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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background Of The Study

As we know social study examine about human and examine human in

social factor, it will clarifier if we interprate it as knowledge interrelation –

social science in analyze indication and social problem has happened either in

wide society and tight society.

In the study of human social and human interconnected as one of the

objects is first and foremost. Social problems and social phenomena. The

expression results of some aspects of the relationship of social life because life

is now global in the field of technology.

After that it will came the methods and approach to social problems

which approach to social problems will comes the sociological approach,

other currently available approaches ecological approach, exponential growth

approach, system approach, interdisiplner and multidisciplinary approach.

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CHAPTER II

SOCIAL CRITICISM METHODOLOGY

A. Critical Social Theory

Critical social theory was first defined by Max Horkheimer of the

Frankfurt School of sociology in his 1937 essay Traditional and Critical

Theory: Critical social theory is a social theory oriented toward critiquing and

changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to

understanding or explaining it. Horkheimer wanted to distinguish critical

theory as a radical, emancipatory form of Marxian theory, critiquing both the

model of science put forward by logical positivism and what he and his

colleagues saw as the covert positivism and authoritarianism of orthodox

Marxism and Communism

Critical social theory is a school of thought that stresses the reflective

assessment and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from

the social sciences and the humanities. As a term, critical theory has two

meanings with different origins and histories: the first originated in sociology

and the second originated in literary criticism, whereby it is used and applied

as an umbrella term that can describe a theory founded upon critique; thus, the

theorist Max Horkheimer described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks "to

liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them.

Critical social methodology is a methodology that involving both

understanding and theoretical explanation which aims to reduce entrapment in

systems of domination or dependence.

The two meanings of critical theory from different intellectual traditions

associated with the meaning of criticism and critique derive ultimately from

the Greek word kritikos meaning judgment or discernment, and in their

present forms go back to the 18th century. While they can be considered

completely independent intellectual pursuits, increasingly scholarsare

interested in the areas of critique where the two overlap.

Core concepts of social critical theory are:

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(1) That critical social theory should be directed at the totality of society in its

historical specificity (i.e. how it came to be configured at a specific point

in time).

(2) That critical theory should improve understanding of society by

integrating all the major social sciences, including geography, economics,

sociology, history, political science, anthropology, and psychology.

1. Postmodern Critical Theory

While modernist critical theory (as described above) concerns itself

with “forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of

industrial and corporate capitalism as a political-economic system,”

postmodern critical theory politicizes social problems “by situating them

in historical and cultural contexts, to implicate themselves in the process

of collecting and analyzing data, and to relativize their findings”. Meaning

itself is seen as unstable due to the rapid transformation in social

structures. As a result, the focus of research is centered on local

manifestations, rather than broad generalizations.

Postmodern critical research is also characterized by the crisis of

representation, which rejects the idea that a researcher’s work is an

“objective depiction of a stable other.” Instead, many postmodern scholars

have adopted “alternatives that encourage reflection about the ‘politics and

poetics’ of their work. In these accounts, the embodied, collaborative,

dialogic, and improvisational aspects of qualitative research are clarified”.

The term "critical theory" is often appropriated when an author (perhaps

most notably Michel Foucault) works within sociological terms, yet

attacks the social or human sciences (thus attempting to remain "outside"

those frames of inquiry).

2. Language And Social Construction

The two points at which there is the greatest overlap or mutual

impingement of the two versions of critical theory are in their interrelated

foci on language, symbolism, and communication and in their focus on

social construction.

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a. Language And Communication

From the 1960s and 1970s onward, language, symbolism, text, and

meaning came to be seen as the theoretical foundation for the

humanities, through the influence of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Ferdinand

de Saussure, George Herbert Mead, Noam Chomsky, Hans-Georg

Gadamer, Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida and other thinkers in

linguistic and analytic philosophy, structural linguistics, symbolic

interactionism, hermeneutics, semiology, linguistically oriented

psychoanalysis (Jacques Lacan, Alfred Lorenzer), and deconstruction.

