USING THERMAL IMAGING DRONES FOR SOLAR FIELD /

PV INSPECTIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction _______________________________________________________________ 3

Comparing Manual Electric Testing to Drone

Thermal Imaging for Solar Inspections _________________________________________4-5

The Problem Checklist _________________________________________________________ 4

How Drone Thermal Imaging for Solar Inspections Can Help ______________________________ 5

How To Use Drone Thermal Imaging and Best Practices for Solar Inspections _________6-8

Environmental Conditions ______________________________________________________ 6

Hardware Considerations ______________________________________________________ 7

How to Ensure Accurate Data ___________________________________________________ 8

Other Factors that Influence Emissivity _____________________________________________ 8

Considerations Before Hiring a Service Provider ________________________________ 9-10

Regulations ________________________________________________________________ 9

Insurance __________________________________________________________________ 9

Experience _________________________________________________________________ 9

Software _________________________________________________________________ 10

Detailed Deliverables ________________________________________________________ 10

Timelines _________________________________________________________________ 10

Limitations of Thermal Drone Inspections ______________________________________ 11

Camera Limitations __________________________________________________________ 11

Environmental Limitations _____________________________________________________ 11

Irradiance and Operating Status _________________________________________________ 11

Coverage and Flight Times _____________________________________________________ 11

Conclusion ______________________________________________________________ 12

INTRODUCTION

Scale Photovoltaic (PV) Field Efficiency and Output with Drone Thermal Imaging Inspections

Note the significant increases in solar installations that coincide with the Solar Investment Tax Credit (ITC).

CREDIT: Wood Mackenzie Power & Renewables / Solar Energy Industries Association

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RESIDENTIAL, PV NON-RESI, PV UTILITY, PV UTILITY, CSP

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ITC EXTENDED& EXPANDED ITC EXTENDED

ANNUAL U.S. SOLAR INSTALLATIONS

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Thanks to continued improvements in thermal imaging hardware, software and drone technology, it is now possible to greatly improve the efficiency and accuracy of solar, or photovoltaic (PV), inspections than ever before. The current practice of manual electric testing is not sustainable at scale and results in slower PV field build outs, increased inefficiencies in identifying potential problems, and delayed repairs to faulty panels.

Meanwhile, solar energy use continues to grow dramatically. According to the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA), solar use in the U.S. has experienced an average annual growth rate of 50 percent in the last decade, fueled in part by the Solar Investment Tax Credit (ITC) and an estimated 70 percent drop in solar install costs during the past decade. SEIA anticipates that total installed U.S. PV capacity will more than double over the next five years. By 2023, more than 14 GW of PV capacity will be installed annually. With installations expected to total 240 GW by 2030, Credit Suisse is also seeing strong markets in the Middle East, Europe, and Latin America as well as the U.S. as solar power becomes increasingly cost effective in relation to traditional, fossil-fuel power creation.

For asset owners, PV inspectors, and drone service providers to meet the growing demand of PV inspection and maintenance, these stakeholders must develop a deep understanding of thermography, flight operations, and other factors to take full advantage of the benefits of drone-based solar inspection. This will also enable those energy stakeholders and asset owners, specifically, to further maximize efficiencies and outputs from their respective PV fields.

With this in mind, this paper discusses the following topics:

• THE PRESENT STATE OF PV FIELD INSPECTIONS

• THE BENEFITS OF LEVERAGING DRONES WITH DUAL THERMAL AND VISIBLE CAMERA SYSTEMS

• HOW THERMAL IMAGING-ENABLED DRONES IS CONDUCTED IN THE FIELD

• WHAT QUESTIONS TO ASK A POTENTIAL DRONE INSPECTION SERVICE PROVIDER

• AND THE LIMITATIONS OF USING THERMAL IMAGING DRONES FOR PV INSPECTIONS

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COMPARING MANUAL ELECTRIC TESTING TO DRONE THERMAL IMAGING FOR SOLAR INSPECTIONS

Currently, manual electrical testing is the de facto method of inspecting PV fields. Known as IV Curve Tracing, the test is the current industry standard for inspecting and evaluating performance of a solar array. It’s applied by trained, highly skilled technicians using handheld testing kits during only ideal environmental conditions—such as dry, relatively clear weather with little to no wind.

