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Fire Prevention/ProtectionIf you ask any serious fire service trainer, or any respected fire service leader they will consistently tell you that the best fire is the fire that never happened. The same is for any of our emergency responses, the goal of any good fire rescue organization should be to minimize the potential for an incident and to maximize our response capabilities within the resources we have available to us. These three articles highlight how an organization can think outside the box for a special event and provide for the highest level of safety possible utilizing resources available normally assigned to other functions or utilizing our tools and nonconventional ways. Using existing tools as well such as our positive pressure fans and built-in building systems can be critical when trying to provide for the greatest level of safety in evacuating a smoke-filled high-rise. The final piece shows how air management can be more effectively achieved by pre-fire planning its necessity thereby enhancing the safety and survivability and tactical capabilities of the responding crews.

3 The 11-Day Fire Department 12 Smoke Management

in High-Rise Structures

20 The Case for Interior High-Rise Breathing Air Systems

sPonsoreD by:

PROOF

http://www.esri.com

At a Moment’s Notice

When the call comes in, Esri® can help you quickly

locate, respond to, size up, and deploy resources

for emergencies effectively. We have the tools you

need to access mission-critical data to keep you

and your community safe.

Learn more at esri.com/fi reeng

Copyright © 2012 Esri. All rights reserved.

EnvSys_FE_1204 1 3/6/12 5:32 PM

http://www.esri.com/fireeng

Originally published January 1, 2012

Fire Engineering :: TRAINING DIGEST :: sponsored by

3

The 11-Day Fire Department

BY JOE JENNINGS

Where can you find a one-of-a-kind, fully functional fire

department that operates for only 11 days each year? Missouri,

the Show-Me State, boasts of just such a department!

The Missouri State Fair Fire Department (MSFFD), created

specifically to address fire safety concerns at the annual state fair, is a permanent

committee of the Fire Fighters Association of Missouri (FFAM). It’s the only fully

functional fire department in the United States that operates for only 11 days

each year. The FFAM is a statewide association comprised of fire service members

and supporters dedicated to disseminating reliable fire service information,

promoting mutual aid in fire/rescue services, and encouraging cooperation with

law enforcement agencies.

The beginning

Founded in 1962 as a collaboration between the FFAM and the Missouri State Fair

director, the MSFFD’s original purpose was public fire safety education. It offered

a firefighting display for the fair’s thousands of annual visitors, emphasizing fire

prevention, fire safety, and fire suppression; static displays were supported with

pamphlets, lectures, and demonstrations. Staffed by firefighters who volunteered

from across the state, the MSFFD was originally housed in a 250-square-foot

army surplus tent. Fire personnel and visitors were subject to the thunderstorms,

the heat, the humidity, and the dust of mid-Missouri in August.

Restroom and shower facilities were few and far between on the fairgrounds,

making those first days of service even more challenging. The early MSFFD

personnel, with primitive accommodations, withstood all that nature could throw

at them and established a firm foundation for the department’s future.PROOF

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The Mission eXPanDs

The mission of the MSFFD, like many other departments across the nation, has

changed over the years as it identified additional demands for service. In 1965,

the MSFFD’s role expanded from public education to providing fire protection and

ambulance service for the entire fairgrounds, which up until then was provided

by the local fire department and ambulance service. Jurisdictions throughout

Missouri loaned the MSFFD fire apparatus, including three engines and two jeeps,

and 50 firefighters volunteered their time and expertise to staff the department.

The advantage of on-site fire protection became apparent during the 1965 State

Fair, when a race car went out of control and careened into the grandstands,

causing several deaths and multiple injuries. On-scene fire personnel brought

order out of the chaos and assisted the injured fairgoers.

In 1968, the MSFFD moved to a permanent fire station, to which a 5,000-square-

foot addition was added in 1992. The station has four apparatus bays and provides

climate-controlled housing for up to 77 firefighters. The facility is available during

the remainder of the year for meetings and statewide training classes and serves

as the focal point for educational presentations and interaction with the public.

The MSFFD started delivering advanced life support (ALS) emergency medical

services (EMS) in 1981. The department offers ambulance treatment/transport

services and maintains a first-aid triage and treatment center at the fire station.

All medical services are provided at no cost to the patient.

currenT oPeraTions

The MSFFD protects 45 permanent buildings, hundreds of temporary structures,

travel trailers, and tents throughout the 400-acre fairgrounds. The fair’s

attendance averages between 30,000 and 50,000 daily, totaling nearly 350,000

attendees annually. In cooperation with the Missouri State Fire Marshal’s Office,

the MSFFD conducts fire inspections to identify safety and fire-related hazards.

Inspections encompass all vendor areas, permanent and temporary buildings,

and the midway carnival rides. Personnel also replace batteries in smoke

detectors throughout the fairgrounds.

The department is staffed by 75 members daily who serve in shifts to provide PROOF

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24-hour fire suppression and ALS services throughout the fair. Personnel come

from a variety of paid and volunteer agencies; all chief and company officers and

firefighters donate their time. The department personnel are FFAM members

who apply to volunteer each August. Nearly 50 agencies from across Missouri are

represented in the MSFFD.

Department operations continue to expand and currently use four engines, five

ambulances, and five EMS quick-response carts, all on loan from fire agencies

across the state for the 11-day fair. The command staff is comprised of the fire

chief, an assistant chief, a deputy chief, two battalion chiefs, four engine captains,

an EMS captain, a captain/dispatch supervisor, and a captain/public information

officer. Expenses for the MSFFD operations are offset through a contractual

agreement with the Missouri State Fair administration.