When, in the 1970s and 1980s, Jürgen Habermas redefined critical

social theory as a theory of communication, i.e. communicative

competence and communicative rationality on the one hand, distorted

communication on the other, the two versions of critical theory began

to overlap to a much greater degree than before.

b. Social Construction

Both versions of critical theory have focused on the processes by

which human communication, culture, and political consciousness are

created. This includes:

1) Whether it is through universal pragmatic principles through which

mutual understanding is achieved (Habermas).

2) The semiotic rules by which objects obtain symbolic meanings

(Barthes).

3) The psychological processes by which the phenomena of everyday

consciousness are generated (psychoanalytic thinkers).

4) The episteme that underlies our cognitive formations (Foucault),

There is a common interest in the processes (often of a linguistic or

symbolic kind) that give rise to observable phenomena and here there

is some mutual influence among the different versions of critical

theory. Ultimately, this emphasis on production and construction goes

back to the revolution in philosophy wrought by Kant, namely his

focus in the Critique of Pure Reason on synthesis according to rules as

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the fundamental activity of the mind that creates the order of our

experience.

B. Social Criticism Science and Social Positive Science

The roots of scientific thinking lies in the belief that the development of

science is the most effective tool to liberate humans. But what has happened in

positive social science knowledge is merely an explanation of the basics of

methodology and epistemology. Science is supposed to be only intended for

human liberation has been replaced by a double name, which is to liberate or

oppress the same. Contemporary social sciences, thus no more than the

domination of the methodology and epistemology of natural sciences who saw

that the subject needs to be separated from the object, the researchers studied.

Critical theory stark contrast to assumptions as above. Critical theories

explicitly rejected the notion that people and communities can be understood

through the basic assumption (otonosi) and methods of the natural sciences is

seen that as humans are not creative in thinking and acting. To compare

between positive social sciences and critical social science, there are at least

four basic differences:

1. The difference in the view of human nature and society.

2. An understanding of social processes.

3. Form a scientific explanation of social processes undertaken and

4. The role of social scientists (Sewart, 1978).

1. View Of Human Nature And SocietyPositive social science view of society as an objective phenomenon

that can be described as a set of forces that do not know the history

(ahistorical). Social science criticism, on the other hand sees the

community as a man who can build a set of humanity through progressive

historical understanding of the processes and social structures. Social

sciences positive view of human nature as a data dead (not moving), being

critical social science view that human beings can alter themselves through

the institutions they create themselves. Therefore outlook positive social

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sciences so then Barry Smart (1976) refer to earlier views as "apparent

reality" and because it is made up. In capitalist society, positive social

sciences developed by means of alienating individuindividu in the process

of creation of history and therefore a positive social sciences failed

completely in analyzing a building society as a humanitarian. Because of

its failure to look at the processes and social structures, the positive social

sciences can not be expected to do a lot of fundamental change.

(Horkheimer, 1972).

Critical social science actually see the human as a shaper of

history. Not a critical social science that he is only able to describe the

social facts of history, without understanding and joint action of the

people. Horkheimer wrote "critical social theory ..... see humans as

creators of their own history". (1972: 244). Differences in views

between positive social sciences and critical of human nature and society

that has a profound influence in seeing how the social sciences was

created.

2. Creation Of Social Science Knowledge

For positive social science, the knowledge sought is created

through empirical observations that can be rigorously tested. What is

called the data according to positive social sciences is a description of the

behavior-social behavior, and individual values (Taylor 1971: 32). Data

referred to the objective that can be tested with models of existing

theories. Key concepts are then developed which are free value concept

(1 : 32). According to Habermas, they so-called value free actually

contain any values. (1971: 69).

Objectivity and value-free social science positive for none other

than the desire to distinguish fact from value, between theory and practice.

Although not diketahuai why, positive social sciences strive hard to

predict and control nature (Hambermas, 1971, Bernstein, 1976). Brian

Fay also said that if the interest is applied to investigate the human world

(not natural) then the result is the manipulation of social relations, exalting

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technical interests of the moral, human blinding of political affairs, and the

last is to strengthen the domination of the ruling class (1976: 57).

Viewed from the perspective of a critical social science, the

knowledge created for the two interests. First, because humans are social

beings, the moral principles and ethics should be created. Second, that the

moral principles and ethics that must be understood in the inter-

subjectively. Critical social science because it can not break away from

understanding the norms, values and meanings that are inter-subjective in

everyday human life. Because the two interests above the interests of

human beings then arises the third and the third type of knowledge as well.