For the test to be valid, panels must reach a certain irradiance level and then the panel must meet a minimum and defined watt per square meter.

Each string, or a row of panels, scheduled to be tested, must be unplugged from the array and plugged into the manual electrical testing device. In addition to the issue of scale, technicians must manually interpret test results to determine the health of the field. This takes hours or days for a small site, let alone for a large 100-acre array.

THE PROBLEM CHECKLIST

At a high level, technicians look for five different types of impairments:

1. SERIES LOSSES: In a series connected configuration with a current mismatch, se-vere power reductions are experienced if the poorly performing cell produces less current than the maximum power current of the cells in good working order. Furthermore, if the combination is operated at short circuit or low voltages, the high power dissipation in the poorly performing cell can cause irreversible damage to the entire module in question.

2. SHUNT LOSSES: Low shunt resistance causes power losses in solar cells by provid-ing an alternate current path for the light-gen-erated current. Such a diversion reduces the amount of current flowing through the solar cell junction and reduces the voltage from the solar cell.

3. MISMATCH LOSSES: Mismatch losses are caused by the interconnection of solar cells or modules which do not have identi-cal properties, or which experience different conditions from one another.

4. REDUCED CURRENT LOSSES: A type of mismatch loss, such as air pollution, or soft soiling, that may reduce the current but not necessarily the voltage

5. REDUCED VOLTAGE LOSSES: Another type of mismatch loss, such as a soiled pan-el from bird droppings that will decrease the voltage output of the PV module.

Photovoltaic (PV) Module: packaged, connected assembly of solar cells that generates and supply “solar” electricity

FROM A SOLAR CELL TO A PV SYSTEM

SOLAR CELL

ELECTRICITY METER

AC ISOLATOR

FUSEBOX

INVERTER

BATTERY

CHARGE CONTROLLER

GENERATION METER

DC ISOLATOR

CABLING

MOUNTING

TRACKING SYSTEM

PV-SYSTEM

SOLARARRAY

SOLAR MODULE

SOLAR PANEL

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To complement and enhance manual electrical testing, the use of drone thermal imaging for solar inspections—also known as aerial thermography—is growing in popularity, mostly due to the speed and level of detail that the technology package can provide. Whereas the manual inspection of a small PV field may take hours or days, a drone thermal imaging inspection of hundreds of acres—including panel cell-level defect analysis—can be accomplished in a single day.

Longwave infrared (LWIR) cameras, also known as thermal imaging, detect the infrared band of the electromagnetic spectrum, which allows them to “see” in total darkness, through obscurants such as fog and smoke, measure temperature, and accurately detect anomalies. Aerial thermal imaging cameras make it easy to quickly inspect a large target area and pinpoint solar panel problems. They streamline the completion of a qualitative analysis by allowing the operator to quickly see heat differentials across a solar field. Using an RGB, or visible light, camera only will limit the capabilities to detecting non-electrical issues like soiling, shading, bird excrement and animal nesting. The exclusive use

SOURCE: FIELD APPLICATIONS FOR I-V CURVE TRACERS, PAUL HERNDAY Average inspection is 10-20% of the strings/site

NORMAL I-V CURVE

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VOLTAGE

SHUNTLOSSES

SERIESLOSSES

REDUCED VOLTAGE

MISMATCH LOSSES

(INCLUDING SHADING)

REDUCEDCURRENT

VISIBLE LIGHT

GAMMA RAYS

SEE IN TOTAL DARKNESS

MEASURETEMPERATURE

SEE THROUGH OBSCURANTS

ENHANCED LONGRANGE IMAGING

ACCURATELY DETECT PEOPLE & ANIMALS

ULTRAVIOLET RADIOINFRAREDX-RAYS MICROWAVE

of a thermal only payload could potentially lead to false positives my mis-identifying these same issues (e.g. bird excrement) as electrical anomalies. Therefore, using thermal cameras paired with RGB cameras as part of a drone sensor suite provides both the required visible awareness and context to effectively spot anomalies in the field.

