volcanoes and igneous activity earth - chapter 4sediments sediments are small pieces rocks (or...
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Sedimentary RocksAdapted from Brunkel (2012)
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What is a sedimentary rock?
Product of mechanical and chemical weathering and erosion
5% (by volume) of Earth’s outer 10 miles
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From Rocks to Soils
Fresh Rocks (I)
Weak Rocks - Stiff Soils (II-V)
Soils (VI)
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Erosion – Point A to Point B
Gravity Sometimes stuff rolls downhill
Water Obvs the largest mover of sediments
Wind Moves a lot of small stuff – fine sand, silt
Ice Moves a lot of stuff, all sizes, in one big push
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Erosion
Where does the sediment stop?
What happens to it when it stops?
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Sediments
Sediments form by: Weathering of rocks (mainly continental
rocks) The remains of small skeleton building
organisms Inorganic crystals that precipitate from
solution
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Sediments
Sediments are small pieces rocks (or minerals) from other rocks
Sediments are transported and deposited by erosional processes
Sediments go through the process of lithification to become sedimentary rocks
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Lithification
the process of turning sediments into rocks Compaction and Cementation The Matrix
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Turning sediment into rock
sediment
rock
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Sedimentary rocks
Provide evidence of past environments i.e, Limestone reefs indicate past
tropical climate, dune sandstones indicate past arid climate and show wind direction.Often contain fossils
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Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks economically importantCoalPetroleum and natural gasSources of iron, aluminum, and
manganese
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2 Types of sedimentary rocks
Detrital (Clastic) sedimentary rocks –formed from sediment that was transported as solid particles (clasts) of quartz, clay, feldspar, mica.
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2 Types of sedimentary rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks – formed from sediment that was precipitated from solution through metabolism by organisms or by inorganic precipitation.
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Clastic sedimentary rock names Named according to particle size.
Fine to Coarse: Shale – clay size
Siltstone – silt size
Sandstone – sand size
Conglomerate (rounded) and Breccia (angular)– pebble to boulder sizeincreasing
grain sizeincreasingtransport
energy
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Shale– Most common sedimentary rock (50%)– Clay-sized particles, some silt.– Deposited in low-energy environment, settling out
from suspension.– Often compacted to thin layering = laminae– Black shale is organic rich. Source of hydrocarbons.– Very weak in outcrop (recessive)
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Siltstone– Composed of silt-sized particles– Deposited in low to moderate energy environment.– Moderate resistance in outcrop (forms “badlands”)
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Siltstone–Sedimentary structures like mud cracks
tell you about depositional environment of siltstone
Silt in modern lake bed 600 my old Precambriansiltstone in outcrop
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Sandstone–Sorting of grains – tells you about
transport medium–Shape of grains – tells you about distance
of transport–rounded = more transport and abrasion
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Sandstone–Composition of the grains - tells you about distance of
transport and the source terrain that they were eroded from. –Chemically unstable minerals like feldspars, mica,
and ferromagnesian silicates indicate short transport distance from igneous source terrains
–Arkose: sandstone with quartz, K-feldspar, muscovite indicates short transport from granite source terrain.
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Sandstones
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Sandstone–Sedimentary structures like cross bedding
and ripple marks tell you about depositional environment of sandstone
Sand in modern beach trench500 my old Cambrian sandstone in outcrop
Cross bedding
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Sandstone–Sedimentary structures like cross bedding
and ripple marks tell you about depositional environment
Sand on modern beach 500 my old sandstone in outcropRipple marks
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Clastic sedimentary rock namesConglomerate and Breccia
– Pebble to boulder size requires very HIGH energy– Conglomerate consists largely of rounded gravels– Breccia is composed mainly of large angular particles
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Conglomerate
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Breccia
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Chemical sedimentary rocks
Consist of precipitated material that was once in solution
Precipitation of material occurs in two ways Inorganic processesOrganic processes (biochemical origin)
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Chemical sedimentary rock names
Limestone
Dolostone
Chert
Evaporites
Coal
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Chemical sedimentary rock names
Limestone–Most abundant chemical sed. rock–Composed chiefly of the mineral calcite–Marine biochemical limestones form as
coral reefs, coquina (broken shells), and chalk (microscopic organisms)
–Inorganic limestones include travertineand oolitic limestone
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Chemical sedimentary rock names Limestone
–Biochemical limestones: coral reefs
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Chemical sedimentary rock namesLimestone
–Biochemical limestones: coquina (broken shells), and chalk (microscopic organisms)
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Chemical sedimentary rock names
Dolostone–Alteration of limestone from infiltrating
magnesium-rich waters. CaCO3 changes to Ca,MgCO3.