The third interest is called interest exemption, which means the critique of

ideology and fundamental social change.

Critical social science refuses to accept social practices as the final

truth. Both ideas and actions (actions) that occur in the process of history

until now is the manifestation of the social structure changes. Critical

social science must analyze forms of structural oppression and at the same

time find a way out for his release (Farganis, 1975). Critical social

science must come to the disclosure of structural institutions oppressive

than other keperiode period. If it is understood meanings so earlier, it is

then forwarded to the presence of social action in a way against notions

and actions done before. Furthermore critical social science was actually

born to free mankind from the concepts of ideology and actions are

misguided, and therefore this struggle into a political struggle. Critical

knowledge is never neutral, especially for people who already understand

the problem stood above. In the social sciences krtitis, the validity of the

concepts of data and theory has always been associated with the historical

aspects and goals subjective. (Piccone, 1973). Critical social science

comes between the burst of the meanings of history and create possibilities

of action that can be done while the man who wanted to free themselves

from the world of oppression. To do everything it should be combined

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with the structural change theory of ideology critique. In a critique of

social science should always be dialogue anatara theory and practice.

3. Form Of Scientific KnowledgePositive social science explanations assume that the way that is

done to an object be generalized to all science. Nomological paradigm

developed and this is unacceptable for the social sciences in general,

especially the critical social sciences. This way other than nomological

science is ahistorical, diterministik and prohabilistik. Explanation of a

phenomenon usually associated with businesses predict what will happen

in the future. All activities in the positive social sciences, from data

collection and refinement of the data, the data correlation, and the

formulation of generalizations, hypotheses and development of research

models, all geared to test the theory that was developed based on the rules

of logic are strictly defined.

Critical social science actually present opposing scientific

principles developed in the social sciences positive, and therefore easy to

shake paradigm. When the positive social sciences studying human

behavior, the critical social science study of human action and see that the

social world is created through human action and understanding of inter

subjective. Critical social science tries to understand the relationship of

social conditions with subjective human action with a variety of interests.

Because of the relationship between social conditions and human actions

that are highly complicated, then the critical social sciences do not believe

the so-called predictions. Because the essence of society is understanding

and community action itself then any sophisticated social conditions

foreseen and regulated in such a way, there must be a lot of mistakes in it.

As said Taylor (1971). Even if it concepts and categories-categories of

positive social science is still much we are using now, in the future will

already no longer. The positivist thought that what is done today is an

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attempt to develop disciplines studied, but tragically they actually release

how the social processes it is created.

If all social process is understood as a product of human action,

then all critical considerations must start from the understanding, values,

and inter subjective. Furthermore, as stated by von Wright (1971), notions,

values and motives must be developed with the social processes by

showing clearly how they are constructed by human action and reflection.

Critical explanations therein covers the basic theories of structural change,

values, notions and motives that arise as a result of structural changes.

Differences in understanding of the social structure (including domianan

strength and power of the periphery) should be assessed in critical theory.

For example, a notion of social mobility may be supported by a personal

experience of a minority capitalists, especially in the United States at that

time. The concept of social mobility in practice it turned out to only

provide the advantage of sheer kapitaslis, are people getting knocked out

the weak precisely because economic weakness by the capitalist rulers.

Concepts created by man turns in his practice can provide benefits

for some people and hurt some other parties. So long as men who seek

profit wants to retain their positions are those who do not benefit from the

system is deliberately not understand that continuously could be occasions

domination. Critical social science comes in the midst of the community

with critical considerations, wants to awaken people who sleep on their

own world. Because the character is so, then he is always contained in the

desire to make changes, either radical or not. Radical changes occur

because of the contradiction-contradiction in the social process, meaning

that there are those who seek profit and there are no losers of rights

between groups within the social sciences. All of this can be understood

through ideology and social conditions that developed over the years.

Fundamental contradiction would happen if the interests of the majority

parties constantly at odds with the interests of other parties, for example in

a social system that enforces praket-praket monopoly deal with the system

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of free competition. One group or oppressed groups in the growing

dominance in the present system will perform resistance and social change

as they wish. It is a political matter and therefore must be repeatedly

explained that critical theory can not be separated from practical politics.