2010 Fair

The 2010 fair provided a wide

array of emergency incidents,

compounded by the variable

and sometimes severe weather

conditions. The first four days of

the fair ushered in temperatures

exceeding 95°F with high humidity,

resulting in 50 emergencies.

The large-venue public concerts

in the Pepsi Grandstand at times

suffered severe weather including

high winds, frequent lightning, and

torrential rain and hail. MSFFD

personnel had to assist with

evacuating 12,000 patrons from the two Friday night performances. Prior to the

2011 fair, there was no plan for evacuating the concerts. For these incidents, we

learned as we did it (photo 1).

Following the 2010 fair, the State Fair Committee and the Missouri State Highway

Patrol (MSHP) worked with the fair’s administration to develop an emergency

(1) Photos by author unless otherwise noted.

PROOF

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plan for the fairgrounds,

especially for an incident

occurring during an event

at the grandstand. The plan

includes procedures for

evacuating attendees from

the track area seating and

from the grandstand. A new

public service announcement

is now read at the beginning

of every grandstand show

that explains the procedures

to follow in an emergency.

The MSHP, the MSFFD,

and fair security have a set plan for monitoring the weather and warning the

public in case of severe weather. All three agencies’ dispatch centers monitor

weather conditions and maintain contact with the National Weather Service.

When a severe weather threat is determined, the security chief, the fire chief,

and the MSHP supervisor determine the action to take, including evacuating

and sheltering campground and other fair visitors. Personnel had to evacuate a

concert for the first time as a result of the severe storms of 2010. The storm of the

2011 fair discussed below was the first time that patrons were evacuated from

the campgrounds to shelter.

This emergency plan’s importance came to light on August 13, 2011, when a

stage collapse at the Indiana State Fair killed seven and injured dozens more. The

MSFFD plan was in place prior to the Indiana incident. Its development shows

the importance of proactive thinking and cooperation between the public safety

agencies and the fair’s administration.

Personnel also responded to such emergencies ranging from heat cases, traumas,

and other medical events to overheating street sweepers and arcing power lines.

One incident required removing a patron from a carnival ride (photo 2). Crews

responded to 122 emergency incidents and treated 215 patients in First Aid.PROOF

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Two major incidents garnered local and statewide media attention. On August 14,

2010, at 8:45 p.m., the MSFFD received an emergency call for a tent collapse. The

report initially stated that there were several injuries and that occupants were

trapped under the large hospitality tent.

Chief Rick Dozier arrived on scene within two minutes and found that no one was

trapped beneath the collapsed tent but did confirm there were several injuries. A

young boy and his mother and another woman were among the injured. All three

patients were transported by MSFFD EMS to Bothwell Regional Health Center in

Sedalia with serious to moderate injuries. The young boy was later transferred to

a Kansas City area trauma center with serious head injuries.

The second incident occurred during the annual all-terrain vehicle (ATV) racing

at the state fair arena. A 16-year-old male was injured when he was thrown from

his all-terrain vehicle. MSFFD EMS provided lifesaving treatment for the patient,

who was then transported by air ambulance from the fairgrounds to University

Hospital in Columbia.

Fire and EMS personnel participated in hundreds of hours of varied training. Fire

crews covered topics such as ropes and knots, vehicle extrication and vehicle

fires, and structural firefighting. In photo 3, the MSSFD conducts mutual-aid

training with neighboring fire

departments, using another

fire department’s propane-

fueled live fire training

trailer. EMS crews trained

on controlling bleeding and

on special considerations in

treating geriatric patients.

Along with emergency

incident response and

daily training, personnel

provided many hours of fire

service public relations and

education to fairgoers, such PROOF

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as demonstrating

the effectiveness

of fire sprinklers

(photo 4). They

conducted hands-

on fire extinguisher

training (photo 5)

and demonstrations

involving vehicle fire

extinguishment and

extrication (photo 6),

personal protective

equipment, self-

contained breathing

apparatus, and

cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The Southern Stone County Fire Protection

District Technical Rescue Team performed a demonstration from the rear of

the grandstand. In addition, the MSFFD handed out public education materials

and provided tours of fire apparatus and the Sedalia Fire Department’s Safety

House, which had been loaned to the MSFFD. Daily appearances by Smokey

Bear and the Patches and Pumper robot also provided a fun and educational

experience for fairgoers (photo 7).

Photo 4 by John Hesson.

PROOF

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2011 Fair

In 2011, the MSFFD had a total of 94 emergency calls. These incidents included

47 medical, 25 trauma, 10 medical transfers, two electrical fires, two gas leaks,

an explosion, a motor vehicle accident, a vehicle fire, a fire investigation, a

structure fire, and an assist to State Fair Security. Crews also treated 192

patients in First Aid.

Responders faced such challenging weather conditions as strong, straight-line

winds, lightning, and heavy rainfall during the early morning of Friday, August 19,

2011. Because of severe storm damage, the fairgrounds were closed for most of the

business day. The plan that was developed for the entire fairgrounds has been in

place for a number of years but had never been fully executed. The actions taken

were also considered a learning experience and will most likely lead to a revision in

the future. The MSFFD, the Missouri State Highway Patrol, and State Fair Security

began evacuating an estimated 350 to 400 campers into the Mohler Assembly

Hall and Mathewson Exhibition Center at approximately 12:22 a.m. By evacuating

campers to these buildings, crews prevented any storm-related injuries.PROOF

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10


The storm damaged numerous tents and lightweight portable structures, and the

fairgrounds lost power. One camper was overturned, but the owners were already

in the established shelter. No major damage was caused to any permanent

fairground structures. As a learning experience from the 2011 fair, it is now

standard practice that in a severe weather event all operations are dispatched

through the fire department’s dispatch center, and a representative from

security comes to the MSFFD dispatch center to assist. Prior to this standard,

both agencies operated communications in their separate dispatch centers. By

combining resources in times of need, the agencies can continually work together

to better communicate and use resources.