HOW DRONE THERMAL IMAGING FOR SOLAR INSPECTIONS CAN HELP

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HOW TO USE DRONE THERMAL IMAGING FOR SOLAR INSPECTIONS

With the results of a professional drone thermal imaging solar inspection in hand, crosschecked with the RGB camera data, a technician can efficiently execute manual electrical testing on only the problem PV panels instead of all of them. While drone thermal and RGB imaging for solar inspections ultimately increases efficiency of PV fields, the practice does require as much, if not more, training than what’s required for IV Curve Tracing technicians.

Furthermore, operators will need to view the inspection across both quantitative and qualitative analysis paradigms. Qualitative analysis refers to what a given pilot is seeing in flight, such as a PV cell that has some type of soiling on part of the panel. This image however would not tell the operator the actual temperature data. Quantitative analysis refers to processing the temperature data from each pixel of the thermal sensor as opposed to creating just a visible representation, which will provide more accurate diagnosing and help better inform the manual electric test required to verify a given issue.

Due to the potential increased level of training and skills required, some asset owners and energy companies are hire full-time internal technicians to handle drone inspections. However, it’s more common for companies to outsource sur-veys to specialists with extensive backgrounds as drone pilots and thermogra-phers. Either way, professionals must consider the following four factors while in the field and during post processing:

1. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

2. HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS

3. HOW TO ENSURE ACCURATE DATA

4. IDENTIFYING FALSE POSITIVES

Environmental Conditions

Humidity, time of day, wind, air temperature, reflective apparent temperature, and other factors can affect the spot size ratio. The spot size ratio defines a spot py-rometer’s spot size for any given distance to the target. If the spot size ratio of a spot pyrometer is 1:30, for instance, this means that the temperature of a spot with a size of 1 cm in diameter can be accurately measured at a distance of 30 cm.

Ideal conditions for a drone thermal imaging solar inspection are clear and sunny with low wind speeds. Later in the day works better so the field has time to heat up to an optimal irradiance level. Thermal signature is most prominent on heated PV panels. An optimal time to perform a drone based thermal inspection is late morning to early afternoon. This will allow for moisture to leave the panels and ensures detection range is not compromised and the scene has not become iso-thermal, which decreases the temperature differences between objects.

While working with the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) team and chief surveyor, a standard ground sampling distance (GSD) will be determined, which is the benchmark for preparing flight operations. Comprehensive inspections re-quire a 3 cm GSD while a high-level overview can be done at a 15 cm GSD.

ATMOSPHERICTRANSMISSION

INFRARED REFLECTIONS

VIEWANGLE

INFRARED HEAT SOURCE

Remote UAS Thermal Imaging System needs to address unique radiometric temperature challenges.

SPOT SIZE RATIO

UAS THERMALIMAGING SYSTEM

Recommended maximum viewing distance for different target sizes, illustrated for a Vue Pro R 640/13 mm lens. Image blurring and optical distortion will reduce the recommended distance.

MINIMUM SURFACE

DIMENSIONS (CM)

MAXIMUM DISTANCE

FOR 10 PIXEL SPOT SIZE (M)

5 3.8 

20 15.3 

40 30.6 

60 45.9 

80 61.2 

100 76.5 

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Hardware Considerations

Not all drone thermal imaging systems are alike. There are some mandatory param-eters that make drone thermal imaging possible for solar inspections. For large sites, such as those 100-1,000 acres, the use of a fixed wing or vertical take off & landing (VTOL) fixed wing UAS will allow for longer flight times, higher speeds and an increase in overall coverage. However, higher flight speeds can lead to image blur and reduced quality of data, especially for those thermal cameras that have frame rates below 30Hz, for example. To optimize results, try to fly as slow as possible when using a fixed wing UAS. The shutter speed of the camera must match as closely as possible to the speed of the aircraft.

