some of the pre-test interviews as ithelps in evaluating the responses and determining whetherchanges should be made or not. Pre-testing should also beconducted in a population, which is very similar to thestudy population.

Twenty-five to fifty pre-test interviews are usuallysufficient to check the quality of the questionnaire.

However, their number depends upon the purpose andavailability of time and money. If pre-test is used fortraining the interviewers, then more interviews, can beconducted. The data obtained from the pre-test are not tobe included in the final study.


60/69

PILOT SURVEY

A series of small pre-tests can be conducted on

the isolated problems of the design, and after

establishing a broad plan of enquiry, it may take

the form of a pilot survey, "a small replica of the

main survey - a dress rehearsal".

-Moser and Kalton


61/69

THE IMPORTANCE OF PRE-TESTS AND

PILOT SURVEYS LIES IN -

Determining the adequacy of the for a study samplingframe : High hospital records are to be used, pre-test maybe done to see their completeness, adequacy, up-to-dateness and convenience in obtaining such records.

Finding variability within the population, which isimportant to know for determining the sample design andsize : If the variability is more, a bigger sample would berequired, but if the variability is not much, even a smallersample will be adequate.

Estimating the non-response rates : Through pilot surveysone can estimate the refusal and non-contact rate andaccordingly decide upon the appropriate technique of datacollection. One can also evaluate the strain on andefficiency of interviewers.


62/69


63/69

THE VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT/TOOL

Basic questions must be asked about any

measuring instrument

y What does it measure?

y Are the data it provides relevant to the characteristic

in which one is interested?

y Do the differences in scores represent the differences

on the characteristic one is trying to measure, or do

they reflect also the influence of other factors?


64/69

WAYS TO EVALUATE THE VALIDITY OF THE

INSTRUMENT

Face Validity

Concurrent Validity

Predictive Validity

Construct Validity


65/69

FACEVALIDITY

Face validity is evaluated by a group of judges, sometimesexperts, who read or look at a measuring technique anddecide whether in their opinion it measures what its namesuggests.

Evaluating the face validity is a subjective process, but we

could calculate the validity figures by computing theamount of agreement between judges.

The higher the percent who says it measures what it claimsto measure, the higher the face validity.

Every instrument must pass the face validity test eitherformally or informally.

Every researcher who chooses an instrument is a judgewho has decided that the test measures the concept he orshe wishes to study. Without such minimal face validity, aninstrument would not be used.


66/69

CONCURRENTVALIDITY

Concurrent validity is the ability of a measuringinstrument to distinguish between individuals whoare known to differ.

Thus, if a scale were being devised for the purpose ofmeasuring religiosity, the questions could be tested byadministering them to one group known to bereligious, to be active in religious activities andotherwise to give evidence of high religiosity. T

hese answers would then be compared with thosefrom a group known not to be very religious and also

known to oppose religious behaviour in other ways. Ifthe test failed to discriminate between the twogroups, it could not be considered to measurereligiosity with validity.


67/69

PREDICTIVEVALIDITY

Predictive validity is the ability of a measuring

instrument to identify future differences.

For instance, the predictive validity of a scale

measuring attitude towards birth control is the

ability of the scale to identify who will eventually

adopt contraception and who will not practise

contraception.

Predictive validity is an evaluation of a measure's

practical worth in foreseeing the future.


68/69

CONSTRUCTVALIDITY

Construct validity is an evaluation of the extent

to which an instrument measures the theoretical

construct the investigator wishes to measure.

Unlike face validity, construct validity requires

more than expert opinion. It requires a

demonstration that the construct in question

exists, that it is distinct from other constructs,

and that the instrument measures that

particular construct and no other.


69/69

tools and techniques of data collection_first year presentation

Documents