–Importance is that it is harder and doesn’t dissolve as readily as limestone.
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inorganic limestone
– travertine – inorganic limestone formed byprecipitation of calcium carbonate from solution in caves & thermal springs
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minerals in solution from groundwaterCaCO3 in mineral springs.
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Chemical sedimentary rock namesChert
– Chemical sedimentary rock made up of microscopic quartz
– Varieties include flint (black), jasper (red), agate (banded)
– Important tool materialfor neolithic cultures.
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Chemical sedimentary rock namesEvaporites
– Evaporation leads to supersaturation and precipitation
– Definite order as a lake dries up: Gypsum* first, Halite (rock salt) second, sylvite (salt substitute (KCl) last
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Chemical sedimentary rock namesCoal
– Made up of organic molecules - hydrocarbons. Different from organic limestone which is 100%calcite, an inorganic mineral.
– Coal Stages:1. Plant material2. Peat3. Lignite4. Bituminous Increasing
Heat & metamorphism
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Sedimentary environments
The geographic setting where sediment accumulates. Determines the nature of the sediments – grain size, sorting or chemical composition. Types of sedimentary environments
ContinentalTransitional (shoreline)Marine
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Continental depositional environments
Flood-plain
Dominated by:
-Erosion-Streamdeposition-Glacial deposition-Winddeposition
(eolian)
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Sedimentary Environments
Continental environments of deposition Lakes (lacustrine) Alluvial systems Deserts/dunes Glacial outwash
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River
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River sedimentation
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Channel in-filling
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Meandering Rivers
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Formation of terraces
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River terraces
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Channel Types Braided streams – Occur where sediment load exceeds
competence or capacity -where steep sediment-laden tributaries enter main streams -places with rapid gradient decrease, such as where mtn. stream
enters plain-in front of glaciersForm longitudinal bars – deposited in middle rather than at
points in river, with bar long axes ~parallel to river banks.
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Alluvial fans – arcuate “fan-shaped” deposits of coarse material that form where a high-gradient stream enters a low gradient main valley. Represents an instantaneous drop in competence and capacity.
Alluvial Fans
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Deltas Deltas – arcuate “delta-shaped” landforms that form where a
stream or river enters a standing body of water. Represents an instantaneous drop in competence and capacity.
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Delta Components in Map View Disributaries – Note that the branching pattern is
opposite of most stream channels which branch upstream
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Marine depositional environments
Main Divisions:
-Shallow (<200 m)coral reefssandy near river mouths
-Deep Watermainly shaledeep water sandstones in deep sea fans
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Sedimentary Environments
Marine environments of deposition Continental shelf Reefs Continental rise Deep sea
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Transitional depositional environments
At interface of land and ocean:
-beaches, barrier isl.
-tidal flats
-deltas
-lagoons
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Sedimentary structures
BEDDING- Bedding plane
Principle of Original Horizontality
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Law of original horizontality
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Bedding planes
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strata
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Cross bedding
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Engineering – Sed Rx
Sandstones and conglomerates Variability Cement Structure Deposit boundaries Permeability Rippability
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Engineering – Sed Rx
Shales and Mudstones Variability- Gas? Compactability Structure Deposit boundaries Permeability Slake Heave
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Interbedded nature
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Chemical Sed Rx
Surface and underground Development of Karst topography Evaporites – gypsum/anhydrite and halite
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Karst Topography
Dissolution of carbonate rocks
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Development of karst topography
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Karst Topography
Limestone caves Sinkholes
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Development of karst topography
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Engineering- Chem Sed Rx.
Dissolution Plastic deformation Voids, cavities, caves Groundwater Variability Interbedded