Maintenance and Reproduction Guided Notes Name: _________________________

Respiratory System

Flow of air

1. Air enters through the _________________________ (nostrils)

2. _________________________

Nasal cavity is lined with ___________________________________ epithelial tissue that _______________ __________________ and sweep them towards the throat to be swallowed and digested.

Contains three lobes (__________________) which increase the surface area of mucosa exposed to air to better trap particles

3. ___________________________

____________________________________________

Contains tonsils

4. ___________________________________(aka voice box)

___________________________________________________________________________________.

___________________________is located at the top of larynx. Normally it allows free passage of air, but when we swallow, the larynx is pulled up and the epiglottis tips over, sealing off the larynx.

The _____________________– a pair of membranes that vibrate as we expel air are also in the larynx. The passage between the vocal cords is the _________________________.

5. ____________________________

also contains ciliated mucosa to trap particles

6. ____________________________

Largest air tubes of lungs

7. _______________________________

Smallest of the air tubes

8. _______________________________

Site of gas exchange

Take up most of the space of the longs

Covered with capillaries to exchange gasses with blood.

Other important structures

» _____________________________________________

• ____________________in the skull bones

• Act as _________________________________ for speech and produce ____________________

• Sinusitis = inflammation of sinus membranes

________________________________________________

• __________________________________________________________

• Fluid-filled space __________________________ as lungs expand and contract

• Tightly bound to thorax wall, which is essential to breathing b/c it allows the lungs to expand and contract with muscular movement.

Making connections

» What structures in the respiratory system help with disease prevention? Are those structures specific or non-specific defenses?

» Name some similarities between the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

Inspiration and Expiration

» Inspiration

• ______________________________________________, ___________________ the chest cavity and the lung capacity.

• Causes a ____________________________________ within the lungs.

• Air rushes into the lungs.

» Expiration

• ________________________________________________, ___________________ the chest cavity and the lung capacity.

• Causes an _________________________________ in pressure within the lungs.

• Air rushes into the lungs.

Exhalation is normally passive (we just relax muscles, we do not contract any), but we CAN actively exhale and do after exercise.

How does the process of breathing help the cardiovascular system?

Regulation of breathing

Normally, which is the primary control of breathing – O2 levels or CO2 levels?

How is breathing regulation similar to and different from heart beat regulation?

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

» 3rd or 4th leading cause of death (after heart disease and cancer, about tied with stroke)

» Inability of air to get to capillaries of lungs

» Two major diseases associated with COPD

» ________________________________ _____________________________________________

» _____________________________________________________________________________

» Breathing rate is controlled by respiratory centers in the __________ and _____________.

» There is a ‘normal’ rate of inspiration (12 -15 breaths / min) maintained by self-exciting cells

» Many sensory inputs act to increase or decrease this normal

» Low O2 ↑

» High CO2 ↑

» Low blood pH ↑

» Irritants/stretch ↑

» High body temp ↑

» Emotions ↑↓

» Volition ↑↓

How does each disease reduce gas exchange?

COPD is strongly associated with smoking, but it can also be caused by air pollution

Digestive System

Functions

1. _____________________________ (intake of food)

2. _____________________________ (physical and chemical break down of food)

3. ______________________________ (passage of chemicals into blood or lymph)

4. _______________________________ (elimination of indigestible substances as feces)

COPD is also characterized by high CO2 levels – so high, that overtime,

the body starts to ignore that information and focus on O2 levels

Structures

Divided into:

• _____________________________________________________________• Mouth• Pharynx• Esophagus• Stomach• Small intestine • Large intestine• Rectum

• _______________________________________________________________• Teeth• Tongue• Gallbladder• Salivary glands• Pancreas• liver

Digestive Organ Functions

1. ________________________________________

• ______________________ mechanically digest food• _________________________

• cleans mouth (contains many antimicrobial chemicals) • chemically digests food (the enzyme amylase breaks down starch into sugar)

• ______________________ repositions food and helps form a __________________that can be swallowed

2. __________________________________-

• Passage for food, water, and air

3. _________________________________________

• Passage to stomach for food and water only

• ____________________________________________ is composed of muscles at the lower end of espophagus that prevent stomach contents and acids from traveling back up the esophagus.

Food is moved through the GI tract by __________________________ – ______________________________ & __________________________________ in the walls of the GI tract

4. _____________________________

• _____________________________________ food by churning and mixing it, to form ____________________.

