“tudor vianu” national high school of computer · pdf file15/02/2013 ·...

“TUDOR VIANU” National High School of Computer Science

ODYSSEUS Amun Mining Mission

Dare to dream… Dare to discover… Dare to create

Elena Nica

Alexandra Voinea

15/02/2013

Amun Mining Mission

Contents

Introduction

1.Methodology and Sustainability

1.1 Feasibility

1.2 Finding and Choosing Asteroids

1.2.1 GEO telescopes

1.2.2 Astrometrica

1.3 Composition

1.4 Location

1.5 Research (Part One)

1.6 Mission Outline

1.7 Landing

1.8 Resources

1.9 Mining

1.9.1 Mining Season

1.9.2 Processing

1.9.3 Permanent atomized mining bases

1.10 Transport of Goods

2. Structural Design

2.1 General Layout

2.2 Sizes and dimensions

2.3 Views

2.4 Shape and Payload

2.5 Orbit Transfer for the Amun Mission

2.6 Orbit Rendezvous

3. Technical Engineering

Part 1

3.1 Payload

3.2 ADCS

3.3 Power and Energy

3.3.1 Solar panels

3.3.2 RTG

3.3.3 The Uranium Reactor

3.3.4 Mini-Nuclear Reactors

3.4 Materials

3.5 Thermal Insulation

3.6 Radiation Insulation

3.7 Telecommunications

3.7.1 Noise

3.7.2 Amplification

3.7.3 Coding and Multiple Access

Amun Mining Mission

3.8 Launchers

3.8.1 Further travel, orbital transfer and adjustment thrusters

3.8.2 Chemical Rockets

3.8.3 Thrusters

5. Construction

5.1 Building Materials

5.2 Location

5.3 Building phases

Launching, Landing and Transporting Loads

Description of Procedure

6. Research

6.1 Asteroid Bases

6.1.1.Base One

6.1.2 Base Two

6.2 Other materials, new compounds

6.3 Conclusion

7. Research and Technical Engineering

The projects

7.1 Part of Amun Adjacent Module Electronics

7.2 Purpose

7.3 Components

8. Finance

8.1 Financial win of mining Amun

8.2 Financing of Amun Mining Mission

8.2.1 Other materials

8.2.2 Advertising, Filming, GPS and Meteorological Services

8.2.3 Space Tourism

8. Appendix

8.1 Methodology

8.1.1 GEO Telescopes Transfer

8.1.2 Computing Amun

8.2 Sustainability

8.2.1 Electromagnets Features

8.3 Orbital maneuvers

8.3.1. One tangent burn

8.3.2 Slow spiral transfer

8.3.3 Hohmann transfer orbits

8.3.4.Orbital plane changes

Amun Mining Mission


8.5.1 Solar power

8.5.2 Nuclear

8.6 Telecommunication

8.6.1 Power emitted

8.6.2 Power received

8.7 Launchers


8.7.2 Hall Effect

9. Bibliography

1 Odysseus 2013: Spaceship - Global Cooperation

Introduction

Mining has always been quite an issue in

modern aerospace industry, and may be

regarded as the very next Gold Rush -

“Space Race”, if Planetary Resources Inc.

succeed in mining Amun.

Since asteroid mining is a large, fascinating

domain, and the planning of a mining

mission is quite a journey itself, this will be

our submission’s theme and would probably

be the greatest mission since Apollo.

Through the journey of “Amun Mining

Mission”, we tried finding new ways of

reducing costs and making the whole goal

achievable.

One of the methods was using satellite space

debris in LEO to both clear up the orbit and

cut off material building, while not

jeopardizing the mission. The project also

brings forward the orbital transfer to Amun

3554, as well as financing and advertising

methods. Furthermore, Methodology and

Sustainability presents the mining process,

as well as the process used by the Adjacent

Module of the mission in order to measure

currently inconsistent and unavailable data

regarding the asteroid, such as the albedo,

the temperature and its radius.

Research is the most important section,

since it provides the unique opportunity of

studying foreign, extraterrestrial locations

which may, in turn, provide the occasion of

finding new materials. Another great

opportunity is studying the cosmic radiation

and radiation in space (described in Part

Two, Technical Engineering chapter).

The Research chapter also provides a section

on asteroid bases, their construction and

alternative studies conducted on them.

The hypothesis regarding asteroid mining

states that once the first mission is

completed, the technology obtained when

preparing it, the cost reductions, the funds

and profits obtained through it, as well as

the world’s opinion on asteroid mining,

space exploration and aerospace in general

will advance and evolve so much, that all

further missions as well as unrelated

missions will come with much more ease.


1.Methodology and

Sustainability

1.1 Feasibility

The mining of Amun 3554, and asteroid

mining in general is highly feasible from

many points of view. First of all, there have

been quite a number of initiatives regarding

asteroid mining, or at least lunar mining (in

the case of lunar mining, the primary

purpose consists in winning the Google

LunarX Prize). Of these, Romanian ARCA

has proven remarkable efforts in lunar

mining, and so have many others.

Regarding asteroidal mining, Planetary

Resources Inc. established its vision in

making asteroid mining the business of the

future. Should this be accomplished, other

aerospace involved companies (SpaceX,

with the Falcons, as well as Virgin Galactic,

with space travel and tourism) would join in

venture. Should this be achieved, other

aerospace involved companies (SpaceX,

with the Falcons, as well as Virgin Galactic,

with space travel and tourism) would join.

Planetary Resources Inc. is currently

developing asteroid exploration systems at

much lower costs, while also launching a

network of satellites, on the look-out for

new mining targets. This has been a trend in

the past decade, reducing aerospace

exploration and aerospace mission costs,

with SpaceX also dramatically reducing the

cost for providing supplies on the ISS.

Another positive argument in favor of

developing such a mission is the constant

usefulness asteroids will provide. Asteroid

mining will most certainly be the element to

which companies will resort when looking

for the funding of an astrophysics research

mission. Man hasn’t stepped on a celestial

body since Apollo, and research and

development, the evolution of the human

race and its expansion in outer space can

most certainly not be based on elements

so trivial as economy, finance, and

repartition of government money.

Fortunately, research and technology have

their own way of stepping out, going

through, and the possibility of a mission

funding both itself, as well as other missions

is a wonderful, nourishing thought. With the

continuous effort in developing more

effective and cheap mining technology, a

substantial progress will have been made in

robotics, aerospace and engineering itself.

By the completion of the mission itself, we

will have amounted to much more than

funding.

Another argument in a list of endless ones,

is the fact that through mining asteroidal

resources, we would spare Earth from

destructive processes, and help heal it. Also,

asteroid mining gives the perspective of

new, unknown elements and materials, with

useful purposes ranging from developing an

alternate form of green energy to the

exquisite domain of metamaterials.

1.2 Finding and Choosing Asteroids

An asteroid of 25 meters diameter is the

equivalent of 1.5 million tons of

construction material.

A number of about 200,000 NEAs (Near

Earth Asteroids) 100 meters in diameter and


larger, circle or meet Earth’s orbit in one

point.

Asteroids have two main features we have to

consider: they are extremely rich in metal - a

planetoid contains 30 times the amount of

metal ever mined from Earth, and they have

a rocky-ice like texture.

1.2.1 GEO telescopes

Launcher

The telescopes(Figure 1.2.1 Telescope) in

GEO will be launched with SpaceX’s light-

weight launcher Falcon 1e, capable of lifting

up to 1010 kg to LEO, the payload

consisting of the telescopes themselves,

endowed with transmitters, mining devices,

dating and sampling components, infrared

vision, cameras, sensors, gyroscopes, star

sensors for attitude control and others

similar., each weighing a few kilograms.

It’s powered up by its single Merlin 1c, and

uses liquid oxygen as a propellant.

The second stage Kestrel engine burns up to

3,000kg of propellant. The launcher is

restart able, and able to burn for up 418s.

Orbital maneuvers

Orbital maneuvers require potential energy

(to get to LEO from Earth) and kinetic

energy to achieve the right speed and stay in

orbit.

The telescopes will be launched from Earth

to LEO, the first 300km being the hardest to

get past, Earth’s gravitational attraction

being biggest. To get from LEO to GEO, an

elliptical transfer orbit will be used.

Finally, the velocity difference for LEO

summed up with the velocity difference for

GEO, gives up the total . Details are

given in Appendix A.

∆V= 682.83 m/s

And the energy required, for a telescope

with the mass of 10 kg is 2 331 284.04

J

1.2.2 Astrometrica

One of the most interesting projects in

finding asteroids is Astrometrica. This

allows students to analyze data sets and find

objects that follow straight trajectories, and

may be asteroids. With typical report

examples(TVH0014 C2012 12

07.24305303 03 12.112+14 37 50.27 20.7 R

F51)

1.3 Composition

Currently, there are no clear records or

patterns in asteroid composition. Most

asteroids contain iron-nickel, cobalt,

platinum and a rocky-icy crust. Their

percentages, however, may consistently

differ.

Figure 1.2.1 Telescope


Composition Percentage of asteroids

Carbon 75% or more

Silicate Less than 17%

Metallic Less than 7%

Dark (basaltic) Less than 1%

There are Carbon (C-type) asteroids, Silicate

(S-type) ones, and Metallic (M-type) ones.

Sometimes we may also find Dark (D-type)

asteroids. In the end, and the ones and

interest us most, the M-type asteroids

represent a total of about 10% (enough to

satisfy and even exceed financial

requirements) and the carbon ones, with the

majority of 75%. A final classification

method is the geochemical one. Asteroids

are categorized depending on their chemical

structure.

Thus, one has the “Lithophile” ones,

asteroids that are earth-loving, and consists

of silicate rocks, calcium, magnesium, as

well as other minerals.

There are “Siderophile” asteroids, iron-

loving ones, “Chalcophile”s, which are

largely made of sulfur-like substances, and

“Volatile”s, lost in liquid stage., but

containing useful elements for rocket

fuel(according to P.E.R.M.A.N.E.N.T.

website).

These being stated, the asteroids which

interest one most are the M-type and C-type

ones, “Lithophile” ones and “Siderophile”

asteroids, metal and mineral lovers, since the

substances needed are various metals, iron,

nickel as well as minerals and carbon.

“Volatile”s are quite interesting and useful

for space-made rocket fuel.

1.4 Location

Another way of classifying asteroids is by

judging their position.

1) The Amor asteroids. These approach

Earth’s orbit, being situated between Earth

and Mars. Mining them is would be useful,

regarding the material needed for the

expansion program.

2) The Apollo “belt”. Apollo asteroids cross

Earth’s orbit and will represent a main part

in finding, mining asteroids.

3) The Aten asteroids. They cross Earth’s

orbit and spend most of the time inside it.

They are close enough and represent a

convenient and cheaper alternative

(comparing to the other sources) to most

solutions regarding material retrieval.

1.5 Research (Part One)

Amun 3554 is one of the rather small

asteroids found in 1986. Therefore, not

much is known of its structure. (orbital

elements have all been measured). Using the

measured albedo (a=2.5), the temperature

and the, and knowing its absolute magnitude

(again, measured, M=15.82) its apparent

magnitude may be determined, and

observers on Earth may observe, at fortunate

times, the asteroid. Following the

computations in Appendix A, leading to

inconsistent results, the Amun Mining

Mission is the perfect opportunity to

accurately measure and retrieve data

regarding Amun 3554.

1.6 Mission Outline

1) Construction of Amun Mining Module

(Figure 1.6 Amun Mining Module) in

Orbit—further detailed in Construction


Amun is built in orbit in order to reduce

costs, and only the main-body of the module

is launched from Earth. The main body

provides the thrust needed for the transfer

(and is therefore endowed with multi-

ignition thrusters). This is described in

Construction.

2) After Amun Mining

Module is built, it is

transferred to the

asteroid 3554 Amun, in

order to complete its

mining mission. This is

presented in Location

and Orbital Transfer.

3) AMM lands

magnetically on the

asteroid and starts

mining and processing.