The extent to which the political upheavals that may arise

depending on the degree of conflict of interests of the progressive with the

authorities. If contradictions are not too urgent, can generally be resolved

through peaceful means without having to wrap ideology and power

structures. But if it is urgent contradiction, there is no other way except

remodel ideologies and structures that are considered not well established.

When is it going to happen fundamental contradiction can not be predicted

by the social sciences, because it concerns human agreement jointly

confront a growing ideology and structure. Because it can be formulated

that the purpose is not to predict the critical theory of social change,

but rather to understand the historical development of society so that

they do social change. The entry of critical social science in practical

politics as stated above then differentiate positive social scientists on the

one hand with critical social scientists on the other hand, as described

below.

4. The Role Of Social SciencesHorkheimer (1972) notes that traditional positive social sciences,

in an attempt to start a political life, separating the social sciences by using

the term social science and social science purely practical. In Marx's view,

who is called by social scientists can be divided into two: Observer

teoristis free and a-political values on the one hand and political

people who voiced values and their political interests on the other .

Positive people in general have always tried to distinguish between the

two roles. They choose to be good citizens and become researchers and

scientists are polite and objective that can capture important issues of his

time. According to this understanding is clear that the task of social

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scientists is to describe and explain the facts, do not interfere with what

should be done [Bernstein, 1976: 44].

Critical social science view that social scientists are must

participate in the process of human development. Because of the social

scientists must determine keberpihakannya to whom they serve. Critical

social science altogether reject the separation between practice and theory,

and that all the practice and theory should be discussed, so continue to not

stop. Interest for the practice of critical social scientists is how to liberate

the oppressed in order to position them so as people can change (also seen

as people who deserve to live and thrive, not kept suppressed).

Critical social science view of human society as a whole and

therefore the human essence is a new makhuk get humanity in

togetherness. Through the unity of critical social science then try looking

at the structure, processes and social meaning, either in the past or present.

Social sciences, and therefore can not be disassociated from the real social

life, therein to learn the values, goals of individuals, groups and classes.

Critical social science, because it is more emancipatory, it has a different

character from the positive social sciences closer to the oppressive

dominant group. Because of its emancipatory, the critical social science to

know what is referred to as praxis which serves as a source of action and

theory validation. Despite this critical social science still refuses prediction

method for the prediction should be done by issuing the human as forming

elements of their own history. Critical social science sees humans as

subjects who tried to approach unity back the world that they built.

Because it forms a scientific explanation that used historical. In this form

there is a dialogue between the conditions that occurred in the past and

present. More clearly see the unity of critical social science of human

subjects trying to free themselves from the oppressive structures through

their own efforts (standalone).

Criterion of truth in the theory of critical social science is very

subjective. Because of the critical social science understandings assessed

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from the subjective to the social processes and social values. Research

methods and the validity of the study is based on a dialogue between

subjects. This research not only see humans as objects but see them as a

man who can apply independently. The next section I will outline metide

research based on the paradigm of dialogue and participation, not

observation and manipulation.

C. Research Methods Of Social Criticism

Critical social research starts from the real social problems experienced by

a group of individuals, groups, or classes that are oppressed and alienated

from the social processes that are growing and growing. Starting from

practical problems and daily life of this type of research trying to resolve these

problems through social actions aimed at keeping the oppressed can free

themselves from the shackles of oppression. Therefore, this study intersect

with efforts to make society into the world of politics and improve their

critical awareness. This dialogue method requires that the actors involved in

the research process can simultaneously use their potential as active actors

create history. Practically, this method requires that the perpetrator research

inter subjective relationship between researchers and communities that then

they can devise a program of education and action program that is intended to

change the social conditions that oppress. Analytically critical research must

be able to create a dynamic relationship between the subjects in social

situations.

Critical research need to critique the ideology based on a comparison

between the artificial social structure with real social structure. Critical

research against social processes inhuman and subsequent processes such

inhuman can be solved through joint action between the researcher and the

people (Sand Berg, 1976: 45).

Such critical research can be applied to multiple levels of analysis ranging

from the local level up to the upheavals and global political ideology.

