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Water in Emergencies

Session 11C

Context Specific Scenarios (3 of 4)

Cold Climates

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Challenges in Cold Climates

Exercise:

• What are the particular challenges that can be faced in the provision of water for emergencies in cold climates?

Tajikistan

S House / OXFAM-GB

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Challenges for Water Provision in Cold Climates • Logistics

• Access for users - slipping risks

• Problems with queuing time – hypothermia, respiratory infections

• Need for hot water for bathing

• Freezing water – tanks & pipes

• Increased snow loads

• Malfunctioning mechanical pumps

• Water quality may change

• Treatment processes need modification

• Concrete curing

• Welfare of staff

Tajikistan

S House / OXFAM-GB

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Water & Cold Temperatures

• Water density decreases when frozen & volumes expand

• Viscosity increases – reduces settling speeds

• Water to ice can excerpt pressures up to 2,500 kg/cm2 (25km high)

• New snow is a relatively good thermal insulator compares with more compacted snow

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Supplying Water in Mountainous Areas

Northern Iraq (Kurdistan) 1991:

• Airdrops of water on plastic pallets – up to 95% broken on impact

• Water in storage tanks by helicopter – cost approx USD 3.50 / litre

•Stockpiling useful for hard to access areas

•Snow can be used as a temporary water source

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Insulated Water Tanks

Design to reduce heat loss:

•Larger tanks

•Round tanks

•Straight sides vs corrugated – less surface area

•Insulate base, valves, sides

•Strong roofs – snow loads Buttle, M, Smith, M & Shaw, R (no date)

‘Emergency water supply in cold regions’, Waterlines Technical Brief, No 62

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Preventing Freezing Pipes & FittingsButtle, M & Smith, M (1999) ‘Out in the Cold, Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation for Cold Regions’, WEDC

• Water freezing in pipes & fittings can cause them to burst

• Continuous flow preferable

• Drain intermittent supplies in-between use

• Bury pipes deeper than frost penetration

• Insulate pipes – with lagging or ‘insulating concrete’

• MDPE still ductile at very low temperatures (- 60oC), PVC is more brittle

• Insulate tapstands, place near to users

‘Tap box’ for insulation

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Mechanical Equipment & Construction

Mechanical equipment:

• Use correct grade engine oil for the temperature

• Use diesel suitable for cold climates

• Anti-freeze in cooling system

• Keep pumps indoors

Construction:

• Use local knowledge

• Keep concrete warm while curing

• Add anti-freeze chemicals to the concrete, but care with selection for reinforced concrete

• Careful of constructing on frozen ground – may weaken when thawed

• Design for snow loads

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Water Quality & Treatment

• Salts & impurities concentrated in non frozen parts of lakes

• Protozoan cysts, Giardia & Cryptosporidium, can be capable of living in cold environments

• Boiling – increase by one minute for each 1,000m above sea level

• Chlorination – increase retention time x 1.5 - 3.5 for every 6oC drop in temp (below 20 oC)

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Hot Water for Bathing in Cold Climates

• Additional challenge in cold climates

• Pakistan earthquake – particular challenge of hot water for bathing

• The main challenges:

– The availability and continuity of fuel / power – wood, gas, electricity

– Providing culturally acceptable facilities for women who previously lived in seclusion

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Hot Water for Bathing in Cold Climates

‘Put & take’ water heater

Ref: Buttle & Smith (1999) ‘Out in the Cold’, WEDC

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Hot Water Heater, Abbatobad, NWFP, Pakistan

Hot water heater for supply to bathing units - Havelian camp,

Abbatobad, NWFP, Pakistan

Construction arranged by the local government

Thought to have functioned well but problems of fuel availability

meant they were not used much

Fuel was improvised by using clothes, wooden boxes, etc

Photo: S House / OXFAM-GB

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Bathing Block with Hot Water, Battagram, NWFP, Pakistan

Bathing block, Shingli Paen village, Battagram, NWFP, Pakistan

Developed by Austrian & German Red Cross - as part of the PRCS earthquake response

Stoves provided inside for heating water - users bring fuel

Separate sides for male and female in the same block – agreed with community – but some cultural challenges faced

IFRC Pakistan Delegation

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Stoves Distributed in Pakistan

Stoves provided by the Pakistan Red Crescent Society and the IFRC - household level in response to the Pakistan earthquake

IFRC Pakistan Delegation

IFRC Pakistan Delegation

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Warm Bath Shelters, Balakot, NWFP, Pakistan

Separate single sex, warm bath shelters designed by ACF, Balokot, Pakstan

ACFACF

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Warm Bath Shelters, Balakot, NWFP, Pakistan

• Fuel – kerosene

• Includes – 10 dressing / shower boxes & laundry area

• 2 to 3 times per week per person

• Small fee for adults to use – managed by community

• Challenges:– Constant supply of fuel

– Less use by women – cultural challenges

ACF

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Passive Solar Water HeatingMansehra, NWFP, Pakistan

• Supported by OXFAM

• Each unit had 10 parallel fluorescent light tubes

• Each unit heated 60 litres of water at a time, at 65% on high cloud days

• Could fill each unit 3 to 4 times per day

• Cost about 200 USD / unit (excluding pipes and tapstands)

• Set up to allow everyone a hot bath every 3 days

(See the commercial examples on next slide)

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Passive Solar Water Heating

Passive solar water heating using fluorescent tubes – can also be purchased from commercial companies, such as SunMaxx

http://www.siliconsolar.com/visual-directory/solar-evacuated-tube-collectors.html

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Electric Water Heated Showers, Bam Earthquake Response, Iran

S Sow / ACFS Sow / ACF

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Electric Water Heated Showers, Bam Earthquake Response, Iran

• Supported by ACF

• 1 unit for a group of 3-5 families

• Families helped dig drainage pits

• Electric heaters brought from province capital

• Electricity was provided free at the time

• Very well accepted by users and authorities

S Sow / ACF

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Chulli Water Treatment (& water heating system)

Chulli system from Bangladesh & supported in response to the 2007-8 cyclone emergency by OXFAM-GB

Developed as a water treatment system but also providing hot water which could be used in cold climatesPhotos: Richard Johnston / UNICEF

The system was developed by the Rajshahi University, tested by Integrated Approach for

Community Development and supported by UNICEF

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Designing facilities to meet the needs of the

(different groups of) users

Discuss with the beneficiaries their needs

ask for feedback modify where appropriate

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Acknowledgement

Much of the material for the first part of this Module

(prior to hot water for bathing in cold climates)

has been taken from:

Buttle, M & Smith, M (1999) ‘Out in the Cold, Emergency Water Supply and Sanitation for Cold Regions’, WEDC

&

Buttle, M, Smith, M & Shaw, R (no date) ‘Emergency water supply in cold regions’, Waterlines Technical Brief, No 62