4) When magnetically separating the load

from dirt, all metal is accelerated towards

the magnet, flattening it and making it

transportable. At this time, a small impulse

is given, for the load to leave the asteroid,

and intercept side-ship1.

5) Load is magnetically caught by side-

ships.

6) Load is transported to Earth and left in

MEO, and taken to a=0 by second side-ship.

7) Meanwhile, side-ship one transfers back

to Amun.

8) Bringing more side-ships, actively left in

orbit, sending to other asteroids.

1.7 Landing

The asteroid must be quite accessible, easier

to get close to at certain times than the

Moon, for example. Moreover, an asteroid

having a low orbital eccentricity (

considering e=0 when the orbit is circular),

will have a longer,

much more productive

mining season, and a

certain time for

transporting materials

back to Earth, an

average of 5T of

material per mission.

A long orbital period is

useful, one close to

Earth’s being quite

feasible.

Moreover, when transferring the miner, the

launcher, the transporter, etc. from one orbit

to another, it is vital to have the lowest

delta-V possible when reaching the transfer

orbit, a delta-V lower than, say, 6km/s and a

return delta-V lower than 2km/s. Therefore

the energy consumption is lowered. All

orbital maneuvering criterion should be

discussed according to location.

1) Amor asteroids generally have a low

eccentricity and a low inclination, which is

in favor, since an adjacent delta-V is needed

for orbital plane changes. Having a low i

and a low e implies a long mining season

and un-demanding automation, solar power,

material mining and processing requisites,

making them a very feasible target.

Figure 1.6 Amun Mining Module


2) Apollo type asteroids typically have a

large eccentricity, and thus demand high

delta-V. These can be lowered by various

methods, such as occasional gravitational

slingshots, but such opportunities only being

available is some cases, Apollo’s are not

financially helpful.

3) Aten asteroids also have high

eccentricities, and besides that the launches

need to be times so the satellite reaches the

asteroid and the payload reaches Earth. Each

mission must therefore be separately taken

into consideration, a selection law being

applied according to each asteroids’ period.

Methods of lowering the energetic costs

produced by the high delta-V must be also

determined. Aten asteroids are not feasible.

This brings up the obvious conclusion that

the best asteroids are the Amor type ones,

and generally the ones with low

eccentricities.

Location is also a vital factor considering

thermal control and power management. The

ideal satellite will have a good thermal

control system, which will prevent the

degradation of its electrical components, but

highly efficient, resistant solar panels.

Anywhere on the Amor asteroids’ zone

meets these requirements.

“Peter Diamandis paraphrased Lewis at the

2006 International Space Development

Conference when he exclaimed, “There are

twenty-trillion-dollar checks up there,

waiting to be cashed!” This $20 trillion

figure is based on Lewis’s calculations of

how much a metallic asteroid (3554 Amun)

would be worth if it was sold at current

market prices.”

(http://www.nss.org/settlement/asteroids/)

3554 Amun was chosen as the first example

of mining an asteroid in order to obtain

funds for a few reasons.

First of all, as most Amor asteroids, Amun

has a low eccentricity, e=0.2803, making it

almost circular, event in which the

eccentricity would be 0. (A low eccentricity

implies the series of advantages presented in

Criteria).

Amun has a quite low inclination, and

intersects at one point the orbit of Venus,

making it also scientifically interesting.

Moreover, in 2020, Amun’s orbit will be

more accessible than the Moon, making it

ideal.

Most important, Amun is one of the richest

asteroids known. (It’s known that if a person

owned Amun, that person would be 400

times richer than Bill Gates). It is also quite

small, therefore its destruction shouldn’t

have large impacts on the space

environment.

1.8 Resources

Amun is a metallic asteroids, M-type

asteroid, and although part of the Aten

group, intersects Earth’s orbit. It’s estimated

value is around $20 trillion, making it one of

the primary funding sources for Amun

Mining Mission.

As a term of comparison, the density of

platinum or gold in the mines in South

Africa is 5-10 ppm. On Amun the average is

around 100ppm.

Materials worth $500, 000/T could be

brought to LEO with a low delta-V, and then

be used for optical glass, semiconductors,

medicine, pharmaceuticals, diamonds and

http://www.nss.org/settlement/asteroids/


certain isotopes. Other very expensive

metals such as radium could be found as

well. (radium was at one point worth

$200,000/g).

Still, platinum is worth $30/g, and with a

density such as the one on Amun, in

combination with the rather large cobalt

percentage on the asteroid, all these make

Amun one of the best mining targets.

1.9 Mining

Mining in a low-g environment may be

difficult. Therefore, there are a few pre-

steps.

1) Stopping asteroidal rotation

Throwing the nickel-iron-cobalt alloy in a

direction opposing the rotation of the

asteroid, will constantly slow down its

rotation speed.

2) Magnetic landing

Landing, as well as the various ways of

doing it will be thoroughly discussed in the

chapter about asteroid mining for materials.

Since this is solely about the Amun 3554

mission, landing on Amun is viewed.

When landing on 3554 Amun, it must be

taken into consideration the fact than Amun

is an M-type asteroid, therefore composed

primarily of metal, and therefore

ferromagnetic.

Attachment will be done using magnetic

terminations in the robot, since claws will be

highly inefficient against metal, as well as

most others. The electromagnetic force

doesn’t have to be too large, only bigger

than the gravitational attraction on Amun, so

when we reverse the process, the

electromagnetic force is big enough to reject

the gravitational attraction.

For Amun, the gravitational attraction is

equal to

F= 0.000683008 N/kg.

Which, considering the mass 1.6×1013

and

the diameter of 2.5 km, is quite feasible.

Therefore, , because the

gravitational attraction is so small, a robot

would be literally thrown off. Since natural,

permanent materials with ferromagnetic

properties would not be strong enough,

electromagnets will be used.

As seen in Appendix A.

3) Mining

The process of separating rock and dust

from metal will be completed as described

below. Asteroids are rich in nickel-iron

metal granules. In order to separate the

precious alloy from dirt and complementary

asteroidal components the mining equipment

will use magnetic separation.

Since they have powerful magnets, the

separation will encounter the followings: a

magnetic field is created, silicate

components are separated from metallic

ones and thus the process is repeated until

obtaining highly pure bags. The weakly

magnetic silicates are deflected off while the

magnetic ones stick to the magnet until the

scrape off point. Increasing the magnets

strength will increase the velocity of the

attracted metal and may also flatten it during

the process. This is called strip mining.

(according to P.E.R.M.A.N.E.N.T.) Since

3554 Amun is mainly made of pure metal,

tunneling or anything other than magnetic


separation would require too much energy.

Therefore scraping metal off and attracting it

by a large magnet is ideal. Minerals may be

attracted, repulsed or unaffected according

to their response to magnets. The ones that

are magnetic are called paramagnetic and

may be Ferro-magnetic or feebly magnetic.

Either ways we need any material we can

get in space. Magnetic separation is the best

alternative since the lower the gravity, the

easier to magnetically separate metal

(according to P.E.R.M.A.N.E.N.T. website).

Unfortunately most of an asteroid’s material

is placed in its inner core. To get there, one

is supposed to practically destroy the

asteroid. The metal will be mined by using a

strong magnet and some grinders to separate

rock from metal granules. All the process

will be unfurled in space. In order to prevent

surroundings being polluted with dirt, a

huge canvas will create a tent-like bag in

which the rocky remains would be stored.

Throwing the nickel-iron-cobalt alloy in a

direction opposing the rotation of the

asteroid, will constantly slow down it’s

rotation speed .

1.9.1 Mining Season

Since Amun has a small eccentricity,

e=0.28, the mining season is long, large

amounts of materials being mined and

processed before being sent to Earth.

1.9.2 Processing

Processing is done differently depending on

the material, being far better to solve this

step in space rather than on Earth, as the

complete absence of gravity indulges work

with large, massive structures, as well as

with high temperatures, etc. .

1) Magnetic separation

Mining is done with the use of magnets, and

so is the metal processing. The obtained

metal is run through a grinder, then a roller

and finally released at full speed towards a

magnet, which may also help flatten it into a

bag. The bag is then cast aside for future

manufacturing or transport to Earth.

The drums and the magnets used will be

electromagnets, generating a magnetic field

as a consequence of electrical current.

Usually, heavy magnetic drums come in

different sizes and diameters.

(http://www.aamag.com/hvydrm.htm)

2) Water and Ice

At 260K, water is merely ice. Therefore, all

water/ice is melted and through electrolysis

turned into hydrogen and oxygen, used for

the rocket fuel to ship metal, platinum, etc.

back home.

Melting is done through solar ovens, high

temperatures being easier to achieve in

space rather than on Earth, in the absence of

gravity and meteorological conditions of any

kind.

Another option would, of course, be boiling

off unwanted materials through solar oven

distillation.

Finally, the water is split up through

electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen, used

for propellants.

Since rockets depend on a controlled

explosion, it is clear that they are highly

http://www.aamag.com/hvydrm.htm


dangerous. Therefore, the safest method is

carrying hydrogen and oxygen in different

tanks, instead of mixing them up an

facilitating destruction of the rocket.

The final products obtained from asteroid

mining will therefore by pumped into the

transporters, each having two different

tanks.

3) Silicates

Silicates are turned into glasses, ceramics or

fiber glasses after being passed through a

thermal oven.

4) Minerals

After being melt down, again by solar

ovens, electrodes are put in and high voltage

is passed through the composition. The

metals go the negative end, the cathode,

while the minerals go to the positive end, the

anode. The melting requires a high energy,

so this process will only be done if found

feasible enough.

1.9.3 Permanent atomized mining bases

Since Amun offers a great part of AMM

funding, as well as samples for further

scientific high-energy research, a permanent

base(Figure 1.9.3 Permanent Mining Base),

endowed with mechanical processing

equipment.

All the processing is done on site, rather

than bringing back to Earth tons of

materials. Electrolysis equipment, a solar

oven, grinders, rollers a magnetic drum, as

well as telecommunication equipment and

having a number of three to seven telescopes

permanently watch and send data of the

mission back to Earth.

The same telescopes used for finding

asteroids and described earlier could be

used, having solely their primarily function

changed.

1.10 Transport of Goods

The mission statement, and the outline given

in methodology explain the Amun Mining

Mission’s schedule, that of reaching 3554

Amun, extract platinum and then launch the

respective load in orbit. While in orbit, the

load is caught by one of the two side-ships

and transported safely back to Earth. This

will only be done after tests, after the

Adjacent Module brings back samples, and

the final, commercial mission is ready to

start.

Rendezvous is an aerospace engineering

procedure through which two space shuttles

are scheduled to meet in orbit.

The orbital transfer and the rendezvous to

and from Amun is explained in the Orbits

chapter.

Figure 1.9.3 Permanent Mining Base


2. Structural Design

2.1 General Layout

The general layout of Amun Mining Module

(Figure2.1A AMM) makes it ideal for a

mining space mission to 3554 Amun.

The main body’s aeronautical shape helps

the launcher transfer the module to Amun

safely, in a fast and highly economic

manner, while the Adjacent Module and the

Amun Mining Module(Figure 2.1B AMM)

itself are adequate for firmly placing

themselves on the asteroids’ surface and

start mining!

Moreover, the Amun Adjacent Module is

perfect for obtaining, processing and

transferring data back to Earth, while the

mining module is especially designed to

obtain and process valuable metal from

Amun. (valuable indeed, since on Amun

reside 100,000 tones platinum and 10,000 of

gold)

2.2 Sizes and dimensions

Zone Diameter Height Length Width

Tesla 17 6m 0.5m - -

Adjacent Module 3m 1m - -

Mining Module - 10m - 2m

Small Thrusters 0.5m 0.5m - -

Large Thrusters 2m 2m - -

Antenna 1m 1m - -

Landers - 2m 4m 1m

Figure 2.1A AMM


2.3 Views

2.4 Shape and Payload

1) Main Body

The main body, “S. Carpenter” Module

(Figure 2.4. S. Carpenter Module) is

designed such as to resemble Aurora 7, the

mission

piloted by

astronaut

Scott

Carpenter. It

is of such

nature that the

main mission

body (Figure2.4 S.Carpenter Module) has

been thoroughly analyzed in order to take

the mission’s main control, and be used as

the main transmitter (although all three parts

are able to both send and receive

information). Tesla 17 is therefore the

module most responsible of mission control.