Nevertheless, in this section the focus is aimed at the upheaval groups and

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local movements because the symptoms are a symptom of the current

dominant. This does not rule out the possibility, as stated above, that this

method can be applied to different levels of analysis of a social system

(National) or global (international). This movement is usually done through

four major stages namely: Interpretation, empirical analysis, critical

dialogue, and followed by action. This method is primarily used by Marx to

criticize liberal capitalism. Critiques of modern capitalism should thus

combines structural analysis with critiques of contemporary ideology. Only in

this way can encourage the emergence of a radical analysis of revolutionary

action.

Research for local upheavals should start from a dialogue about

modern kapitalime albeit in a limited sense. Dialogue was going to be able

to serve as guidelines for selecting the issues and movements of progressive

interpretation of ideology, and the selection and analysis of empirical data.

Instead of micro analysis of the local turbulence will be able to help repair and

build macro theories about modern capitalism. Critical analysis at the micro

and macro level built and even put together.

In the following paragraphs I will present a critical research method in

seven stages. Maybe this will seem programmatic and mechanics but my point

is that this method can be distinguished clearly with positive social research

methods. The difference between the critical method with a positive method

can be seen in the matrix below.

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Comparison Stages Positive Research Method And Critical

Positive Social Science Criticism Social Science

Identification of scientific problems precedence by studying the results of empirical research that has been done, including the theoretical findings

Identify groups and progressive social movements

Develop hypotheses that can be tested empirically his truth with the hope that researchers can enrich existing theories and have predictive power

Developing entire intersubjective relations to understand the meaning, value, motivation of local communities.

Choosing a place or a location that is seen to enrich the study of scientific insights, for example : community, groups, organizations and so on.

Studying the historical development of the condition of social conditions of social structures that constrain the present action

Develop indicators that can be measured quantitatively and strategies inference based on tedahulu research, observation and interview location, Will investigators / researchers, and knowledge of social processes

Build a model of the relationship between social conditions, interpretation, intersubjective against conditions such conditions and become participants of action

The collection of data through experiments, and text documents has become existing, survey and interviews, and observations

The collection of data through experiments, and text documents has become existing, Survey Explains fundamental contradiction-contradiction as a result of the research process is based on: Comparing condition with understanding, ideological criticism, and find new possibilities for action

data analysis for hypotesiis test Participation in educational programs together with the community and seek new ways to meet their world

Developing laws and theories on the basis of findings generated and make recommendation

Participation in preparing a program of action to solve the problems encountered and perform further critical research

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D. Some Approaches to Social Criticism Problem

Because of the social problems that occur very varied type and generality

then the solution was in need of a wide range of methods that will be used

either alone or together, or a combination of various methods. The discussion

below will seek describes several kinds of methods approaches to social

problems.

1. Sosiological Approach

Through this approach in trying to understand social issues in sociological

differentiated on 4 kinds of approaches :

a. Religion Approach

This approach is individual in the sense of highly correlated with

each person's beliefs on religion. The more people will believe their

religion, the usefulness of this approach effective. Through religious

approach taught that social problems arise when there is a violation of

religious norms. Violation of religious norms is sanctioned sometimes

very abstract nature and is dependent upon the confidence of its

adherents (beliefs about the existence of heaven for those who do good

and hell for the "evil") This approach is more pronounced

keeffektifannya in preventive framework established by planting

religious values early from each family in the community. This means

that in this approach that can play a role in addition to the clergy who

did have competence in the field of religion also the parents in each

family has an important role in relation to the planting of early

religious niliai value to family members so that the internalized values

of religious values in each individual members of the public expected

it to be a fortress or filter also filters the negative influence of the

surrounding or in other words can prevent violations of the values and

norms of religion which in turn prevents the occurrence of social

problems.