For optimal results, the following factors need to be taken into consideration when choosing the correct payload:

• RESOLUTION (640 X 512, 336 X 256)

• FRAME RATE (30HZ, 9HZ)

• RADIOMETRIC VS. PERFORMANCE (TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT)

• LENS (13 MM IS OPTIMAL)

• INTEGRATION DETAILS (PLUG & PLAY)

When picking a payload for solar panel inspections, the use of dual sensors, both RGB and thermal, allows for redundancy and expanded situational awareness when determining possible anomalies. The use of a dual sensor system will decrease the amount of time in the field and lead to larger amounts of data that need to be stored and analyzed, but the value the dual sensors provide is so significant that they are quickly becoming a requirement and not just an option.

When quantitative analysis of a PV field is required, the thermal imaging sensor must have radiometric functionality. Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring elec-tromagnetic radiation, including visible light. In other words, the camera has the ability to capture radiometric temperature data, not just display a thermal image. This is cru-cial for producing accurate data when monitoring the optimal operating temperature of PV field. Often, asset owners want to understand the optimal operating irradiance and temperature for their respective PV arrays.

PAYLOAD HARDWARE

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HOW TO ENSURE ACCURATE DATA

To ensure accurate data, there are a few basic principles of thermography to consider. In thermography, aerial or otherwise, emissivity is the single most important attribute necessary for accurate thermal measurement. Emissivity is the efficiency with which an object emits infrared radiation, compared to a perfect emitter (or a so-called blackbody, which has an emissivity value of 1. Targets likely to be measured are not perfect radiators, thus maintaining an emissivity value below 1. For these targets, the measured temperature will result from a combination of emitted, transmitted and reflected radiation. It is important to set the right emissivity value in the thermal imaging camera or else the temperature measurements will be incorrect. FLIR Systems thermal imaging cameras have predefined emissivity settings for lots of materials, and the rest can be found in an emissivity table, which can be found readily on the Internet. Solar panels tend to be highly reflective, which means a lower emissivity.

Other factors that influence emissivity include:

• MATERIAL

• SURFACE STRUCTURE

• GEOMETRY

• ANGLE

• WAVELENGTH

• TEMPERATURE

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Post processing data captured during an inspection using advance software will provide time/temperature plots; detailed comparisons of problem PV panels versus properly running PV panels to emphasize anomalies; high-resolution zooming,; and much more. Learning the intricacies of this type of software takes time and experience. However, there are three metrics that post processing can never fix: focus, range, and distance (FORD). FORD parameters must be properly executed in the field to collect accurate data.

One final feature that can be executed in the field to make it easier to spot anomalies is the use of isotherms. Isotherms highlight dedicated temperature ranges. Anything that appears outside of a certain temperature range raises a visual red flag so a technician can zoom in on the issue. For PV panel inspection, three isotherm ranges can be found in the settings of the ground control station software. When used correctly, isotherms can cut hours out of a technician’s post-processing time.

ALTITUDE 160 x 120 640 x 512

25’ 9.5 3

50’ 18.5 5.5

75’ 28 8.5

100’ 37.5 11.5

125’ 46.5 14

150’ 56 17

175’ 65.5 20

200’ 74.5 22.5

225’ 84 25.5

250’ 93.5 28.5

275’ 102.5 31

300’ 112 34

325’ 121.5 37

350’ 130.5 39.5

375’ 140 42.5

400’ 149.5 45.5

DETECTION TABLELENGTH OF SMALLEST DETECTABLE OBJECT (5 PIXELS) IN INCHES AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES IN FEET SMALL DETECTABLE

160 x 120 640 x 5128

CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE HIRING A SERVICE PROVIDER

Regulations

The sUAS commercial industry is still in its infant stages and as recent as August 2016, the first commercial drone regulations were passed by the FAA. To become a certified, Part 107 commer-cial UAS pilot, you must pass a 60 question, multi-ple choice knowledge exam. A link to the FAA Part 107 regulations summary can be found here:

FAA Part 107 Regulations

If the operations call for flight parameters that are outside of the current regulatory framework, request a proof of FAA waivers from the potential service provider. Becoming familiar with the local FAA Flight Safety District Office (FSDO). Furthermore, Air Traffic Control (ATC) is recommended when attempting to do ad-vanced beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS) operations or when flying in controlled airspace.