During that storm, at 2:11 a.m., the MSFFD provided the first mutual-aid response

in its history to the Sedalia Fire Department, providing one engine to assist with

fire suppression and overhaul at a structure fire. The second mutual-aid call

occurred that day at 6:18 p.m. The MSFFD was requested to respond to Sedalia

Fire Station 1 to provide coverage.

•••

With the number of fair attendees and attractions growing annually, the MSFFD

and FFAM leadership are prepared for a corresponding increase in fire service

demand. The MSFFD’s continued success depends on the individual firefighters

donating their time and fire departments loaning their equipment and apparatus.

Providing a safe environment for those attending the fair will remain a

paramount function of the agency—11 days at a time.

JOE JENNINGS is the captain and public information officer for the Missouri

State Fair Fire Department, a training lieutenant with the Johnson County (MO)

Fire Protection District, and a firefighter/emergency medical technician B with

the Logan-Rogersville Fire Protection District. Involved in the fire service since

2004, he is studying public administration and human resource management at

Missouri State University in Springfield.PROOF

http://www.esri.com

At a Moment’s Notice

When the call comes in, Esri® can help you quickly

locate, respond to, size up, and deploy resources

for emergencies effectively. We have the tools you

need to access mission-critical data to keep you

and your community safe.

Learn more at esri.com/fi reeng

Copyright © 2012 Esri. All rights reserved.

EnvSys_FE_1204 1 3/6/12 5:32 PM

http://www.esri.com/fireeng

Originally published February 1, 2012

12


Smoke Management in High-Rise Structures

BY JOSEPH CHACON AND STEVE KERBER

MosT MoDern builDing codes define a high-rise structure as a

building greater than 75 feet in height from the lowest level of fire

department vehicle access to the highest occupiable floor. When

fires occur in high-rise structures, the responding firefighters are

faced with many challenges. Because of the unique aspects of high-rise buildings,

routine fire tactics, including ventilation, can become very difficult. Responding

fire personnel must be familiar with fixed smoke management systems as well as

options for positive-pressure

ventilation (PPV) to ensure

the safety and effectiveness

of fireground operations.

The spread of smoke and

toxic gas is recognized as a

major hazard in all structure

fires. In high-rise buildings,

smoke can travel to locations

remote from the fire through

stairwells, elevator shafts,

and other vertical openings.

As smoke spreads to upper

floors and through stairwells,

visibility and toxicity become

major concerns. Firefighting

operations and evacuation

can be complicated by

smoke-filled stairways. Using

both built-in or “fixed” smoke PROOF

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13


management systems and PPV can increase the survivability of occupants and

effectiveness of firefighting operations.

FiXeD sMoKe ManageMenT sysTeMs

Some modern high-rise structures are provided with fixed smoke management

systems. These systems are designed to provide a tenable environment for

safe egress for building occupants. As stated in the 2009 International Building

Code (IBC) Section 909.1, these systems are not intended for assistance in

fire suppression and overhaul activities. Although not designed for use in

fire suppression and overhaul, fixed smoke control systems can be used in

conjunction with other fireground tactics to effectively manage smoke, heat, and

other products of combustion.

On the upper floors of a typical high-rise, most smoke management systems

use the pressurization method of smoke control. In most cases, the system is PROOF

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14


designed to provide a negative pressure on the fire floor. This negative pressure

is obtained by exhausting the corridor (or major path of egress) on the fire floor.

Activation of the smoke-control equipment is provided through a zoned sprinkler

system, engineered smoke detection systems, or manual activation at the

system’s control panel.

The fixed smoke management systems also include positive pressurization of

all stairwells that serve the high-rise portion of the structure. This positive

pressure is obtained through mechanical fans that inject outside air into the

stairwell. The purpose of maintaining the positive pressure differential in the

stairwell is to keep the stairwell clear of smoke and toxic fumes that may migrate

into the stairwell during a fire. Smoke can flow only from a higher pressure to

a lower pressure. The fire creates its own pressure, and fans create a slightly

higher pressure to control or stop the flow of smoke. Most fire alarm devices

in the structure, including sprinkler waterflow alarms, smoke detectors, and

heat detectors, will activate the stairwell pressurization fans, as well as manual

activation at the system’s control panel.

Another type of fixed smoke management system uses what is referred to as the

“exhaust method” to manage smoke. This type of system is commonly used in

covered malls, atria, or other large spaces. These systems are designed with the

intent of maintaining the smoke layer a minimum of six feet above the highest

walking surface. This is achieved by using large mechanical fans near the ceiling

to exhaust smoke from the space. These systems also use mechanical fans to

provide supply or “makeup” air.