2) Adjacent Module

Figure 2.1B AMM

Figure 2.3A Side View

Figure 2.3B Top View

Figure 2.4 S.Carpenter Module


The adjacent module, from now on referred

to as the Grace Hopper Module (Figure2.4 A

and Figure 2.4B), serves as a data finding

module, and measures temperature, crater

depth, picks up samples, as other as takes

photographs and analyses material structure.

Another important purpose is the

measurement of radiation amount.

3) Mining Module

The mining module is the main part of the

mission, and serves as a complete mining

facility. Its endowments are all described in

the Payload Subchapter, in Technical

Engineering Chapter. The mining module

(Figure 2.4 Tesla 17) named Tesla 17 after

the scientist, inventor and engineer Nikola

Tesla, as it uses AC and magnetism

principles when mining.

Tesla 17 has the following specification

(table) and is designed to extract metal, a

quite wide range of radioactive substances,

platinum and gold from one of the richest

asteroids known, and follow on by financing

exploration missions, astrophysics mission,

and maybe, one day, the construction of a

self-sustaining space settlement, inhabited

by as much as 5,000 at some point.

Figure 2.4 A

Figure 2.4 B

Figure 2.4 Tesla 17


2.5 Orbit Transfer for the Amun

Mission

The transfer is done using a Hohmann orbit,

as well as an orbital plane change, visible in

(Figure 2.5 Orbits) , at the apogee. The

transfer needed for the spaceships to reach

Amun 3554 and the

Mining Module, pick the material load and

transfer it back to Earth is similar.

Since the transfer occurs around the Sun as

the main object, the GM for the Sun will be

used, GM=1.32 .

In order to reach Amun’s orbit and orbital

plane change is required. This is done in the

apogee, as it has been proven to be more

efficient.

m

= 146 404 795 250 m

148352689475 m

41910.4 m/s

42464.3 m/s

The velocity on the final orbit is slightly

larger, as the orbits’ radius is smaller, and

therefore requires more kinetic energy

= 41634.3 m/s

= 42742.2 m/s

= -276.1 m/s

= = 277.9 m/s

Figure 2.5 Orbits, Amun, 2012, courtesy of JPL


The final delta-v is computed for the speeds

in the apocentre, and is the delta-v needed

for the plane change with i=23.36º.

∆Vi=

√

= 81 814.8 m/s

∆V=1.8 m/s

This makes it quite feasible, even at an

arbitrary time.

It must be scheduled right though. The plane

change requires quite a lot of energy.

2.6 Orbit Rendezvous

The orbit rendezvous is a situation in which

the satellite must intercept an object at a

certain time. For this to be possible, the

object must attain a phasing orbit, making a

Hohmann transfer between the two possible.

A launch window is represented by the time

at which the launch site rotates through the

desired orbital plane.

Since Amun will be easier to approach than

the Moon in 2020 (Figure 2.6-2012 &

Figure 2.6-2020), that is the time scheduled

for the mission. This is obvious from the

graphics below.

The total delta-velocity gives the total

energy requirement, and thus the necessary

propellant, ending in a computable delta-V

budget.

Figure 1.6 -2012

Figure 2.6-2020


3. Technical Engineering

Part 1

3.1 Payload

Payload described below only includes the

sent Mining Module to 3554 Amun. The

later rockets and launchers, that should take

the mined material back to Earth are not

described here, as they greatly resemble S.

Carpenter Module’s payload.

Amun Mining Module’s structure will be

thoroughly explained at structural design,

and the following chapter simply highlights

some of the equipment the Module will be

endowed with.

First of all, the Adjacent Module will serve

as an exploration station, taking regolith

samples, photos, measuring crater depth,

average temperature, level of radiation and

placing telescopes and equipment required

for spectroscopic analysis.

The Adjacent Module also represents the

emergency energy source, having 8 1 sq.

meter solar panels, and being in the

proximity of the Sun, it would give around

12 kW. (Appendix A) It’s final function is

data transmitting and recording, since the

Amun Module is a strictly mining module.

The main body of the mission will have

attitude control sensors, sun sensors,

gyroscopes, thermal control ones, thruster

control, and will represent the head of

mission control.

The Amun Mining Module has 12 solar

panels, a mini-nuclear reactor, transmitting

antenna’s (such as the ones found on the

Adjacent Module), a wide range of mining

devices, an extraction palette, an electro-

magnet, all specification being given in

Appendix A. Most of the interior of the

AMM is free, in order to be filled with

mined resources. The module’s capacity is

given in structural design.

The AMM is also endowed with micro

thrusters, attitude control devices, as well as

landing arms.

3.2 ADCS

In order to know the attitude and motion of a

spacecraft, we need to know the spacecraft’s

position, velocity, orientation and rotational

velocity.

Since space is not the ideal environment,

many disturbances occur, such as

aerodynamic disturbances, magnetic field

ones, gravity gradients, disturbance torques,

solar radiation disturbances, etc.

Considering these, the spacecraft’s’ attitude

must be thoroughly controlled. This is

ensured by the use of Passive Control

Systems and Active Control Systems.

Passive Control Systems are the ones that

destabilize themselves without the use of

sensors. Gyroscopic stabilization is one

example of PCS, and so are the magnetic

stabilizations and the aerodynamic ones.

Active Control Systems use sensors in order

to adjust attitude, three axis active attitude

control.

For accuracy to be ensured, and for the

control system to be both efficient and

accurate, AMM will use a solar sensor, its

signals being compared to the results


provided by the initially very accurate

gyroscope.


3.3.1 Solar panels

The electrical power subsystem makes up to

20-40% the mass of the spacecraft, and

therefore the mission’s power design must

be thoughly done. The EPS has roughly four

elements: the power source, the power

storage, the power management and the

power distribution.

Solar energy is the main source of energy on

Amun Module, as Amun is quite close to the

Sun, and solar panels do not emit radiations

of any kind that should interfere with Amun

Module research on radiation, or the

Universe’s past, have a long life, do not use

fules or water. Batteries (rechargeable ones)

are needed, but this doesn’t prove to be a

problem, and since Amun makes a complete

rotation every 2.5 hours, half the time will

be spent in the presence of light.

The solar panels used on the Amun Miner

will be these gallium arsenide ones (Figure

3.3.1A), with the total 28.4% rate of

conversion. Gallium arsenide solar panels

also re-emit some of the photons as

fluorescent light instead of wasting them as

heat. Although the by-product of alluminium

melting, GaAs makes the panels more

expensive, they also are durable and more

efficient.

The solar panels are placed at an inclination,

i=113.6 º, in order to receive full sun-rays,

and therefore full power. Being a mining

module, AMM needs all the energy is can

get, in the most cheap and efficient way. The

efficiency is of η =82%.

In a total functioning time of 10 years, the

solar panels (Figure3.3.1B) assuming

absolutely no repairing should be made, will

suffer a degradation of

=27.5%

3.3.2 RTG

Radioactive material decomposes and the

thermocouples connected to heat sink take

up the heat resulting from the radioactive

decay, and then generate electricity.

Figure 3.3.1A

Figure 3.3.1B


The requirements for the radioactive

material are the following: high-energy

output, generation of alpha-radiation, which

can be easily converted in heat, and finally

electricity, long half-life, since the power

output is inverse proportional with the half-

life. These characteristics make Pu-238,

with a half-life of 87.7 years, the perfect

candidate.

Generally, an RTG generates 0.54kw/kg.

Around three (Figure 3.3.2) will be kept on

the Amun Miner, for emergency purposes.

3.3.3 The Uranium Reactor

All the computation below are based on the

derivations from the Appendix.

=Z + (A-Z)

-

The parameters for the Uranium isotope:

=1.0072

=236.88

=234.6

=3.0216

237.38

=-465.75 MeV, indicating a highly

unstable nucleus

Q= ) = 186 MeV

(From conservation of energy (Appendix A)

the reaction is exothermic since Q>0)

Q =186.93 MeV (minimum

energy input)

C=

(electron-jump stage)

=703.8 million years

(lambda=constant)

3.3.4 Mini-Nuclear Reactors

Since mining requires a somewhat larger

energy input, a mini-nuclear reactor will be

placed on the Adjacent Module, part of the

Amun Miner mission.

Mini-nuclear reactors are of many types,

depending mainly on the cooling system.

Since the reactors will be in orbit at all

types, light-water cooling will be used, the

water being provided from Sabatier

Reaction in the rockets, Amun being an M-

type asteroid, no firm evidence of water is

held. In the Sabatier reaction, oxygen is

produced through electrolysis. After

respiration, as the carbon dioxide hydrogen

is added, methane and water are obtained.

Figure3.3.2


2 + respiration + 2 C +

3.4 Materials

Material Tensile strength Melting point Density

Thickness; Total

quantity of

material

Ceramic plates - Heat

resistance=1,260

°C

- 17-20cm

Reinfroced C-C

Tensile

strength=700

MPa;

Heat

resistance=2000

°C

- 17cm

Al, Ti, Mg alloys 900MPa;

-

Titanium

density= 4.50,

Aluminium=

2.63

15cm

Kevlar

Tensile

strength= 3620;

Ultimate tensile

strength= 2757;

- Density= 1.44. 10cm

Kapton MPa (psi) 152

(22,100)

200–300 °C,

473–573 K - 5cm

Dacron 55–75 MPa 250 °C - 260 °C - 5cm


Mylar 28,000

Psi

Melting Point

254 - 5cm

RCC: Due to its high Young’s modulus,

resistance to thermal expansion, as well as

the high thermal resistance, Reinforced

Carbon Carbon is a favorite in the aerospace

industry. Still considering the low impact

resistance (which has been known to lead to

accidents), RCC will not consist as the first

layer of the base’s shell, rather an inner,

protective layer. (Figure 3.4)

Carbon Fiber:

Low weight, high tensile strength, chemical

resistance, temperature tolerance, low

thermal expansion (or contraction,

considering the low temperatures) and high

stiffness.

Kevlar:

Has no melting point, low flammability,

high Young’s modulus, and high resistance.

Ideal for inner layers.

Mylar, Dacron and Kapton:

Synthetic polyester fiber, bi-axially oriented

polyethylene terephthalate, very good in

electrical insulation, reflectivity, stability,

high tensile strength and all three make very

good insulators.

Space Debris

Space debris in the satellite graveyard in

LEO will be analyzed, and should any

former launcher, booster or satellite prove to

have useful material, it will be used to build

Amun Miner Module’s adjacent power

station, on top of the main body.

Further detail is given in construction.

Material Tensile

strength Heat resistance

Reinforced

C-C

700

MPa; 2000 °C

Ceramic

plates

3.80

kpa

1,260°C

Beta Cloth - 650 °C;

Figure 3.4A


3.5 Thermal Insulation

Since parts of satellites and space crafts

only function between certain

temperature ranges, thermal control is

highly required as the Amun Miner must

prove to be resistant to the harsh

conditions in space. Therefore, a coat of

thermal insulating materials will cover the

Amun Miner Mission.

Isolative paint is paint that contains ceramic

micro-spheres with heat-reflective

properties. Amun Miner will also use a

ceramic based material that has heat-

reflective properties as well as the feel and

weigh of typical styrophoam.

Finally, the thermal

insulation will be made of

materials used to insulate

space missions, materials

as: Reinforced Carbon-

Carbon (RCC), used to

protect from temperatures

higher than 1260 degrees

Celsius; High temperature

reusable surface

insulation tiles (stable

under compression), made

from Silica ceramic

(material mentioned

above), used underside in

order to protect and

insulate from

temperatures lower than

1260 degrees; Fibrous

refractory composite insulation (FRCI)

which is strong, durable and resistant; and

Toughened fibrous insulation (TUFI).