Insurance

As the value of assets from a program begins to increase, it is important to consider the proper insurance before hiring a po-tential company or establishing an in-house program. Ensure the pilot has a UAS specific aviation insurance plan with a minimum of $1-5 million in coverage. Providing a certificate of insurance and discussing the topic with the operators should happen at the beginning of the process as opposed to during UAS flight opera-tions. New, on-demand insurance apps could be a good option if a given program is young and the volume of flights on a monthly basis is minimal. If the assets to be inspected are on residential homes and urban areas, more precautions should be considered when purchasing an insurance policy. For remote, rural opera-tions with limited risk, the on-demand option may be viable.

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G = 400 W/m2

G = 200 W/m2

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MODULE VOLTAGE (V)CREDIT: EC&M MAGAZINE

ACTIONABLE PRE-FLIGHT, IN-FLIGHT AND POST-FLIGHT SAFETY INSIGHTS

FLIGHT DATA AIRSPACE HAZARDS CROWD DENSITYHYPER-LOCAL WEATHER GROUND HAZARDS

DATA SOURCES

SMART RISK MODELFLIGHT

RISK

FLIGHT RISK85 85

PILOT SAFETY RECORD

Experience

One of the most mission critical items to consider when hiring a drone service provider is experience. In a new and fast paced in-dustry, clearly showcasing experience can be difficult. Complet-ing a strict due diligence process prior to decision making will set up asset owners and energy stakeholders for long-term suc-cess while manage risk for hiring operators either outsourced or within an organization. A few items found in all due diligence protocols include:

• FLIGHT LOGS AND A MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE

• DATA WORKFLOW DETAILS

• PRE-FLIGHT, DURING FLIGHT, AND POST-FLIGHT CHECKLISTS

• SAMPLE DATA SETS (PROOF OF ABILITY)

To set up a baseline for success, operators must participate in a robust training program that incorporates both internal protocol training as well as technical training from outside vendors and OEMs. For thermography training, the Infrared Training Center (ITC) is a superb resource.

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Software

When choosing a service provider or developing an in-house program, choosing the correct software is crucial. While making the decision of which software is best for a particular program, consider the following factors.

• DATA COLLECTION

• DATA PROCESSING

• DATA ANALYSIS

• LOCALIZATION OF ANOMALIES

• REPORTING

Currently, many asset owners are completing inspections manually when implementing a digital inspection process can save both time and money. Consulting with IT and GIS professionals represents a good place to start when deciding which pieces of software to use for a given PV inspection drone program. Current software capabilities provide more detail and allow for a deeper level of accuracy than what can be achieved manually by humans.

Detailed Deliverables

There are numerous software choices available in the market but starting with an organization’s expectations and working backwards will make the final deliverable much clearer. Questions to consider when developing a deliverable strategy should include:

• WHAT FORMAT WILL THE REPORT BE IN? (.CSV,.PDF,.WORD, ETC.)

• CAN I ACCESS MY DATA VIA AN ONLINE, CLOUD-BASED SYSTEM?

• CAN I EDIT AND CUSTOMIZE THE DATA?

THOROUGHLYEVALUATE

EXPERIENCE

REQUEST FLIGHT LOGS

AND MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE CHECKLISTS

WORKFLOW DETAILS SAMPLE DATA SETS

• DO I HAVE ACCESS TO THE RAW FILES?

• HOW CAN I SHARE THE DATA ACROSS MY ORGANIZATION?

• IS THE SOFTWARE GRANULAR TO MY ORGANIZATION?

The use of an anomaly map of the site being inspected allows for localization and ease of use for the field technicians. By providing detailed yet flexible deliverables, the end user can take advantage of actionable insights produced by the reporting software.

Timelines

While conducting due diligence, discussing timelines will ensure projects don’t run over schedule or over budget. Often, ROI is viewed as time saved and efficiency, so it is critical to understand up front how long the process will take. Consider these questions when scheduling drone inspection services:

• START TIME AND FLIGHT SCHEDULE

• DURATION OF FLIGHT

• DATA PROCESSING TIME

• BAD WEATHER PLAN

• EXTRA FLIGHTS

• FINAL REPORT DELIVERABLE TIMELINE

Most importantly, to ensure safety and compliance, the entire flight crew should be FAA Part 107 certified, at a minimum. It is also highly recommended when doing detailed, quantitative analysis of PV fields to hire a certified thermographer to ensure the data produced is accurate and therefore useful to the task at hand.