PosiTiVe-Pressure VenTilaTion

For the fire service to provide the same level of protection that a fixed stairwell

pressurization system does, it requires thinking beyond the current PPV use of

ventilating and examining the fan’s ability to pressurize. When a structure is

pressurized and a vent is provided, the PPV fan creates a residual pressure inside

the structure that is higher, forcing the flow to the lower pressure outside. The

increased pressure provided by the fan works with the increased pressure created

by the fire and combines the natural and mechanical ventilation forces to speed

up the ventilation process.PROOF

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15


This same principle can be used to ventilate a stairwell or a hallway, but it

leaves the section of the stairwell or hallway between the fire and the top of the

stairwell or remainder of the hallway full of smoke and hot gases continually

until no more smoke and hot gases are being supplied by the fire. The residual

pressure provided by the PPV fan slows the amount of smoke coming into the

area to be protected because there is less of a pressure gradient leading into this

area, but smoke and hot gases are still entering this space. Fresh air forced in by

the fan mixes with the smoke and hot gases as it travels past the fire and out of

the vent. This dilutes the toxicity of the smoke and cools the hot gases but does

not eliminate the problem of a contaminated stairwell or hallway.

PPV fans used without a vent are able to create an elevated static pressure. The static

pressure can be used against the increased pressure created by the fire. The fire wants

to naturally ventilate out of the fire floor or room and into the stairwell or hallway,

which has a lower pressure. If the static pressure created by the fan is greater than

the pressure created by the fire, then no smoke will flow into the stairwell or hallway.

nisT research

The Building and Fire Research Laboratory at the National Institute of Standards

and Technology (NIST) conducted a wide range of experiments with PPV. These

experiments included both laboratory and full-scale fire experiments in vacant

high-rise buildings. NIST evaluated the ability of PPV fans to pressurize a high-

rise stairwell to prevent the infiltration of smoke.

NIST evaluated many variables such as fan size, fan angle, setback distance,

number of fans, orientation of fans, number of doors open, and location of vents

open to determine the impact of each. Fans were oriented both in series and

in parallel. Doors throughout the building were opened and closed to evaluate

effects. NIST determined that PPV fans used correctly can help keep smoke

out of the stairwell and provide a safe egress path for occupants and a safer

environment for crews operating inside the structure.

The full-scale experiments demonstrated that to maximize the capability of PPV

fans, the following guidelines should be followed:

:: PPV fans should be placed four to six feet set back from doorways and angled at

least 5° backward.PROOF

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16


:: Placing fans side by side in a V-shape is more effective than placing them in a

series (photo 1).

:: Opening interior stairwell doors reduces the desired impact of PPV. A

significant increase in pressure could be achieved by closing the doorway to the

width of a hoseline.

:: When dealing with high-rise building fans, at least 24 inches are recommended

because of the large volumes being pressurized.

:: Carbon monoxide (CO) generation by the fans is minimal compared to the CO

created by the fire.

:: The taller the building, the more fans that may be needed. One fan at the base

of a stairwell can create enough pressure to stop smoke spread from a well-

developed fire in a 10-story building. Taller buildings require fans placed in the

building. Placing the fan two floors below the fire floor in larger structures is a

good rule of thumb.

:: Fans should be set back

and angled just as if they

were positioned at an

outside doorway.

:: Placing a large trailer-

mounted type fan at

the base of the stairwell

is another means of

generating sufficient

positive pressure into the

stairwell.

Temperatures in the

stairwell were monitored

using infrared (IR) cameras

during the full-scale fire

experiments conducted

(1) Fans placed in a series (top) and fans placed side by side (bottom). (Photo courtesy of NISTIR 7412.)PROOF

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17


by NIST in a Chicago high-rise

building. Photo 2 depicts thermal

images from an IR camera that

shows hot gases entering the

stairwell through the open doorway.

The image below shows conditions

in the stairwell after the PPV fan

was started. As shown through the

IR camera, hot gases are no longer

entering the stairwell.

Using PPV fans to increase the

pressure inside a stairwell requires

a systematic and coordinated effort

by the fire suppression crews.

This method of PPV as well as

fixed smoke management systems

can provide a safe and tenable

environment for interior crews to

operate within the stairwell as well

as create an atmosphere in which

occupants can evacuate while

firefighting operations are taking place. It is important to remember that PPV used

to increase pressure in a stairway is a different tactic when compared to positive-

pressure attack (PPA), which uses a fan at the back of the initial attack crew after

ensuring an exhaust point has been established.

PrePlanning high-rise sTrucTures For VenTilaTion

Fire suppression personnel must be familiar with all the buildings in the areas to

which they may be called to respond. Gathering preincident intelligence greatly

improves firefighters’ tactical capabilities. Familiarization with stairwell locations

(including location of exit discharge to exterior), interior doorways, and fixed

pressurization systems is imperative prior to using PPV. Some building features to

identify during preplanning are the following:

:: What is the method of smoke control—pressurization or exhaust?

(2) Thermal images from an IR camera. (Photo courtesy of NISTIR 7468.)

PROOF

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:: Are the stairs provided with automatic stairwell pressurization?

:: What type of controls is available at the systems control panel for stairwell

pressurization (Figure 3)?

:: Do the stairs serving the high-rise portion of the building exit directly to the

exterior?

:: Can one fan or multiple fans be positioned at the ground-level entrance outside

the structure?

:: Where are the stairwell supply vents located? Do they have single or multiple-

point injection?

:: Where are the smoke exhaust vents located?

All stairwell pressurization systems are not the same. In southern Nevada, a

local code amendment requires a controlled relief vent to discharge a minimum

of 2,500 cubic feet per minute in the upper portion of the pressurized stairway.

The purpose of this vent is to relieve excess pressures in the stair when doors

are opened and closed. When a door

is opened, the pressure in the stair is

reduced and the relief vent will close,

diverting the excess air to the open door.