• _________________________________ food by releasing extremely acidic gastric juice which contains HCl and proteases, such as pepsin, that __________________________________ into amino acids

• _________________________________________ (alcohol, aspirin, other drugs)

5. ____________________________________

• ___________________________is completed here

Sm. intestine produces _____________________________, which is alkaline and contains some digestive enzymes

____________________ is produced by the liver, stored by the gall bladder, and is dumped into the small intestine. It digests fats.

Pancreas releases _________________________________into the small intestine. Include proteases, lipases, amylase, and nucleases.

• ________________________________________

Digested carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins, electrolytes, and some water absorbed

6. _______________________________________________________

• Absorption of water, electrolytes, and some vitamins

• Everything not absorbed is expelled by rectum as feces

Absorption

Absorption occurs when nutrients pass out of the alimentary canal and into the blood capillaries (water-soluble nutrients) or lymph lacteal (fat-soluble nutrients).

Some nutrients are absorbed through diffusion, but many require active transport.

The small intestine has many adaptations for absorption:

• Enormous surface area due to: long length (20 ft), folds, and numerous villi & microvilli• SLOOOW movement of chyme (3-6 hours)

Review

What is digestion, and in which structures does it occur?

How does the process of digestion differ for different foods?

What is absorption, and in which structures does it occur?

Urinary System

Function

» The urinary system produces ______________________. The production of urine has three main functions:

1) ___________________________________ products of metabolism, especially urea

2) _____________________________ – control of the water, salt, and acid-base balance of the body

3) _______________________________________

» Other functions

1) _______________________________________ through production of enzyme ___________

2) Stimulation of _________________________________________ of hormone ________________

3) Conversion of ________________________ to active form

Organs of the Urinary System Kidney Structure

» Urine is produced in the ____________________ by the ____________________. The nephrons are the functional unit of the kidney.

» Urine is concentrated in the ________________________

» Urine collects in the __________________, then flows into the __________________ then to the ___________________.

Nephron Structure

» A nephron consists of 4 main parts:

˃ Bowman’s capsule˃ Proximal convoluted tubule˃ Loop of Henle˃ Distal convoluted tubule

Each nephron empties into a collecting duct

Capillaries twine all around the nephron … why?

Most nephrons are entirely within the cortex; some have loops of Henle that extend into the medulla

Nephrons and Urine Formation

There are three steps to urine formation

» ____________________________________

» ____________________________________

» _____________________________________

Filtration

» Blood from the ________________________________________________________________ due to extremely ________________________ in capillaries

» Filtration is based on _________________ only. Small items (everything in blood ________________________ ___________________________) enter the Bowman’s capsule.

The tubules of the nephron contain _____________ – the urine that is in process of being formed.

» Passive process

Reabsorption

Secretion

» ____________________ of unwanted materials from capillaries to filtrate

» Useful for larger molecules (some _____________ and ______________) and for regulation of ______________

» Occurs in convoluted tubules (esp. distal)

Loop of Henle

Ascending loop of Henle

» Reabsorption of important molecules (________________________________________) from tubules to capillaries

» Some reabsorption is passive, but most relies on ______________________________________

» Different materials are reabsorbed in different sections (see diagram)

» Responsible for most of the _____________ and some ___________ _______________________________

» Uses a _____________________________________________ by having the fluid flow in opposite direction, the exchange of materials can be maximized or minimized

» The loop dips into increasingly salty medulla to extract as much water as possible from the filtrate

Descending loop of Henle

» Descending loop is permeable to water, but impermeable to salt

» So, water passively diffuses from the loop of Henle into the interstitial fluid (and then into the peritubular capillaries)

» Ascending loop is impermeable to water, but permeable to salt

» So, water CANNOT re-enter the tubules, despite the fact that the filtrate is now more concentrated then the interstitial fluid

» NaCl first moves passively out of the loop, then is actively transported out. This both retains our salts and creates the salty medulla environment

Collecting Duct Osmoregulation

» The reabsorption of water in the collecting duct is controlled by hormones.

» If blood solute concentration is _______________________, the pituitary releases _______________________ ______________________________ which opens ______________________ in the collecting duct, making it __________________________ to water.

» If blood solute concentration is _______________________, aquaporins are closed, making the duct ______________________________to water

» If you are dehydrated, will you produce ADH?

» If you produce ADH, will you produce a lot of urine, or a little urine?