(Heaters and Coolers may be also used in

order to adjust the temperatures in order to

reach the desired equilibrium temperature.)

Should additional insulation be required

(and since the temperature rises as the

mission approaches the Sun), beta cloth,

already used on Apollo and Skylab, very

heat resistant, will be used. The core of the

isolative layer is made of dacron, kapton

and mylar layers alternated. (Synthetic

polyester fibers, biaxial oriented

polyethylene terephthalate, very good in

electrical insulation, reflectivity, stability,

high tensile strength and all three make very

good insulators.

Figure 3.4B


Now that all materials to be used are known,

the emission and absorption of heat may be

computed.

In order to compute the total heat emission

and absorption, as well as the heat exchange,

α, the absorptivity, known for each material,

ε, the emissivity, known for each material

should be given. For the materials used,

the derivations and formulae have been

obtained and brought forward, but the

values (such as emissivity) are not

available, and the final sum could not be

derived.

3.6 Radiation Insulation

When discussing radiation protection, three

possible solutions are currently available.

One of them implies generation of

electromagnetic fields, which are practical,

except they have “unprotected zones” where

magnetic fields cancel each other and might

be quite dangerous when involving humans.

Besides, a mining mission to Amun should

finalize in profit, not extra costs. This also

rules out the second option, that of

generating an electrostatic field.

Finally, all that’s left of is coating the Amun

Mining Module with material, and

protecting its circuits as much as possible.

Radiation is energy moving through space

and represents one of the main threats in

outer space. In order to fully understand and

protect ourselves from radiation we shall

discuss all radiation forms, the possible

damage and materials which are radiation

insulating.

RADIATIO

N TYPE THREATS

INSULATIV

E

MATERIALS

ALFA

Not

threatening

, helium

nuclei

A piece of

paper

BETA

Electrons,

not very

threatening

A few cm of

aluminum

GAMMA Potential

danger

Several cm of

lead

NEUTRON Dangerous

COSMIC

RAYS Dangerous Magnetic field

X-RAY Potential

danger

Several cm of

lead

The damages caused by radiation can be

classified into two sections: human damage

and electronically damage. Since Amun

Material

Tensile

strength Heat resistance

Kapton

MPa

(psi) 152

(22,100)

200–300 °C, 473–

573 K

Dacron 55–75

MPa 250 °C- 260 °C

Mylar 28,000

psi Melting Point: 254


Exploration Module is not a manned

mission, the only type that interests is the

electronic damage.

Electronically damage is just as serious, as

destruction of any electronica compounds on

the Amun Mining Mission might jeopardize

it. Therefore, in cases of bad space weather

satellites may veer out of control,

electronica compounds in the circuits may

be affected if a single digit in the program is

changed and severe storms which cause the

atmosphere to heat up and slightly expand

greatly affect orbits.

The damage inflicted on satellites in

classified as following

SHORT TERM LONG TERM

SEE DDD

- TID

SEE (single event effect) represents a short-

term radiation type which causes damage to

the device after its first strikes. DDD is

represented by cumulative degradation and

TID (total ionizing dose) represents the

long-term cumulative energy deposited in a

material.

Radiation levels can be decreased by:

lowering exposure times, increasing distance

from radiation source and improving

shielding. Essential for radiation protection

is the halving time. For example, 1 cm of

lead decreases the radiation’s intensity by

.

A safe point is 0.0009765 of the initial

radiation. Since one cm of lead decreases the

radiation by

, and the ideal is

, we need

10 cm of lead surrounding.

Material Characteristics Strength Arguments

Aramid Stable compound

Strong synthetic fibers 2760 MPa

Heat, chemical,

impact resistant

Sealant foam

Combustion resistant

Insulator

Restricts cracking

45 MPa Corrosion protection;

Oxidation barrier

Nitinol

Very stable TiO2

Nickel titanium alloy

May be super-elastic, shape

memory(recovers shape upon heating)

900 MPa

Radiation protection

layer

elasticity


These materials will be stratified in the

following way: a 10 cm thick layer of lead

will be followed by 15 cm of nitinol, and

another 10 cm of aramid. All these coats

shall be kept together by sealant foam.

3.7 Telecommunications

The Amun Miner must be able to

communicate with Earth at all times. (Figure

3.7A Antenna)

The signal must be channeled only in the

direction of the receiver in order to reduce

the line loss.

An isotropic antenna sends signal in all

directions. This is highly inefficient, so

signal will only be sent towards Earth.

Important, when computing the power of the

sent signal, is the power flux density,

(The computations and derivations are given

in Appendix A)

The power of the received signal (on Amun

Miner, of course) depends on the diameter

of the antenna. (Figure 3.7B Antenna)

3.7.1 Noise

Moreover, the problem of noise must be

overcome. Noise can be defined as the

random disturbance introduced into a

communication signal, caused by circuit

components, electromagnetic interference,

or weather conditions.

Noise levels are viewed in opposition to

signal levels and so are often seen as part of

a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

3.7.2 Amplification

The ratio of signal level to noise level must

be increased, in order to effectively transmit

data. In practice, if the transmitted signal

falls below the level of the noise (often

designated as the noise floor) in the system,

data can no longer be decoded at the

receiver. To raise the noise floor as much as

possible, amplifiers will be used, which will

increase the power of the signal.

3.7.3 Coding and Multiple Access

In order to decrease error, redundance must

be raised, so it is possible to fix errors. To

Figure 3.7B Antenna Tesla 17

Figure 3.7A Antenna

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/random.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/random.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/signal.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/circuit.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/component.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/electromagnetic-interference-EMI.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/weather.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/condition.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_level

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_floor


both find and fix them, uni-directional

coding will be used.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

transmits signal all the time, on the same

frequencies. Each utilizer has a random

noise code. The message is decrypted by

using the right RN code, and multiplying it

to the signal received.

3.8 Launchers

Amun Geology and Mining Mission will be

launched using Soyuz At Csg, Europe’s

medium launcher. Since the Amun Module

weights around 2.5 T, Soyuz is perfectly

designed for liftoff. Since the improvements

made by Europe, Soyuz-2 becoming Soyuz-

ST, the launcher id able to carry up to 3T to

GEO, Geostationary Orbit, the initial

location of Amun Module.(Figure 3.8 Main

Thrusters)

The first and second stages of Soyuz-ST are

similar to the initial model. When the second

stage shuts down, the

third engine is ignited,

and separation is

caused. The fourth

stage gives Soyuz and

any mission launched

flexibility and

autonomy. Six

spherical tanks arrayed

in a circle enable the

reach of a wide range

of orbits, as the storable propellants may be

ignited up to 20 times in one flight.

Moreover, the payload’s capability is

increased by 15% and Soyuz is endowed

with modern digital control, increasing

control in mission.

Regarding propellants, Soyuz has different

zones reserved to the multitude of

propellants used: kerosene, liquid oxygen,

hydrogen peroxide and nitrogen, as well as

other compressed gases. The total cost of

Soyuz is €497.9 million and mainly covers

transport from Russia, launcher’s adaptation

to regulations, industrial management and

other internal costs. Considering all the

reasons stated above, Soyuz is chosen to

launch the Amun Module into space.

3.8.1 Further travel, orbital transfer and

adjustment thrusters

After the launch and reaching LEO, the

Amun Miner will still undergo the orbital

travel to 3554 Amun. Therefore, thrusters

and flexible, multi-ignition rockets are

needed. They are presented below.


Since the exhaust gas velocity is faster in

liquid propellants, the thruster can be

controlled, the engine

may be shut down during

flight, the specific

impulse is almost double

in liquid propellants and,

these will be used to

launch the module. (T= m

= - w

= wm, the

thrust may be obtained

according to the formula

above)

Another plus regarding liquid propellants is

the fact that when burning hydrogen and

oxygen (reaching temperatures over 3000K)

water is obtained.

Figure 3.8 Main Thrusters


Although the derivations and formulae

required can be found in Appendix A.

The final parameters, such as thrust and

burn time could not be computed due to

lack of specifications.

3.8.3 Thrusters

In order to redirect AMM to 3554 Amun and

adjust orbit, position, ion thrusters are

required. The Hall Effect Thrusters are ion

thrusters in which the propellant is

accelerated by a magnetic field. The

electrons are therefore trapped, they ionize

the propellant, the ions are accelerated and

that results into thrust. The propellants used

may vary from krypton, argon, bismuth,

magnesium and zinc. The average speed of a

ion thruster is 10-80 km/s equivalent to a

specific impulse of 1000-8000 s.

Considering the specific impulse, in our case

nuclear-based rockets or antimatter rockets

would have been ideal (the nuclear ones

reaching 1 million and the antimatter ones

10 million). The main propellant used is

xenon, with mass utilization of 90-99%. For

emergency purposes, the Amun Miner will

be endowed with xenon hall thrusters, which

create a reasonable impulse over a short

period of time.

As in the case of the chemical rockets, the

specifications are not available and

parameters could not be found.

Figure 5.2


5. Construction

5.1 Building Materials

The Amun Mining Module is half-built of

debris-materials found in Earth’s Low and

Medium orbits. Since the Space Race, all

inoperable satellites have remained in orbit,

and may prove hazardous. Therefore, using

them as building material for other satellites

doesn’t only reduce costs, but also empties

and cleans LEO and MEO. Alongside with

those, materials that occupy half of the

S.Carpenter Module, which is launched

from Earth, will be used in the process of

building the Amun Mining Mission.

5.2 Location

The Amun Mining Module is built in GEO,

as it serves all purposes and satisfies all

requirements. The reasons to do so are stated

in the table below.

EARTH

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

LEO Not expensive to launch materials

$2,000-10,000/pound; close to Earth, a

few hours away; sunlight; easy to move

further away.

Doesn’t move to Earth many sunrises

and sunsets;

Isn’t stable enough

MEO 2,000-35,000 km, close enough to Earth Too crowded, just as LEO

HEO Unusual eight shape Very unstable, resulting in possible

accidents during space settlement

building

GEO Quite stable; Close enough to Earth;

Not crowded

-

MOON

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Stable orbit; Material provider A few days away


Photos of the Moon that are displayed were

taken at National Observatory “Amiral

Vasile Urseanu” - in Bucharest, October

2011.

5.3 Building phases

Phase 1-the Grace Hopper Module

The building starts with the Grace Hopper

Module. After its exoskeleton is finished,

the Module is

coated with

materials. All

electronics are

shipped from

Earth in the S.

Carpenter.

Vacuum

resides inside all modules at all times.

Phase two and three - the Mining Module

and thrusters

The mining module is built in the same way

the Grace Hopper module was.

Phase three represents solely the attachment

of thrusters, and fixing them to the module.

This is done through the usage of robots and

robotic aid. After building, the three

modules are linked together by spokes, and

continue are transferred to Amun 3554, to

Figure 5.3A Tesla 17

Figure 5.4 Robot

Figure 5.3B Hopper Module


6. Launching, Landing and Transporting

Loads

6.1 Description of Procedure

Metal is mainly magnetically mined, by

scrapping metal off the asteroid and then

accelerating it through magnetic attraction

towards the miner. After a threshold metal

quantity is attached to the magnetic miner,

the robot reverses its polarity and disposes

of the load onto a launching pad. This is

endowed with ultra-capacitors, which

spontaneously release a large quantity of

energy, launching the load in space towards

the direction of the retrieval spaceship. The

retrieval spaceship is provided with ultra-

capacitor powered electro-magnets that

recharge in less than ten seconds when

exposed to the Sun. Therefore, the load s

caught and orbital transferred back to Earth.

6.2 Ultra-capacitors

In order to power-up and keep our telescope

mission observing satellites, as well as

trigger mining mission mechanisms, our

new developed technology, Potentia, will be

used.

Potentia is a multi-ultra-capacitor power

module, produced with the aim of

revolutionizing aerospace and aviation

industry by reducing the limitations given by

power sources.