When the door closes, the vent serves as

a relief for excess pressures in the stair

to reduce door-opening forces. These

types of features must be identified prior

to using PPV to manually increase the

stairwell pressure. If this relief vent were

to remain functional during the use of

PPV, the desired effect of the additional

fans would not be achieved.

When fixed stair-pressurization systems

are designed, a minimum pressure

differential is required between the

Figure 3. Smoke Control Panel with Automatic and Manual Fan ControlPROOF

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19


stairwell and the floor. The maximum airflow allowed into the stairwell is limited by

the force required to open the door from the floor to the stairwell (usually 30 pounds

of force to allow children and elderly occupants to exit). When fire suppression crews

arrive and the building has been evacuated, the limiting force required to open the

door is no longer a concern. At this point, if necessary, crews can supplement airflow

into the stairwell using PPV to ensure a tenable environment for stairwell operations.

Although not considered a method of smoke management, some buildings are

required to be provided with “mop-up” capabilities for fire department use after the fire

has been extinguished, to clear any residual smoke. These systems use the existing

HVAC equipment to purge smoke from the area under consideration. These types of

systems, their use, and capabilities should also be identified during preplanning.

Fixed smoke management systems as well as PPV can increase the effectiveness

of firefighting operations by reducing the amount of smoke and superheated gases

within the stairwell. Firefighters must be familiar with the high-rise buildings

in which they might be called to respond. Familiarization with the stairwell and

fixed smoke management system is imperative prior to using PPV.

For copies of NIST reports and videos, visit http://www.fire.gov/PPV/index.htm.

JOSEPH CHACON has more than 10 years of experience designing and testing

fire protection systems. He has a bachelor of science degree in mechanical

engineering from the University of Nevada—Las Vegas and a master of fire

protection engineering degree from the University of Maryland. He is a licensed

professional engineer in the State of Nevada and is a career firefighter with the

Henderson (NV) Fire Department. STEVE KERBER is a fire research engineer at

Underwriters Laboratories (UL). His areas of research include improving firefighter

safety, fire service ventilation, lightweight construction, and smoke management

fire modeling. He is a 13-year veteran of the fire service, with most of his service

at the College Park Fire Department in Prince George’s County, Maryland, where

he served in ranks up through deputy chief. He received his bachelor’s and

master’s degrees in fire protection engineering from the University of Maryland

and is working on his doctorate in fire safety engineering at Lund University in

Sweden. He is also a registered professional engineer.PROOF

http://www.esri.com

http://www.fire.gov/PPV/index.htm

Originally published April 1, 2012

20


The Case for Interior High-Rise Breathing Air Systems

BY JOSEPH D. RUSH III

iMProVeMenTs in Fire codes and fire safety standards have been

beneficial to the fire service and the communities they protect. The

resulting reduction in fires nationally has often led to a false sense of

security. Fire departments are increasingly expected to accomplish tasks

with a continually decreasing workforce. When large-scale incidents occur, such

as a high-rise fire, readily available resources deplete rapidly. It is imperative

that fire service professionals embrace new technologies that offer the potential

to improve job performance in a cooperative effort with community leaders to

reduce risks within the community.

Leaders in the fire service agree that hauling self-containing breathing apparatus

(SCBA) cylinders up countless floors wastes highly trained personnel on a menial

but necessary task. An in-building high-rise breathing air system is a practical

solution to this logistical nightmare, especially when we will be dealing with

many more mega high-rise structures (greater than 420 feet) in the near future.

The Firefighter Air Systems (FFAS), which is leading the way in what may prove to

be the most revolutionary innovation to hit the fire service in decades, can reduce

the amount of staffing necessary for the labor-intensive task of maintaining an

adequate supply of SCBA at high-rise fires, underground tunnels, and other all-

hazard threats that may afflict a structure and put more demands on our air-

management needs.

During the First Interstate Bank fire in Los Angeles, 383 firefighters from 64

companies used 600 air bottles in three hours and 39 minutes to bring the fire

under control.1 The general consensus is FFAS brings a readily available supply of

air within close proximity to the fire scene, allowing for a safer and more efficient

use of personnel. FFAS saves time, resources, and lives. In the end, it reduces the PROOF

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21


loss of life and property, “eliminating the need to carry out this assignment frees

resources for fire attack, rescue operations, ventilation, evacuation, search and

rescue, lobby control, and other critical tasks.”2

During the One Meridian Plaza fire in Philadelphia, approximately 100 firefighters

were used for support operations, including refilling SCBA cylinders. Three

firefighters from Engine Company 11 died when they ran out of air on the 28th

floor. (2) The fire started on the 22nd floor of the 38-story building. The three

firefighters who perished were attempting to ventilate the center stair tower when

they became disoriented and exhausted their air supply before they could reach

safety. The crew from Engine Company 11 was six floors above the fire, but heavy

smoke conditions filled the upper floors. Eight members of a search team ran out

of air on the 38th floor while trying to exit to the roof; they, too, had run out of air

and became disoriented. Fortunately, they were rescued by a crew that was sent

by helicopter to the roof.3

Search and rescue operations in high-rise buildings often take place several

floors or more above a fire. FFAS offers two models with a quick SCBA connection

on either a rupture containment system (RCS) or a rapid fill system (RFS) that

can enable firefighters to refill their SCBA cylinders while on their backs and in

operation even in toxic environments.

These systems, which may be in the stairwells (RFS) or in a room off the

corridor (RCS) near a stairwell, will enable firefighters easy access to air whether

remaining in operation or exiting the building through a hazardous atmosphere.

In a scenario similar to the One Meridian Plaza fire, both search and rescue

teams would have had readily accessible air in the stairwells. Search and rescue

teams as well as ventilation teams were as many as 16 stories above the fire.