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also create issues with irradiance and data capture. Moisture could potentially make the panels look uniform or isothermal which could ultimately lead to false positives.

Irradiance and Operating Status

Irradiance is the density of radiation incident on a given surface usually expressed in watts per square centimeter or square meter. PV cells must reach a certain level of natural irradiance to get a true apparent temperature reading. The ideal irradiance to perform an inspection is 600 W/m2. Airborne thermal inspections can be completed at other irradiance levels, but to ensure the highest quality data, try to be as close to 600 W/m2 as possible. Cloud cover and adverse environmental conditions could affect the image that the thermal camera is attempting to capture.

Coverage and Flight Times

Based on the hardware, software, and size of the area to be inspected, the coverage and flight times will vary. With keeping the end deliverable and goal in mind, the following requirements will contribute to the amount of coverage that can be achieved:

• ALTITUDE

• OVERLAP

• FLIGHT SPEED

• GSD

• ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

As a best practice, it is suggested to use multiple drones to maximize coverage and flight times.

While drone thermal imaging is revolutionizing solar inspections, it is important to understand the maturity of the industry and where the current state of end user integration lies. Market adoption starts with education and a firm grasp of the limitations of the technology will set a standard for success.

Camera Limitations

Camera limitations are dependent on the ground sampling distance (GSD) that is desired. When looking for cell or sub-cell anomalies requiring 3 cm GSD, then a higher resolution camera is necessary along with lower flight altitude and potentially a lens with a narrower field of view. For high level analysis of issues such as string or tracker defects that require a 15 cm GSD, the camera can be a lower resolution and the flight altitude can likely be increased.

A helpful video about camera resolution can be found in this link: FLIR sUAS Resolution Video

The frame rate is the rate at which the infrared detector creates images. For a 9 Hz camera it does so at 9 times per second, and for a 30 Hz camera, 30 times per second. If the LCD/viewfinder has a higher display rate, the infrared image will just get repeated several times. FLIR currently offers two framerate options, 30 Hz and 9 Hz for the commercial sUAS market.

For PV inspections, it is not suggested to use video as a format for detailed analysis. Video is not the best medium to capture in the field for the following reasons:

• LOW QUALITY

• STORAGE PROBLEMS

• RADIOMETRIC ANALYSIS

• CORRECT IDENTIFICATION OF ANOMALIES

• GEOTAGGING

For operators flying a dual EO/IR sensor, the camera will have a 5X zoom capability. When zooming in on a potential anomaly, take note that it is the optical sensor that is conducting that function, and not the thermal sensor. Thermal zoom is a technology still to be perfected on light drone aircraft.

Environmental Limitations

Environmental limitations include atmospheric transmission, air density, relative humidity, moisture, clouds and high winds. Under less than ideal conditions, these factors need to be accounted for in the camera settings during pre-flight preparations. Not only can wind and moisture negatively affect flight operations, it can

LIMITATIONS OF THERMAL IMAGING FOR PV INSPECTIONS

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For more information about thermal imaging cameras or about this application, please visit www.flir.com

The images displayed may not be representative of the actual resolution of the camera shown. Images for illustrative purposes only.

19-1383-OEM-COR-Delta-Thermal Imaging Drones for Solar VideosUPDATED: 06/26/19

The ADAS and AV market is still in an early development phase. Thermal sensors will be needed for higher-performing ADAS and AV platforms as the automotive industry moves to SAE levels automation 3 (conditional), 4 (high), and 5 (full). With more than 500,000 thermal sensors on cars, FLIR is leading the way. In addition, the FLIR Boson-based FLIR ADK is available and specifically designed for ADAS developers to integrate into test vehicles. Classification of pedestrians, dogs, cars, bicycles and other vehicles can be started immediately with the use of the free FLIR thermal starter dataset. Together, engineers and developers can leverage the hardware and data with machine learning neural networks to help demonstrate the ability for affordable thermal sensors to make ADAS and AV safer.

Everything You Need to Get Started

CONCLUSION COMING