The main advantage of Potentia is the usage

of highly efficient materials, which are

available on a large scale. This way,

Potentia will only serve as the method

through which great improvements can be

made in domains such as green aviation,

gliders’ technology or satellite mission life

span.

Potentia uses Aerogel Carbon electrodes

(with high surface area, high porosity which

result in a high capacitance), KOH

electrolytes (low internal resistance, high

voltage endurance), state-of-the-art

technology separators, efficient radiation

insulation for space applications and high

parameters such as capacity, voltage

thresholds, power density or low recharge

time.

Most of all, Potentia is superior to batteries,

since it provides extensive cycle lengths,

high thermal resistance, high capacity and

series linkage generates high voltages.

Potentia is also superior through its power

density (unachievable through batteries)

and, most crucial, fast recharge time (at the

order of seconds, compared to batteries,

which recharge in hours).

In aerospace, ultra-capacitors represent the

best alternative to batteries, enduring an

infinite amount of charge and discharge

cycles, recharging very fast and being

resistant in any temperature. The Potentia

power module also proves to be very

efficient, multiple Potentia ultra-capacitors

being linked in series in order to raise

voltage and energy density. Potentia is a

light-weight module used to power-up

satellites, deep-space missions and help

reduce space debris by prolonging a

satellites’ life.

Since Potentia is an available, marketable

technology, the ultra-capacitors are in

producible dimensions, of about 4cm height


and 1.5cm diameter. Each ultra-capacitor is

made up of two aerogel carbon electrodes

immersed in an electrolyte, with a thin

separator between them. They act as two

series connected capacitors, the advantage

being given by the aerogel carbon, the

aerogel providing the required large surface

area (400-1000 /g) and the carbon

ensuring the structural integrity. The huge

number of ions (which grows scalar to the

surface, the energy growing likewise to the

number of ions), are naturally separated in

positively and negatively charged act like in

the case of a normal capacitor, providing

energy by moving ions from one plate to

another. The ultra-capacitor is made of two

such layers, effectively separated through a

very thin material (at the order of

nanometers), that prevents current from

flowing between the two layers.

The key to the ultra-capacitor’s efficiency

stays in the porosity of the material used and

the thin dielectrics, conferring a large

surface area for ions to attach to, smaller

distances between conductive layers, and

conclusively a much larger capacitance.

Since capacitance is dependent of surface,

cylindrical ultra-capacitors are used to build

Potentia.

Studies and model calculations have shown

that ultra-capacitors are most efficient when:

the separator’s porosity factor is of 50%, the

separator’s thickness approached 25 m, the

active layers are 100 m thick and the used

cell voltage (each ultra-capacitor has 2 such

cells, a cell being formed of one electrode,

the electrolyte and one side of the separator)

is of 2.5-2.7V.

Therefore, considering Potentia’s

advantages over batteries, ultra-capacitors

advantages, its cheap production and various

implementation methods, not to mention the

crucial role it has got on powering Amun

Mining Mission’s telescopes, mining robots

as well as construction robots.

Figure 6.2B

Figure 6.2A


6. Research

6.1 Asteroid Bases

6.1.1.Base One

The first base is

designed mainly

for non-human

automated

missions,

focusing on

further mining

technology

development and research. The spheres

imply a particular thickness of the material

coat, therefore ensuring protection from

radiation.

The area inside

the sphere is

distributed in

floors, each

sphere being

divided into

three floors. The

connection pipe

between the two is situated on the second

floor. Since asteroids have zero gravity, the

base is fixed with pylons to the asteroids’

surface.

The first floor is made up of three main

sectors, each allocated for research modules.

There is a module for asteroidal geology, a

module for mining development and an

adjacent research module. The second floor

is a storage and possible inhabitance in case

of a human mission.

The third floor is situated directly on the

asteroidal soil. It is made exclusively for

mining and storage of mined metals and

minerals. Mining tools and extraction

machines are placed here. Since the mining

is done magnetically, the metals and

minerals are first excavated from below the

asteroid surface. After all resources are used

up, metals from other sides and areas of the

asteroid are mined. The tube is meant to

connect the two spheres.

6.1.2 Base Two

The second base type is designed for much

larger asteroids and made for inhabited

missions.

The central

component

is a

chemical

thruster that

may adjust

the

asteroid’s

location and therefore avoid any smaller

asteroids or space debris. The torus

surrounding it is split into two separate

levels, one being designed for human

inhabitation and research of human

missions’ success on asteroids, and the other

is the storage level and the location of life

support systems

The Main AMM Asteroidal Base has also a

greenhouse both for life support and for the

study of plants evolution in space in zero

gravity environments. It is expected that the

plants will grow faster and have an

improved evolution, since simply reducing

the gravity produces an accelerated growth.

Furthermore, radiation protection for plants

while still ensuring natural sunlight will

Figure 6.1.1 Base One

Figure 6.1.1 First Base

Figure 6.1.2 Second Base


prove to be a great advantage in bio-

engineering. Inhabitance is a crucial phase

in space exploration and asteroidal geology,

composition, mining technology &

engineering, and further research. Therefore,

in order to bring humans safely to asteroids

and not bring damage to neither the human

space shuttle, nor the existing base, larger

manned spacecraft’s will only bring crew to

a small distance from the base, the rest being

covered in small modules that will attach

themselves to the base’s docking system.

Life support on a base on an asteroid is

going to be similar to the life support

techniques on the ISS, only the asteroidal

base is meant to produce its own food, water

and supplies. Food is going to be produced

through aeroponic systems, hence the

absence of gravity on asteroids. Meat will be

grown in vitro as well. Obtaining water is

quite challenging. All water must and will

be recycled in order to optimize resources.

Still, water can be created chemically from

hydrogen and oxygen, but since both are

available in quite small quantities, the safety

and well-being of the crew must not be

based on this procedure.

Since the bases are meant for research, a

day-night alternation, natural sunlight, etc.

are not created. Asteroidal bases are secure

and ensure well-being but are not

comfortable and do not provide a 1g

environment. Therefore, a crew will not

spend more than two continuous months on

the base.

Probably the most important and the most

challenging of all life support systems

generation is the artificial creation of

pressure and oxygen. In the eventuality that

a base is not pressurized, astronaut costumes

would be required. The air needed in order

to create pressure is computed in the

Appendix A.

Pressure will be induced by the gradual

increase of air (under pressure).

6.2 Other materials, new compounds

Besides the wonderful possibility in raising

life plants and animals, asteroidal bases as

well as asteroidal mining bring up the very

probable event of discovering new,

extraordinary

elements.

Even so,

asteroid

mining opens

a complete

new field, in

so many

domains,

ranging from engineering and science to

architecture or business. Water and ice on

asteroids can become the new oil industry,

and mining materials or building houses and

space settlements in space may represent the

business of the future.

Following asteroid mining, new steps may

be taken in space exploration, and the new,

final frontier may be reached — the building

and inhabiting of a space settlement.

6.3 Conclusion

Very important is the creation and evolution

of space rocks as well as space debris.

Asteroids can bring new metals, new

chemical elements found in space, but not

on Earth, if asteroids are part of planets they

Figure 6.1.2 Second Base Side

View


may give clues regarding far-away systems,

even the existence of life in the rocky-ice

ones. Amun provides a great research

opportunity from many points of view. First

of all, Amun is an M-type asteroid,

composed entirely of metal, and with an

orbit intersecting Venus. If Amun should be

mined, it would be worth 20 trillion dollars,

making it very useful in financing many hi-

energy astrophysics mission, perhaps even a

head-start in a terraforming project.

Maybe even more interesting, Amun may

provide data on the cosmic background

radiation, its remnants on asteroids and more

clues about the Universe. Right after the Big

Bang, which occurred at very high

temperatures, the Universe started to cool

down. The first radiations to appear were

electromagnetic radiations, with high

energies and short wavelength. This can be

detected, in case of light, it can be seen.

Still, radiation that old may not be detected.

Other radiation pregnant on asteroids,

especially on one that comes so close to the

Sun is cosmic background radiation and

remnants of solar flares. Amun was chosen

particularly due to the fact that it crosses

Venus’ orbit, but not close enough to the

Sun to provoke damage and require very

expensive thermal control systems. Solar

flares are generally predicted, and leave

hydrogen on the surface of asteroids, etc.

Since our Moon, far away from the Sun

regarding Amun has hydrogen remnants,

further samples and data may give more

information on the Sun, on its origins.

Finally, Amun has the following objectives:

studying the Sun, its origins, the cosmic

background radiation, the Universe’s

origins, asteroid creation and origins,

Amun’s origins and more asteroid samples

for further research. In order to reach for

samples and study Amun’s geological past,

magnetic separation will be used, especially

since Amun is an M-type asteroid.

Centrifugal separation is an option as well,

the Module being endowed with cameras,

microscopes, a centrifuge and some very

powerful magnets. Scanners, measuring

devices and a very good telecommunication

system will ensure that any information will

be sent back to Earth for analysis.

Another objective may be Amun’s mining

for financing other missions, in search for

the mysteries of the Universe.

Figure 6.2 Solaris Space Settlement

Figure 6.1.2 Second Base Top View


Component Radius Length Floors

Sphere 20 - Research Floor

Inhabited Floor

Materials Floor

Tube 5 7 Connection between

spheres One and Two

Pylons 1 8-10 -

Section Volume Air Volume

Base One 67536.16 954093. 377

Base Two 50240 709747.952

Component Radius Length Floors Height

Torus Minor

Radii=10m

Major

Radii=80m

- Research Floor 10m

Residential Floor

Mining and Life Support

Floor

Spokes 7m 40m Connection between sides

of torus

3-5m

Fuel Tank 20m - - 50m


7. Research and Technical

Engineering

The projects

7.1 Part of Amun Adjacent Module Electronics

7.2 Purpose

The small module above is an example. It

can measure temperatures, light levels, and

pressure. It’s powered by a small 0.5V solar

cell. Because and Arduino module requires

more power, supplementary battery space

had been

included. Electronics in the Grace Hopper

Adjacent Module will include a distance

sensor (measure depths), temperature sensor,

light sensor, accelerometer.

7.3 Components

The components and their purpose are listed

below:

The solar cell (Figure 7.2 Solar Cell) in the

example is a 0.5V source, meant to power

up some of the electronics. With 6 such

cells, the whole module can be powered up.

Following the solar cell, the componenets on

Figure 7.2 Solar Cell

Figure 7.1 Electronic Module


the breadboard are roughly 2 1k-ohm

resistors, a light sensor, a pressure sensor,

jump wires and connecting wires.

The light sensor sends an analaog response

which depending on the lights’ intensity is

an integer between 0 and 1023. These can be

easily interpreted. The Arduino/C code to do

so might look like: void setup(){

Serial.begin(9600); } void loop(){ int

v=analogRead(0); Serial.println(v);

delay(500);{

Since the pressure sensor requires analog

output, the code is similar. Adjacent

structures in order to power up LED’s or

send signals corresponding to pressure

degree can be inserted.

The cable from the pressure and light

sensors go to a ground (GND) and an

Analog (A0) pins. The temperature sensor

goes to an analog pin, a GND pin and a

power one.

8. Finance

8.1 Financial win of mining Amun

The financial profit from mining Amun,

should the metal mined be introduced slowly

in order not to crash the market, would be

enourmous.

Amun is worth $8 trillion worth of platinum,

not to mention the quite as huge quantity of

gold. Not to mention the win in electronic

advancement, technology and space

exploration.

Besides that, according to

http://mashable.com/2012/04/26/planetary-

resources-asteroid-mining-trillions/ “The $8

trillion figure is an estimate based on

observations by John S. Lewis, professor of

planetary science, author of Mining the Sky:

Untold Riches from the Asteroids, Comets,

and Planets, and now a consultant to

Planetary Resources. He also found 3554

Amun to contain another $8 trillion in iron

and nickel, and a mere $6 trillion worth of

cobalt.” Having these numbers given, any

cost from building the Module will be

covered, and great profit should be obtained.