This exemplifies the versatility of FFAS. It not only brings an air supply closer to

the work area, but it also provides a ready source of air to trapped or evacuating

firefighters.

Air management is an important issue that impacts supervision and

accountability on the fireground. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

1404, Standard for Fire Service Respiratory Protection Training, requires that a

standard operating procedure (SOP) be established that includes an individual PROOF

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air-management program. That program is to include a determination of each

member’s rate of air consumption.4

Gagliano, et al., discuss the importance of this issue in Air Management for the

Fire Service. They note that the low-air alarm is an indication that 75 percent of

the user’s air has been depleted and he is working on the remaining 25 percent.5

Using the low-air alarm as the cue to exit the work area can be extremely risky

considering the varied rate at which individuals expend their air.

Researchers from the University of Waterloo (Canada) developed two scenarios

to test how much air firefighters used during high-rise operations. The research

determined that within 11-12 minutes, 50 percent of the firefighter’s low-air

alarms activate, even while working at a self-selected pace. Some used air so

rapidly that their low-air alarms activated in as little as eight minutes.6

Coleman and Turiello quote Associate Professor of Fire Science Glenn Corbett of

John Jay College of Criminal Justice:

One of the biggest factors that limit firefighting and rescue in a

complex structure is having enough replacement air cylinders at the

staging area. The firefighter air system eliminates that factor and

allows them to operate much more effectively during fire suppression

and rescue. (2, p. 9)

The labor intensity of high-rise firefighting operations coupled with the logistical

challenges of providing firefighters with a readily available air supply can place

demands on fire departments that often exceed their resources. It is estimated

that for every four firefighters battling a high-rise fire, four firefighters are needed

every seven floors to support the operation. In that case, a fire on the 21st floor of

a building would require 12 additional firefighters to support each four firefighters

performing suppression activities. Experts estimate that as many as half of the

personnel operating at high-rise fires are used to fill and transport air cylinders to

the staging area.(2)

FFas: Mechanics

The mechanics of Firefighter Air Systems are relatively simple. They are described

by many fire service experts as “standpipes for air.”7 Most of the system’s PROOF

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components mirror those of a standard cascade system that’s merely integrated

into the building’s infrastructure. Its modular design allows for several variations

of the two base models, enabling building owners and local fire departments

to build systems that meet the operational needs of the authority having

jurisdiction (AHJ).

The RCS refills SCBA cylinders in the customary way: Air cylinders are removed

from the firefighter’s SCBA harness and refilled in a rupture containment

chamber, or interior air fill station, that encapsulates the entire cylinder. The RFS

refills SCBA air cylinders while they remain on the firefighter’s back, using an

interior air-fill panel.

FFas: coMPonenTs

There are seven components to FFAS: the exterior mobile air-connection panels

(EMAC), the interior air-fill station, the interior air-fill panel, the air-storage

system, the air-monitoring system, the system isolation valve, and the piping

distribution system. Systems are generally designed with air-fill stations or air-fill

panels. A more specific description of each component follows.

1 The exterior mobile air-connection panel consists of a locked box mounted

on the exterior of the building or on a remote monument. The fire department

mobile air unit connects to the

FFAS using a high-pressure air

hose, providing the building with a

continuous supply of air. Moisture

and carbon monoxide (CO) levels

as well as the system’s pressure

can be monitored from this panel

(photo 1).

2 The interior air-fill station (chamber) consists of a stationary

air unit that allows for refilling of

SCBA air cylinders in a rupture

(1) Exterior mobile air-connection panel. (Photos courtesy of RescueAir, Inc.)PROOF

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containment chamber. The interior air-fill station includes an air-control panel in

addition to a quick-fill connection. Interior air-fill stations are placed in fire-rated

locations, such as cache rooms, every three to five floors. It is recommended that

the stair-identification system used be consistent throughout the district—i.e.,

RCS/5th Floor Corridor off Stair A (photos 2-3).

3 The interior air-fill panel consists of a locked

box mounted in the stairwell on every other

floor. The box includes an air-control panel and

a quick-fill connection. Rapid refilling of SCBA

air cylinders is done while they are still on

the firefighter’s back and, if necessary, still in

use. The quick-fill connection attaches to the

RIC/UAC on the SCBA harness. Interior air-fill

panels allow for at least two air cylinders to be

filling simultaneously (photo 4).

(2) Interior air-fill station (closed). (3) Interior air-fill station (open).

(4) Interior air-fill panel.PROOF

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4 The air-storage system consists of a bank of large air cylinders and a booster

pump much like any other cascade system. The bank supplies firefighters with a

continuous delivery of air prior to the arrival of the fire department’s mobile air

unit. Depending on the system’s design, this component can provide refills for

between 50 and 250 SCBA cylinders. The piping alone holds enough compressed

air to fill several SCBA

cylinders prior to the arrival

of the fire department’s

cascade unit (photo 5).

5 The air-monitoring system’s primary function

is to continuously monitor

the FFAS pressure,

moisture, and CO levels.

If moisture or CO levels

exceed the minimum

acceptable levels, the

system shows red flashing lights and digital

readouts at key components. In addition, a

supervisory signal is sent to the fire command

center and an independent web monitoring

station. In the event of an inadvertent

overpressurization of the system, the air-

monitoring system also acts as a pressure relief.

The air-monitoring systems meet or exceed

NFPA standards and mirror those installed in

other stationary and mobile cascade systems.