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b. Law Approach

Between the approach of religion there is a common approach

punishment historical terms, in the sense of the legal approach of

looking at the phenomenon of social problems can stem from religious

approach. Only the legal approach usually it applies to all members of

the community in which he resides and the laws enacted. This

approach is more apparent sanction because it refers to the rules or

norms that are already in kodifikasikan and passed, for example, the

punishment for offenders killed in prison hikum many years, offenders

convicted of corruption so many years dst.Dengan law approach

considers that the social problems occur

In case of violation of legal norms and for every such offender will

apply sanctions. This approach is preventive biased in the sense that

social problems can be prevented through the efforts of socialization

norms of law in society and are kuratifataure rehabilitative within the

meaning of the legal norm violators will be given specific sanctions

and held coaching so that he no longer commit offenses against legal

norms. Those involved in this approach include the law enforcement

authorities and government officials.

c. Jurnalistic Approach

With journalistic approach is intended as an attempt to disseminate

information relating to the social problems through the writings in

print. Through this approach to social issues sought to be introduced to

the public good in the sense of a social problem itself and causation as

well as ways to deal with. Since the 18th century newspapers and

magazines have become part of the record and describe the expression

and protest against exploitation, corruption and degradation in the

community in the United States. This approach also seeks to realize the

dangers of social problems that are being and will terjadi.Sampai

current magazines, newspapers still be a valuable tool in raising

kesadran the dangers of drugs, prostitution, HIV / AIDS and other

17

social problems. Those who could play a role in this other than the

journalistic approach, it could be people who have competence in the

field and have the ability to write (medical explanation from the doctor

about HIV / AIDS, penjelsan of social scientists about poverty etc.).

This approach is considered large enough meaning in the sense that he

could have a wide range in terms of both geographical spread and the

target group of people that will be addressed. In terms of the target

community, then this approach can reduce panic situation of the people

who originally did not understand the problematic social situation that

is happening (public panic when the danger of new AIDS was first

identified, many AIDS patients are treated inhumanely because of

ignorance of people about how disease transmission TSB).

Although this approach can have a wide reach, unfortunately this

approach is effective only for people who have a reading culture.

d. Art Approach

Art approach is an attempt by the artists (art, drama, music, dance,

painting, literature, etc.) to establish a humanitarian sympathy with

respect to social sistuasi problematic.

Through staging his plays playwrights often provide social

criticism terhada government has deviated from its purpose (many

occur koruspsi, collusion, nepotism and other depravity-wrack

conducted by government officials). The musicians create songs which

also contains a protest against the world situation which is far from

peace, as well as writers yanng done through poetry or novels or the

painter with the graffiti at the top of the canvas are trying to pour her

expression that also seeks to represent the voice of the people in doing

social criticism against the government usually start deemed "corrupt",

leading to problems sosial.Dalam this approach should also take into

account the groups that were targeted. (eg through music, if that was

targeted approach was a young child, the music used also appropriate

18

music the tastes of young people, as well as other ksenian, for example

puppet suitable for use in rural communities in Java etc.).

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CHAPTER III

CLOSING

A. Conclusion

Critical social methodology is a methodology that involving both

understanding and theoretical explanation which aims to reduce entrapment in

systems of domination or dependence.

Critical social theory is a social theory oriented toward critiquing and

changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to

understanding or explaining it.

We can clearly distinguish between critical social sciences to the social

sciences positive. Positive social science research activities begin the process

of identifying scientific issues, gather data and test hypotheses proposed, and

finally accept or reject the theory that tried to be developed. Critical social

research it started its activities in the practical problems and ideologically

oppressive against most vulnerable groups. The research process begins with

the interpretation, study and dialogue empirical data and analysis together

with the community for practical purposes. This is called as a method of

praxis because of a combination of analytical work with practical actions. The

goal is not just to recognize the world, but to change it. Man in a condition

seen as a conscious object and subject to change. Hence, the research is

democratic and open to a wide range of criticism and further evaluation. Such

critical research method is the basis of critical theories that can not be

removed simply to do with the world of practical politics, the political

upheavals in order to achieve a polotik human freedom in its truest sense and

widest.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Comstock Donald E. 1980. A Method For Critical Research. Departement Of

Sociology : Washington State University

Imanudin. (2011). Metode Dan Pendekatan Masalah Sosial. [online]. Tersedia :

http://andrikardimansah2a.blogspot.com/2011/10/metode-dan-pendekatan-

masalah-sosial.html [9 November 2014].

Guess Raymond. 1981. The Idea Of Critical Theory. Cambridge University Press:

Cambridge

Willlard Arthur Charles. 1996. Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge.

University Of Chicago Press : Chicago