8.2 Financing of Amun Mining

Mission

8.2.1 Other materials

Figure 7.3 Module Top

Figure 7.3 Module Front

http://mashable.com/2012/04/26/planetary-resources-asteroid-mining-trillions/

http://mashable.com/2012/04/26/planetary-resources-asteroid-mining-trillions/


Besides the usage of asteroidal gases for

rocket fuel, rare gases are extracted and sold

for profit. Research will be done on minerals

found on the asteroids, and investments and

progress in the pharmaceutical zone will be

attained. Asteroidal materials are also very

useful for semi-conductors. It is currently

illegal to sell rare asteroidal samples, or

space rocks. Still, if the frequency of these

mining missions grows, space rocks would

be just a mining by-product, therefore and

inconvenience.

This should be turned into an source of

profit, with the help of which the settlement

will be financed. Lots of space enthusiasts

would pay for space rocks, and since the

return delta-V for the missions to come will

be quite small, the price should not be very

high. For example, in the Amun mining

mission, as seen in Appendix B, the return

velocity is of about 9 km/s. This is quite

large, but given the value Amun has ($20

trillion), it is just a small inconvenience.

8.2.2 Advertising, Filming, GPS and

Meteorological Services

Advertising in space is impressive and of

great publicity. Still, since of various light

pollution issues, this will only be done in a

strict, limited time zone, and only for a very

short period of time.That though, is not the

only way to advertise. Apollo 11

merchandise sold greatly and therefore,

space settlement related missions

merchandise and space settlement related

ones will be sold to the public. Movies make

millions just from tickets, not including

DVD’s, merchandise and so on. For

example, should a car, an engineering

company or a computer company sponsor

one of the first missions, their sales will go

up. In the late ’60’s, a juice brand became

highly popular when Apollo astronauts

advertised for it.

Shooting documentaries, movies, etc. on the

settlement, as well as on the other bases is a

great way of gaining profit to sustain the

space settlement. It is a great first occasion

of actually filming in space, and there will

be an auction selling the rights to do so. As

telescopes and mission payload is launched,

a limit adjacent payload may be added, as to

cover up some of the launch costs. Such a

situation is represented by meteorological

and GPS satellites.

8.2.3 Space Tourism

Space tourism presents a huge number of

advantages. To begin with, any resource

wars will be over, as space tourism as well

as asteroid and lunar mining presents the

solution to energy crisis. If the main

countries involved would focus on

extraterrestrial resources, not only would it

enhance space exploration and engineering,

but it would also represent a huge step

forward to building the space settlement.

The technology for space exploration has

been available since WWII, when Hitler

launched a satellite to a sub-orbital plane.

According to

http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_t

he_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_c

ould_contribute_to_employment_economic_

growth_environmental_protection_educatio

n_culture_and_world_peace.shtml,

http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/what_the_growth_of_a_space_tourism_industry_could_contribute_to_employment_economic_growth_environmental_protection_education_culture_and_world_peace.shtml






it would take around 10 billion Euros to

properly expand space exploration. Most

space agencies have that budget, but space

tourism is not a governmental-financed

issue. Virgin Galactic has already begun the

Space Ship One project, which is highly

feasible, Richard Branson owns companies

in many domains, all successful. Therefore,

engineering companies should get involved

into making some of the space exploration

of private domain.

Space seems unsure and risky as an

investment though, intangible and hard to

understand for the majority, therefore, space

education, exposing young students to

space, physics and astrophysics should

encourage them to make future

investments in space, make space feel

familiar and comfortable. The current

situation regarding space investment is quite

similar to the Personal

Computer market in the ‘80s.

Space hotels, or any final

locations, will be built in

space, both to reduce launch

costs, and to stop and

potential environmental

hazard generated by repeated

rocket launches. Same would

happen if GM, Lockheed or

Boeing would help with the

engineering, materials and so

on. Another option would, of

course, be the widening of

the space race participants,

improving through

competition, or, when

launching missions, offer to

take adjacent payloads, such

as satellites of only few kilograms each, in

order to raise funds.

Since people’s relunctancy towards space

and investing into space is one of the major

problems in the private aerospace industry,

another great way of bringing people and

students closer to the space frontier is

through school projects. The writers,

alongside a fellow classmate, have also

participated in this spring’s edition of ESA’s

Project 3:Design, and won the Runner-up

Prize with the astrophysics mission poster

below.

Since the scientific poster describes a

mining/research mission to Amun 3554, we

decided to further describe the advantages of

a mining mission.

Figure 8.2.3 AMM


8. Appendix

8.1 Methodology

8.1.1 GEO Telescopes Transfer

Therefore:

=8 500 000 m and =41 500 000 m.

=

= 25 000 000 m

GM = 3.9847914 ×

=√

= 6 846.88 m/s

=√

= 3 098.69 m/s

G being the universal gravitational constant

equal to 6.67 , and M the central

body’s mass, in this case, Earth’s.

The velocities above are the speeds needed

to be in the low stationary orbit and in the

geostationary orbit. Next, the velocity

needed to exit LEO and enter the transfer

orbit as well as the velocity needed to exit

the transfer orbit and enter GEO are to be

computed. This is done using the

generalization of the circular velocity

formula used above, “vis viva”, in which

is the semi-major axis of the transfer orbit.

√

= 8 821.60 m/s

√

= 1 806.8 m/s

It is then obvious that when entering the

transfer orbit from an orbit with a smaller

radius, an increase in velocity is required,

and when exiting the transfer orbit towards

an orbit with a larger radius, the satellite

must be slowed down.

= 1 974.72 m/s

= = -1 291.89 m/s



GEO, gives up the total .

∆V= 682.83 m/s

And the energy required,

=

for a telescope with the mass of 10 kg is is

2 331 284.04 J

8.1.2 Computing Amun

An assumed distance cannot be used, and

the measured albedo is inconsistent to Amun

3554’s metallic composition, leading us to

obtaining inconsistent values.

a=2.5

D= distance of Amun from Sun at Aphelion,

1.247 AU

R=1.25km

=√

√

= -

23345329.33K


=80519448.64W (impossible

value, computations are stopped.)

m-M=5logd-5

8.2 Sustainability

8.2.1 Electromagnets Features

Although the further calculus is only

designed for orientation, as mutual

inductance from any electrical circuits in

proximity is neglected, it approximates quite

well the intensity, voltage, inductance,

energy given the power and the resistors

used. The resistors were chosen to an

established value of 50 and 25 Ω solely in

order to prevent the circuits from

overheating, reaching the shortage intensity

and burn. The resistance may seem quite

small considering the power of 543 W/ ,

still only a 45% of this will be used in

magnetic purposes. It was also taken into

consideration not to minimize the magnets’

induction too much.

Moreover, besides the magnets used to fix

the robot to the asteroids

surface(P=50W/ and R=25 the

mining case (in which P=25W/ and

R=75 ) will also be computed, and so will

the mutual inductance between the two. Any

other circuits are ignored.

I=

P=UI

R (Ω) U (V) I (A) P (W)

100 57 0.58 33

50 54 1.08 58

25 45 1.80 81

In this particular case, three large panels

connected in series have been used, as cited:

http://www.mtmscientific.com/solarpanel.ht

ml . It can only be assumed that they

measure 1 square meter. The voltage, U is in

this case measured, and the power and

current are computed.

In the mission’s particular case, the power

input has been computed, it is known, and a

resistance is given, in order for the voltage

and current to be computed and further used

in computation of electromagnets’ features.

P=25W/ and R=75

From eq. and eq. P = R => I=√

= 0.33

A

U= 75.5 V

Now having the voltage and current, the flux

density B, considering = and

=200, as for an iron core. The coil used

for the electromagnet has N=1000, r =0.3m

and l =1m.

B =

= 0.082T (large enough).

The intensity of the magnetic field H,

H =

= 329.618 A/m,

which gives an idea of the strength and

power of attraction of the miner’s

electromagnet.

http://www.mtmscientific.com/solarpanel.html

http://www.mtmscientific.com/solarpanel.html


The inductance L =

= 70.989H.

It is decided that the miner will pause every

15 minutes, therefore a self inductance

inertia is caused, even though the current

varies in intensity from 0.44 A to 0.77 A.

Therefore the self inductance

= -L

= -0.039 H.

Finally, the attraction per square meter:

F=

= 883.328N,

The energy: W=

= 3.865J.

8.2.2 Mining Electromagnets Features

Now the same features from before are to be

computed for the mining magnet:

Therefore: R=25 and P=50W/

From eq. and eq.

P = R => I=√

= 0.50 A

U= 100 V

Now having the voltage and current, the flux

density B, considering = and

=200, as for an iron core. The coil used

for the electromagnet has N=2000, r =0.5m

and l =2m.

B =

= 0.125 T (large enough).

The intensity of the magnetic field H,

H =

= 497.611 A/m,

which gives an idea of the strength and

power of attraction of the miner’s

electromagnet.

The inductance L =

=788.768 H.

“ Lenz's law, and common sense, demand

that if the current is increasing then the emf

should always act to reduce the current, and

vice versa. This is easily appreciated, since

if the emf acted to increase the current when

the current was increasing then we would

clearly get an unphysical positive feedback

effect in which the current continued to

increase without limit.”

(http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/316/le

ctures/node102.html)

It is decided that the miner will pause every

30 minutes, therefore a self inductance

inertia is caused, even though the current

varies in intensity from 0.3 A to 0.8 A.

Therefore the self inductance

= -L

= 0.438 H.

Finally, the attraction per square meter:

F=

= 3110.07N,

The energy: W=

= 98.596 J.

In order to avoid a too strong mutual

inductance, the magnetic separator will be

http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/316/lectures/node102.html

http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/316/lectures/node102.html


placed at a distance D away from the

attachment magnet.

8.3 Orbital maneuvers

Introduction to orbital mechanics

Orbits

Orbits is a gravitationally curved

path around a point or an object in space.

Though typically elliptical, orbits can

be described as curves, ellipses, parabolas or

hyperbolas, all depending on a parameter

called eccentricity(e).

Eccentricity, as a parameter is

associated with every cone section and it

describes how much an orbit varies from

being circular.

Other ways, if e=0 the orbit is

circular, if 0<e<1, the orbit is elliptical, if

e=1 the orbit is represented as a parabola

and if e>1 the orbit is a hyperbola.

In our Solar System, orbits are

generally described as being elliptical. We

also need to introduce the “true anomaly”

which represents a body moving on a

keplerian orbit.

Obtaining radius for orbits in terms of

eccentricity and semi-major axis

According to “Introductory Astronomy &

Astrophysics” (Michael Zeilik and Stephen

A. Gregory) and www.braeuig.com (both

cited within the bibliography), an ellipse is

defined mathematically as the locus of all

points such that the sum of the distances

from two foci to any point on the ellipse is a

constant.

Therefore: r + r’= 2a = ct

The line joining the two foci intersects the

ellipse in two points, and half of that line in

fig. Ellipse A gives the semi-major axis.

The eccentricity, that is, the derivation of a

conic-section curve from a conic section,

gives the shape of the ellipse, and the

distance from the focus to the center of the

ellipse is ae. As described in fig. Ellipse A

,b is the semi-major axis of the orbit. A is

the periapsis, the point closest to the

primary, A’ is the apoapsis, the point

farthest from primary. is considered the

true anomaly, that is the angular distance of

a point in an orbit, past the point of

periapsis, (counterclockwise).

= =

Solving for velocity

Newton’s law of universal gravitation: F =

G (

giving the force Earth exerts on

an object of mass m (Earth’s mass M,

distance to center of Earth, r). Figure Ellipse A

http://www.braeuig.com/


If the object is dropped, it will be

accelerated to the center of the Earth, F = G

.

F= ma(1)

F = G

(2)

(1), (2) give a = g=

.

A satellite in orbit has the following forces

acting upon it: the gravitational attraction, as

well as the inward acceleration causing the

satellite to move in a circular orbit

(==gravitational acceleration caused by the

body around which the satellite orbits).