Testing and inspection requirements are usually

specified within the local code. Generally, they

are conducted annually by a third party at the

building owner’s expense. Some codes call for the

fire department to observe the process (photo 6).

(5) Air-storage system.

(6) Air-monitoring system.PROOF

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6 The system isolation valve is placed alongside

each interior air-fill station and interior air-fill

panel. It enables the fire department to isolate

the system manually or remotely from the fire

command center (photo 7).

7 The piping distribution system is permanently

installed stainless steel tubing. It delivers the

compressed air to all the building interior air-fill

stations and interior air-fill panels. The stainless

steel tubing also acts as a conduit in the interior

of the building between the exterior connection

panel and the air-storage system. The entire

piping distribution system is cross-connected

with the exterior connection panels (photo 8).

The fire department keeps

the keys to the exterior

mobile air connection

panel and the interior air-

fill panel. Systems are

generally charged to 4,500-

5,000 pounds per square

inch gauge (psig) and can

contain enough air in the piping distribution system to fill several SCBA cylinders,

depending on the building size, should owners elect not to add an air-storage

system. Friction loss plays a very minimal role; in systems with five miles of

½-inch piping, it is virtually nonexistent.

coDe aDoPTion

The International Association of Plumbing Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) led

the way in developing code language by establishing a Firefighter Breathing Air

(7) Isolation valve.

(8) Piping distribution system.

PROOF

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Replenishment Task Group. (1) The NFPA steered this code development. IAPMO

IGC 220-2005 was adopted into its Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) in 2006 and is

contained within Appendix F. The document was written to provide a framework

for FFAS adoption.8 This had a positive impact at the time, but most fire, building,

and plumbing officials still do not know anything about FFAS.

Now, FFAS is being required more often by amendments to the code at the state

or local levels. Some states allow the local AHJ to amend their own codes. Rescue

Air System, Inc. provides expert analysis in this area and is available to consult in

the code-writing and adoption process.9

San Francisco, California; Boynton Beach, Florida; and Phoenix, Arizona are good

examples of how FFAS has been adopted at the local level. These jurisdictions

provide excellent examples of the various adoption possibilities.

San Francisco adopted FFAS through its city and county municipal code.

Its code targets permitted applications on buildings 75 feet and greater and

tunnels exceeding 300 feet after March 30, 2004. The fire department has the

authority, through Administrative Bulletins, to update specifications, testing, and

maintenance on the system.

Boynton Beach adopted FFAS by city ordinance. It falls under the fire protection

and prevention requirements for high-rise buildings and consists of three short

sentences. Specifications for the system’s components references IAPMO IGC

220-2005. Maintenance and testing are to be performed annually at the owner’s

expense.

Phoenix adopted FFAS through its fire code, and it is listed under fire protection

systems. The 10-page document spells out the requirements in detail. [personal

interview, California State Fire Marshal (Ret.) R.J. Coleman]

nFPa sTanDarDs

Several NFPA standards are applicable to FFAS; most are relevant in their current

form. For example, NFPA 1404 specifies the minimum training and safety

procedure required for respiratory protection use. As the equipment used by the

AHJ changes, the training and safety procedures require modification. FFAS may PROOF

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change the fire department air management program, but the validity of the

NFPA standard remains intact. Likewise, NFPA 1500 (2007 edition), Standard on Fire

Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, specifies that fire departments

establish a respiratory protection program.10 The fire department respiratory

protection program may require modification as the AHJ is faced with changes,

but the validity of the NFPA standard is still relevant.

Both NFPA 1500 and 1852, Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Open-

Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (2008 edition), require operators filling

SCBA cylinders to be protected from catastrophic failures. (10) NFPA 1500 does

allows for rapid filling of SCBA cylinders during specially identified emergency

situations and rapid refilling of SCBA cylinders while on the user if the following

conditions are met: (a) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

(NIOSH)-approved fill operations are used; (b) the risk assessment process has

identified procedures for limiting personnel exposure during the refill process

and has provided for adequate equipment inspection and member safety; and (c)

an imminent life-threatening situation occurs that requires immediate action to

prevent the loss of life or serious injury. (10) The argument could be made that all

high-rise fires meet these conditions. NIOSH and the NFPA recommend personnel

be protected during refilling but leave the determination to the AHJ.

NFPA 1500, “Annex-A, Explanatory Material,” states that 12 cylinders have failed

during refilling within the United States. Most of these failed cylinders had not

been maintained properly. Some were being used beyond their Department of

Transportation-defined hydrostatic test period. Some had not been retrofitted

with a special neck ring that the manufacturer had recommended to reduce the

possibility of failure. (10, p. 42)

NFPA 1500, “Annex A, Explanatory Material,” further states: The failed cylinders

belong to a relatively small population of a particular type of cylinder, and there

has been no occurrence of cylinder failure during filling of any other type of SCBA

cylinders. Full-wrapped composite cylinders, which are predominantly being

purchased by the fire service at this time, have been used since 1988 without

failure during refilling. (10, p. 42)PROOF

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SCBA cylinders are weakest during the filling procedure. This seems logical with

the temperature change and stress the evolution causes; therefore, cylinders are

manufactured to withstand this process.

NFPA 1981, Standard on Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) for

Emergency Services (2007 edition); NFPA 1989, Standard on Breathing Air Quality

for Emergency Services Respiratory Protection (2008 edition); and NFPA 1901 (2009

edition), much like NFPA 1404 (2006 edition), NFPA 1500 (2007 edition), and NFPA

1852 (2008 edition), all have relevance to FFAS in their present form. As research

is published, methods improve, and new technologies are developed, it is not

unusual for an NFPA standard to be modified or broken into new standards.