In this case, the velocity changes direction,

not magnitude, so there is an acceleration

a=

resulting in F=

, with F’s direction

at any moment being radially inward.

If P is the period, v =

, and according to

Kepler’s Third Law: .

F =

.

In order to determine the period as

proportional to the radius, F=m r, and in

the two body problem in FIGG.. abstractions

have been made. The orbits are circular and

third body perturbations are neglected.

Finally, for FIGG.. m r= M R. As stated

earlier, the gravitational force acting on

either body must be equal to the centripetal

force, so that the object stays in a permanent

circular orbit.

G

= m r

m<<M, R<<r renders GM= , and since

, GM=

.

=

, proving Kepler’s Third Law

obtained in the paragraph above.

Without the two abstractions made earlier:

=

; =

.

Assuming the same case of FIGG.. g =

,

also g =

, so

=

. Finally, the velocity

of a satellite in orbit v=√

.

Position in an elliptical orbit

Let M be the mean anomaly, describing a

fraction of an orbit that has elapsed since

perigee. In the case of a circular orbit, that

is, if e=0, the mean anomaly is equal to the

true anomaly.

M = n (t ), being the anomaly at

and n the average velocity.

n=√

, this only represents the average

velocity (since in an elliptical orbit the

radius changes constantly, so does the

velocity, and in this case, the average is

taken into computation).

E =eccentric anomaly.

cosE =

and M = E – esinE.

These may be used in order to find the time

necessary to go from one position in orbit to

another, or the displacement after period of

time.


Orbital maneuvers

A main part of Neo’s technical design

implies the architecture of orbital

maneuvers, as well as designing the transfer

orbits considering efficiency factors.

Although the final delta velocity, which is

the total input of velocity at the transfer

orbit, doesn’t count towards the final

location, it must be computed and shown.

A wide range of orbital maneuvers are

currently used by aerospace engineers. The

most effective energetically speaking is the

Hohmann transfer. Still in the eventuality in

which a certain orbit must be reached in a

time shorter than the one provided by the

Hohmann transfer, the one tangent burn is a

proper solution, while if low thrust is

necessary (various reasons), a slow spiral

transfer would be used.

One tangent burn

Transfer orbit is tangential to initial orbit,

and it intersects the final orbit at an angle, in

this case equal to the flight path angle at the

transfer orbit at its point of intersection

(according to www.braeuig.com). The

transfer orbit is defined by its size, the

angular change in velocity, as well as the

time of flight, abbreviated TOF. Since we

are generally transferring modules, of large

weight, the total energy required for transfer

would grow linearly. In the eventuality of

large, sudden increases in velocity, more

fuel is burnt. Therefore, the one tangent burn

strategy isn’t appropriate, and will only be

used in emergency cases.

Slow spiral transfer

This type of transfer implies a very low

thrust, and the transfer orbit is in the shape

of a spiral. A low thrust isn’t the solution, as

it would take too long. It will only be used

in low-priority projects.

The total change in velocity can be

approximated: , where

total change in velocity, is the initial

circular velocity, is the final velocity for

the circular orbit.Hohmann transfer orbits

Introduction to orbits and body

perturbations

For further discussion and calculus

regarding orbits we present the further

formulas:

representing the radius to the

apocenter, and representing the radius to

the pericenter;

a is the semi-major axis, measured in

meters.

This formula is used for determining

the speed in an elliptical orbit. It is very

important, therefore it’s named “vis viva”.

“μ" represents the total mass of the

planet around which we spin and “G”, a

constant equal to 6,67 , both “μ”

and “G” being different from what they

represent in classical mechanics.



√

√

represents the speed in a

circular orbit, and since it’s circular a=r

therefore the equality.

√

The formula above represents the

speed required to escape an orbit.

√

“T” represent the period of the orbit.

How much time it took for the spaceship or

celestial body to make a full rotation.

These formulae were presented and

detailed as we will use them along the

construction of Neo. For example in

Defense, it will be required that we know

the escape speed. Moreover this knowledge

will help us in orbit placement and

maintenance.

body perturbations

Perturbations can be heliocentric and

planet centric.

Heliocentric speaking, the only

possible influences we could feel would be

either from Earth or from Venus. Earth’s

sphere of influence in kilometers is 9.3

, while Venus’s is

6.2

In a planet centric perturbation, the

third body’s influence lowers invers?

Proportional with the distance.

In order to determine a body sphere

of influence, we use the following formula:

The sphere of influence is equal to

the third body’s sphere multiplied by the

mass of the main body, divided by the mass

of the third body at 0,4.

Third body perturbations might be

considered while determining Neo’s orbit

and its position.

The transfer orbit’s ellipse is tangent to both

initial and final orbits at apogee and perigee.

Should the initial orbit be small and the final

orbit large, the velocity vector should be

pointed in the direction of motion. In the

opposite case, the velocity vector is aimed in

the other direction. The final delta V is the

sum of velocity changes of the transfer orbit.

(according to www.braeuig.com)

= ∑

=

GM = 3.9847914 ×

=√

=√






The velocities above are the speeds needed

to be in the low stationary orbit and in the

geostationary orbit. Next, the velocity

needed to exit LEO and enter the transfer

orbit as well as the velocity needed to exit

the transfer orbit and enter GEO are to be

computed. This is done using the

generalization of the circular velocity

formula used above, “vis viva”, in which

is the semi-major axis of the transfer orbit.

√

= m/s

√

= m/s







= m/s

= = m/s




∆V= m/s

e = 1-

arcos [

]

E = arctan(√

)

TOF = (E - sin e)√

Orbital plane changes

Orbital plane changes may prove to be

useful at some point at orbital calculations.

They are solely explained in order to prove

that the team has a complete understanding

of everything used. www.breauig.com, as

well as other websites mentioned in the

bibliography, have proven to be a great

resource in understanding and applying our

knowledge to computing orbits.

Orbital plane changes imply changing the

inclination. For that to be achieved, we must

typically change the direction of the velocity

vector. It requires that one of delta velocity

components to be perpendicular to the

orbital plane, and therefore to the initial

velocity vector. Should the size be constant,

we are referring to a simple plane change.

The required change in velocity is obtained

through the law of cosines: =2 sin

.

The orbital plane change should be avoided

if possible, as it is expensive in velocity and

resulting propellant consumption. The plane

should change at a point where the satellite’s

velocity is a minimum, at the apogee.

The combination of a Hohmann transfer and

an orbital plane change is done the

following way: first, the plane change is

finalized, and then a tangent burn is

executed at the apogee. Therefore, both the

magnitude and the direction of the delta

velocity component are changed.

http://www.breauig.com/


=√

If only a small plane change is necessary

(these cases are often neglijable) plus the

altitude change required, the total delta

velocity becomes possible at almost no cost.

The plane change can also be distributed,

some being realized at the perigee, but most

at the apogee (since the apogee is the cost-

effective location to do so).

Three burn maneuvers will be described

further in the project, should they be used.

These maneuvers do save energy and

therefore propellant, but are time expensive

(a resource we cannot afford to waste).

Orbit Rendezvous, etc.

The orbit rendezvous is a situation in which

the satellite must intercept an object at a

certain time. For this to be possible, the

object must attain a phasing orbit, making a

Hohmann transfer between the two possible.

A launch window is represented by the time

at which the launch site rotates through the

desired orbital plane.

The total delta-velocity gives the total

energy requirement, and thus the necessary

propellant, ending in a computable delta-V

budget.

Orbit perturbations

Orbit perturbations are of three main types:

secular (vary linearly), short-period

variations (periodic, and the period,

T< ) and long-period variations

(T> ).

Third body perturbations are a common

situation in which another body would

gravitationally attract the satellite. These

give periodic variations in orbit, typically in

the longitude, in the argument of the perigee

and in the mean anomaly.

Perturbations also occur because of the

assumption that the Earth is spherical. A

solution to these periodical perturbations is

given by the Molniya orbits, which ensure

that the perturbations in the argument of the

perigee are null.

In the case of Neo and it’s satellites, solar

radiation perturbation also happen. These

are typically heavier in orbits higher than

800km, and are given by:

=

, where A is the cross-section

of the satellite and m the mass.

A main part of Neo’s technical design

implies the architecture of orbital

maneuvers, as well as designing the transfer

orbits considering efficiency factors.

Although the final delta velocity, which is

the total input of velocity at the transfer

orbit, doesn’t count towards the final

location, it must be computed and shown.

A wide range of orbital maneuvers are

currently used by aerospace engineers. The

most effective energetically speaking is the

Hohmann transfer. Still in the eventuality in

which a certain orbit must be reached in a

time shorter than the one provided by the

Hohmann transfer, the one tangent burn is a

proper solution, while if low thrust is

necessary (various reasons), a slow spiral

transfer would be used.


8.3.1. One tangent burn

Transfer orbit is tangential to initial orbit,

and it intersects the final orbit at an angle, in

this case equal to the flight path angle at the

transfer orbit at its point of intersection

(according to www.braeuig.com). The

transfer orbit is defined by its size, the

angular change in velocity, as well as the

time of flight, abbreviated TOF. Since we

are generally transferring modules, of large

weight, the total energy required for transfer

would grow linearly. In the eventuality of

large, sudden increases in velocity, more

fuel is burnt. Therefore, the one tangent burn

strategy isn’t appropriate, and will only be

used in emergency cases.

8.3.2 Slow spiral transfer

This type of transfer implies a very low

thrust, and the transfer orbit is in the shape

of a spiral. A low thrust isn’t the solution, as

it would take too long. It will only be used

in low-priority projects.

The total change in velocity can be

approximated: , where

total change in velocity, is the initial

circular velocity, is the final velocity for

the circular orbit.

8.3.3 Hohmann transfer orbits

The transfer orbit’s ellipse is tangent to both

initial and final orbits at apogee and perigee.

Should the initial orbit be small and the final

orbit large, the velocity vector should be

pointed in the direction of motion. In the

opposite case, the velocity vector is aimed in

the other direction. The final delta V is the

sum of velocity changes of the transfer orbit.

(according to www.braeuig.com)

= ∑

=

GM = 3.9847914 ×

=√

=√




√

= m/s

√

= m/s







= m/s

= = m/s




∆V= m/s




e = 1-

arcos [

]

E = arctan(√

)

TOF = (E - sin e)√

8.3.4.Orbital plane changes

Orbital plane changes may prove to be

useful at some point at orbital calculations.

They are solely explained in order to prove

that the team has a complete understanding

of everything used. www.breauig.com, as

well as other websites mentioned in the

bibliography, have proven to be a great

resource in understanding and applying our

knowledge to computing orbits.

Orbital plane changes imply changing the

inclination. For that to be achieved, we must

typically change the direction of the velocity

vector. It requires that one of delta velocity

components to be perpendicular to the

orbital plane, and therefore to the initial

velocity vector. Should the size be constant,

we are referring to a simple plane change.

The required change in velocity is obtained

through the law of cosines: =2 sin

.

The orbital plane change should be avoided

if possible, as it is expensive in velocity and

resulting propellant consumption. The plane

should change at a point where the satellite’s

velocity is a minimum, at the apogee.

The combination of a Hohmann transfer and

an orbital plane change is done the

following way: first, the plane change is

finalized, and then a tangent burn is

executed at the apogee. Therefore, both the

magnitude and the direction of the delta

velocity component are changed.

=√

If only a small plane change is necessary

(these cases are often neglijable) plus the

altitude change required, the total delta

velocity becomes possible at almost no cost.

The plane change can also be distributed,

some being realized at the perigee, but most

at the apogee (since the apogee is the cost-

effective location to do so).

Three burn maneuvers will be described

further in the project, should they be used.

These maneuvers do save energy and

therefore propellant, but are time expensive

(a resource we cannot afford to waste).


8.5.1 Solar power

Most of the power will be obtained through

conversion of sun-rays to energy. This is

done through solar panels placed on the

module.

Assuming the inclination of the module

varies from

=0º to =90º

the last one being the worst case scenario,

and the 0 degrees inclination, or the

incidence angle, meaning that the panels are

pointed right at the Sun,

http://www.breauig.com/


the maximum ϕ=ϕcos θ,

when θ=0º, cosθ=1,

therefore ϕ maximum=ϕ

and

ϕ minimum=0.

Normally, ϕ=1371 W/ , at a distance of 1

A.U. from the Sun.

The incidence angle is the angle at which

rays hit the module. In order to receive

maximum energy, the rays must fall

perpendicularly on Amun Module. But since

Amun has an orbital inclination of 23.36º,

Amun must be put at 23.36 º +90.00 º=113.6

º

Now that the power input is known, and

since a telescope with a mass below 10

kilograms performing tasks such as

obtaining and sending data consumes an

average of 500W each day, therefore 3

square meters of solar panels should suffice,

the efficiency, being

η =

=82%.

A very important characteristic of solar

panels is their degradation factor δ. In the

case of the ISS, the solar panels degradation

percentage is 0.5% per year.

That is easily given by

x being the number of years and δ the

degradation factor.

Considering the fact that telescopes (the first

part of the Amun Mining Mission being

lauching telescopes for observations of

asteroids) are unmanned missions, just as

the mining mission is, and that the final

network will be made of many telescopes,

an adjacent factor being the presence of

repair robots in space, the presented

degradation factor is acceptable, but must be

lowered.

In a total functioning time of 10 years, the

solar panels, assuming absolutely no

repairing should be made, will suffer a

degradation of

=27.5%

Power management and distribution endows

all the subsystems and electric equipment on

board with the right voltage, though a hybrid

system.

Solar panels generally suffer degradation in

time. This is because of micrometeorites,

space debris, and mainly space weather.

Solar panels on the Amun Module will aim

to having a degradation level similar to the

ones used on the ISS.

8.5.2 Nuclear

Disintegration processes

The link energy for each nucleon is defined

as B=

. Heavy nucleuses tend to eliminate

some of their nucleons in order to raise their

link energy per nucleon, and become stable.

This is generally done either by the emission

of α particles, that is the expulsion of

ionized Helium, or by fission. Considering

the intention of building a nuclear reactor,

fission will be considered here.

a+X Y+b;

a being the particle accelerated towards the

heavy nucleus X, Y representing the

reaction products and b the remaining

particles, needed to sustain the chain


reaction. The nuclear reaction will only take

place if some conditions are respected.

Conservation of energy

The energy of present systems, the

conserved unit, is the link energy, meaning

the sum of the paricles’ energy at spell and

the kinetic energy. (Unlike the previous

cases when energy was analized only for

isolated systems, or systems at spell, in the

event of chemical reactions between nuclear

elements, kinetic energy must also be

considered).

W=

Energy conserved:

) +

) =

) +

)

Q is the delta-E, the difference between the

energy at the initial state and at the final

state, the reaction energy.

Q= )

If Q>0, the reaction is exoenergtic, and the

particles’ energy at the final state is larger

than the one at the initial state.

If Q<0, the reaction is endoenergetic, at a

crisis level of initial energy is needed for the

reaction to take place.

This energy is considered from the reference

system, in this case the laboratory reference

system. The minimum energy input of the

projectile particle α, sufficient to produce a

nuclear reaction.

Q

Conservation of the impulse

The total impulse of the particles before the

reaction must be equal to the total impulse

of the particles after the reaction.

In nuclear reactions, the kinetic energies are

very small in comparison to the spell

energies, therefore:

;

.

-

4√

Substitution in the reaction energy formulae,

considering the laboratory energy,

results in

Q=(1+

) - (1+

) - (2√

/

Conservation of electric charges

In the nucleus, the most powerful forces

acting are the nuclear forces, on very small

distances. Still, electrostatic charges are

present, and they must have the same

magnitude before and after the reaction. The

charge for each nucleus is given by the

atomic number Z, the number of protons

within the nucleus.

+ +

Conservation of the number of nucleons


The number of nucleons before the reaction

must be equal to the number of nucleons

after the reaction.

+ +

Stimulated fission

At the capture of a slow neutron, a

nucleus breaks into two nucleuses of

intermediate masses and 2 or 3 fast neutrons.

The intermediate nucleuses are not stable,

and undergo the same fission reaction,

leading to a chain disintegration.

α disintegration

Between the nuclear particles a and X, two

types of forces exist. One is the electrostatic

opposition, and the other is the nuclear

attraction.

When particle a gets closer to nucleus X, the

potential energy in the rejecting electrostatic

field grows significantly. If the particle

reaches a distance R, the nuclear forces start

acting, having the magnitude of the potential

energy negative and much larger than the

one of the electrostatic forces.

At the R limit at which the nuclear forces

act, the electrostatic one create a barrier,

preventing positive a particles from getting

any closer. The maximum “height” of this

barrier is given by the potential electrostatic

energy at the distance r=R.

C=

R =

The similarity to Coulomb’s attraction law is

obvious, the atomic numbers being the

coefficients of the charges e, and the fraction

the coefficient k.

Radioactive disintegration

The transition between the time when the

system is under some sort of excitation and

when it’s not is called a quantum transition,

described by:

N= , N is the number of sistems

under excitation a the time t, the initial

number of systems under excitation and

the total life of the system.

Following,

N= , so

,

obtaining

.

8.6 Telecommunication

8.6.1 Power emitted

Power emitted= P , where =line loss

Power flux density: =

, to this, the

transmission path loss is added.

=

=

8.6.2 Power received

Effective receiver aperture area: =

.

Receiver power: C=

Noise

= ( = T-satellite+T_electronics)


noise power spectral density;

k=1.38x ; system temperature

N=

N, received noise power; B, frequency band

8.7 Launchers


According to Delft University

www.aerospacestudents.com and

www.braeuig.com

The basic rocketry formula states that:

F=

But since these rockets will only activate in

vacuum,

=0 and F=

Where q is the rate at which the mass flow is

ejected, , velocity of exhaust gases, ,

pressure of exhaust gases, the ambient

pressure and the surface.

Following, the velocity of the exhaust gases,

w = +

The Tsoilkowksi formula:

w ln

= ( +

ln

Finally, the thrust and the burn time are to

be computed

T = - w

and the burn time =

(

)

Again, specifications are not given, and the

final values could not be computed.

Normally w=5km/s, but the other factors

such as the gases exhaust velocity of the rate

of mass flow ejection have not been found

for LOX rockets, and therefore the thrust

and the burn time could not be computed.

The area may be fixed, as the parameter w

is.

8.7.2 Hall Effect

Hall Effect Thrusters, powered up by solar

cells, are limited by the power generated

with the available panels, and not energy

limited, it can generate energy as long as the

panels convert solar energy. According to

these, the thrust per power unit should be

maximized.

=

The kinetic energy for each ion therefore is:

qv =

,

q being the charge.

The definition of momentum: p=mv

therefore qv =

=

from equation above: p=√

Thrust, as in the case of chemical rockets is:

T=√

Most of the needed variables are not

available.

http://www.aerospacestudents.com/



9. Bibliography

1.

http://orbitsimulator.com/gravity/tutorials/tu

torials.html

2. http://www.planetary.org/get-

involved/contests/osirisrex/

3. http://www.azom.com/materials.aspx

4. http://www.webdesign.org/3d-

graphics/tutorials/layering-spaceship-

thrusters.607.html

5. http://hoevelkamp.deviantart.com/art/3ds-

Max-Planet-Tutorial-127582479

6.

http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/Basics/wwww

h.html

7.

http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/n

ews_releases.html?d=244342

8. http://www.capacitorindustry.com/why-

ultracapacitors-maintain-30-market-growth

9. http://blog.cafefoundation.org/?p=4115

10. http://chview.nova.org/station/ast-

mine.htm

11.

http://lifeng.lamost.org/courses/astrotoday/C

HAISSON/AT319/HTML/AT31902.HTM#

Anchor-Some-4127

12.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris#D

ebris_in_LEO

13.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whipple_shield

14.

http://www.spacefuture.com/power/business

.shtml

15.

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/3d_resourc

es/models.html

16.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_th

ermoelectric_generator

17. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon#Orbit

18.

http://engineering.dartmouth.edu/~d76205x/

research/shielding/docs/Parker_06.pdf

19.

http://www2.dupont.com/Kapton/en_US/ass

ets/downloads/pdf/CR_H-54506-1.pdf

20. http://www.world-

nuclear.org/info/default.aspx?id=534&terms

=small%20reactors

21. http://www.world-

nuclear.org/info/inf82.html

22.

http://studentsinaerospace.com/pin/246117

http://orbitsimulator.com/gravity/tutorials/tutorials.html

http://orbitsimulator.com/gravity/tutorials/tutorials.html

http://www.planetary.org/get-involved/contests/osirisrex/

http://www.planetary.org/get-involved/contests/osirisrex/

http://www.azom.com/materials.aspx

http://www.webdesign.org/3d-graphics/tutorials/layering-spaceship-thrusters.607.html



http://hoevelkamp.deviantart.com/art/3ds-Max-Planet-Tutorial-127582479

http://hoevelkamp.deviantart.com/art/3ds-Max-Planet-Tutorial-127582479

http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/Basics/wwwwh.html

http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/Basics/wwwwh.html

http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=244342

http://www.irconnect.com/noc/press/pages/news_releases.html?d=244342

http://www.capacitorindustry.com/why-ultracapacitors-maintain-30-market-growth

http://www.capacitorindustry.com/why-ultracapacitors-maintain-30-market-growth

http://blog.cafefoundation.org/?p=4115

http://chview.nova.org/station/ast-mine.htm

http://chview.nova.org/station/ast-mine.htm

http://lifeng.lamost.org/courses/astrotoday/CHAISSON/AT319/HTML/AT31902.HTM#Anchor-Some-4127



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris#Debris_in_LEO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris#Debris_in_LEO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whipple_shield

http://www.spacefuture.com/power/business.shtml

http://www.spacefuture.com/power/business.shtml

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/3d_resources/models.html

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/3d_resources/models.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon#Orbit

http://engineering.dartmouth.edu/~d76205x/research/shielding/docs/Parker_06.pdf

http://engineering.dartmouth.edu/~d76205x/research/shielding/docs/Parker_06.pdf

http://www2.dupont.com/Kapton/en_US/assets/downloads/pdf/CR_H-54506-1.pdf

http://www2.dupont.com/Kapton/en_US/assets/downloads/pdf/CR_H-54506-1.pdf

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/default.aspx?id=534&terms=small%20reactors



http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf82.html

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf82.html

http://studentsinaerospace.com/pin/246117


23. http://www.braeunig.us/space/index.htm

24. Solaris Sun Orbiting Space Settlement,

Alexandra Voinea (information used in

mining section, orbits and orbital transfers.

Everything used, however, belongs entirely

to the author.)

25. Amun Mining Mission, ESA contest,

Alexandra Voinea, Elena Nica.

NASA Teacher’s Page Basic Space Flight

Maneuvers

26. http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf3-

1.php

27. http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf4-

1.php

28. http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/teacher/

Programs used:

1. Autodesk 3ds Max

http://www.google.com/cse?cx=partner-

pub-

1639099116207474%3Av3ye1n25due&ie=

UTF-

8&q=river&sa=Search&siteurl=www.archiv

e3d.net%2F%3Fa%3Ddownload%26id%3D

1af2d507#gsc.tab=0&gsc.q=tree

Disclaimer: The web site above allows

download and usage of 3d models as long as

they are used in a project, are edited, and are

not distributed in commercial purposes.

2. Photoshop

http://www.braeunig.us/space/index.htm

http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf3-1.php




http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/teacher/

http://www.google.com/cse?cx=partner-pub-1639099116207474%3Av3ye1n25due&ie=UTF-8&q=river&sa=Search&siteurl=www.archive3d.net%2F%3Fa%3Ddownload%26id%3D1af2d507#gsc.tab=0&gsc.q=tree







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