For example, the “use” of SCBAs was reassigned from NFPA 1404 to NFPA 1500;

likewise, the “selection, care and maintenance” and “respiratory breathing air

quality” were incorporated into the new standard, NFPA 1852. (4, p. 1)

Coleman proposes just such a modification to NFPA 1989.11 He proposes a new

chapter entitled, “Firefighter Breathing Air Replenishment Systems Installed in

Structures.” Coleman argues that while IAPMO IGC 220, Appendix F describes

FFAS, it has been adopted in only 14 states throughout the United States. Its

adoption as an Appendix makes it even less effective. He further points out that

often when FFAS is adopted by local ordinances, IAPMO IGC 200, Appendix F has

not been adopted. For example, the Boynton Beach Fire Code references IAPMO

IGC 200, whereas the San Francisco Fire Code makes no mention of it whatsoever.

The advantage of adding a new chapter to NFPA 1989 as proposed by Coleman

would be twofold. First, the chapter would create much needed uniformity among

installations while still providing flexibility where possible. Second, incorporating

FFAS into a standard would allow for cross-referencing throughout the NFPA

standards and other industry standards such as the Occupational Safety and

Health Administration and NIOSH.

The cosT oF FFas

It is estimated that FFAS adds one-eighth of one percent to the total construction

cost of a building. Recently, a 65-story building in San Francisco was retrofitted

for approximately $600,000. The system included two exterior points for mobile

air connections, certified rupture containment air-fill systems every third floor, PROOF

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and an air-storage system with a 100-cylinder capacity. Preconstruction plans

can bring costs down considerably. In this example, it’s estimated the price could

have been reduced by 25 percent through preconstruction planning and value

engineering.

In a cost comparison using a typical 20-story building, FFAS saves an estimated

$785,568 over a 10-year period (compared with the installation of an equipment

cache). It’s estimated that FFAS would cost approximately $145,000 installed with

yearly testing and certification fees of $2,200. By contrast, the same building with

cache rooms (storage area on upper floors for firefighter tools and equipment)

installed would cost an estimated $268,220. Initial construction costs of $188,000

would be increased by projected revenue losses on rentable square footage of

$72,000 and additional testing and certification requirements on SCBAs and

cyclinders of $8,220. A RCS system typically uses much less square footage, and

when a RFS is located in nonrentable space such as stairwells, it is more cost

effective for the building owner.

Local fire departments incur no costs, as they are in no need to purchase

additional equipment. FFAS uses technologies currently used by fire departments.

All connecting valves and fittings are compatible. A potential for cost savings

exists when considerations are given to health and safety benefits and the

possibility that fire departments would have to stock and maintain fewer SCBA

cylinders to fight high-rise fires.

The potential positive impact FFAS could have on the fire service, in high-

rise buildings, as well as tunnels and mega structures, cannot be overstated.

Efficiency and safety are increased if an air supply can be delivered in close

proximity to the fire. Unfortuntely, except for a handful of states, FFAS is still

relatively unknown throughout the fire service and construction industries.

Community and fire service leaders should take a long, hard look at the benefits

this new technolgy offers.

references1. Salomon, C. (2005, July/August). “Come Up for Air: How BARS Keeps Firefighters

Breathing on the Job,” Official, pp. 6-12.PROOF

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2. Coleman, R. J., & Turiello, A. J. (2011). Lifeline in the Sky: Training Manual for Firefighter Air Systems. San Carlos, CA: Rescue Air, p. 61.

3. Routley, J. G., Jennings, C., & Chubb, M. (n.d.). High-rise Office Building Fire One Meridian Plaza. Emmitsburg, MD: United States Fire Administration Technical Report Series.

4. National Fire Protection Association. (2006). NFPA 1404: Standard for Fire Service Respiratory Protection Training (2006 ed.). Quincy, MA.

5. Gagliano, M., Phillips, C., Jose, P., & Bernocco, S. (2008). Air Management for the Fire Service. Tulsa: PennWell Corporation.

6. Williams-Bell, F. M., Boisseau, G., McGill, J., Kostiuk, A., & Hughson, R. L. (2010, March). “Air Management and Physiologist Responses During Simulated Firefighting Tasks in a High-Rise Structure,” Applied Ergonomics, 41(2), 251-259.

7. Comeau, E. (2003, January). Technology Today, Rescue Air System:”Standpipe for Air,” Fire Engineering, pp. 109-112.

8. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials. (2011). IAPMO Group. Retrieved January 3, 2011, from IAPMO Group: http://www.iapmo.org.

9. Rescue Air System, Inc. (2010). Retrieved August 24, 2010, from The Industry Leader in Firefighter Breathing Air Replenishment Systems: http://www.rescue-air.com/.

10. National Fire Protection Association. (2007). NFPA 1500: Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program (2007 ed.). Quincy, MA.

11. Coleman, R. J. (2010, August 24). Breathing Air Quality for Fire and Emergency Services Respiratory Protection. NFPA Document Proposal Form. Elk Grove, California: RescueAir.

This article is based on a paper I prepared for the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s National Fire Academy’s Executive Officer Program.

JOSEPH D. RUSH III is a battalion chief and 24-year veteran of the Atlantic City

(NJ) Fire Department. He has a BS degree from LaSalle University and an MS

degree from Saint Joseph’s University. He is in the fourth year of the National Fire

Academy’s Executive Fire Officer Program.

PROOF

http://www.esri.com

http://www.iapmo.org

http://www.rescue-air.com/

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