Label as with / without ADH

Think, Pair Share – Explain these values

Reproductive System

Male reproductive system functions

• Testes –

• _____________________________________________________________________

• _____________________________________________

Testosterone

• Causes development of reproductive organs and ________________________________________ (increased hair growth, thickening of bones, deepening of bones, and enlargement of muscles)

• Responsible for sex drive

• Supports sperm formation

• epididymis –

• Storage and final ___________________________________ for sperm

• _________________ during ejaculation to push sperm into ductus deferens

• Ductus deferens carries sperm to _________________________. The ejaculatory duct then joins the _____________.

• The accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethal gland) produce most of the fluid that makes up semen.

• ___________________________ – produce fluid that nourishes and activates sperm

• _______________________________ – produces fluid that activates sperm

• ___________________________ – produces fluid before ejaculation that reduces acidity of urethra and acts as lubricant for sexual intercourse

• The scrotum contains the testes and helps maintain optimal temperatures for sperm production by hanging loosely (at high temps) or wrinkling up (at low temps).

• Erection occurs when the erectile tissue of the penis fills with blood, making the penis larger and rigid.

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System Functions

• Ovaries

• Produce ___________________(eggs)

• Produces _________________________• develop female sexual characteristics• Establish menstrual cycle and supports growth of endometrium

• Produces ______________________• Establishes menstrual cycle• Supports pregnancy and milk production

• Uterus

• Receives & nourishes fertilized eggs to support pregnancy

• Normally size of pear

• __________________________ is inner lining. This builds up every month in order to allow implantation of fertilized egg, but sloughs off (menstruation) if zygote does not successfully implant and grow.

• __________________________is muscular wall.

• ______________________is the opening; prevents premature birth. Opens fully to 10 cm diameter during earliest stages of labor

Menstrual Cycle

• Day 0 is first day of menses

• Normal cycle varies from 22-34 days

• No matter what cycle length, ovulation occurs ~14 days prior to menstruation

Human Development

Week 0 – Start of Menstruation & Follicle development• Pregnancy is always backdated to the start of menstruation • At this point in time, several _________________ will start to develop.

Week 2: Fertilization

• After ovulation, the egg travels to the fallopian tube, where it remains viable for 24 hours.

• Sperm travel up the vagina, through the cervix, through the uterus, and into the fallopian tubes to meet the egg.

• Sperm are attracted to chemicals released by the egg

• Many sperm surround the egg, and attempt to penetrate the oocyte. Fertilization occurs when one sperm penetrates the egg to form a fertilized egg, or ________________.

Week 3: Cleavage and Differentiation

It takes about 3 days for the zygote to reach the uterus

During this time, the zygote divides (cleaves) many, many times, forming a hollow ball of undifferentiated cells called a _____________________.

The blastula releases _________________________________ (hCG) which tells the woman’s body to maintain the endometrial lining.

During gastrulation, the cells begin to ___________________________: some layers will give rise to different body systems in the embryo, other layers will form the placenta and umbilical cord.

Week 4: ImplantationThe blastula starts to __________________________________________ around week 3, and this process is completed in week 4.

One endometrial tissue has completely grown over the embryo, it is said to be ______________________________.

By week four, the blastula has a begun to develop a ___________________________________ that exchanges nutrients, oxygen, and wastes with mother’s blood supply

Weeks 5-8: Embryonic DevelopmentThe _________________________________ period is the most sensitive time of development. Toxins, disease, drugs can damage the embryo.

All body systems are –more or less – formed by 8 weeks gestation.Heart is beating since week 6

Weeks 10+ Fetal DevelopmentA baby is a ________________ from 10 weeks gestation until birth.During this time the organ systems continue to grow and mature.Last systems to mature are nervous and respiratory. A baby born prematurely may need respiratory therapy (e.g. oxygen) and a feeding tube (because the premature babies can’t coordinate breathing with sucking and swallowing).

Childbirth Hormones• In the days leading up to childbirth, ____________________________ levels fall and

________________________ levels rise. • Two other hormones are also produced: ________________________ and

__________________________. more _________________________________, and ___________________________________

True labor begins when contractions become regular and increase in intensity. Starts a positive feedback loop _________________________ ____________________________ contractions oxytocin release

Stages of Labor1) __________________________________

Contractions push baby’s head against cervix and also pull on the cervix, causing it to soften and open up to 10 cm. Longest lasting stage 6 – 12 hours ++ Rupture of amniotic sac (breaking the water) occurs at during this stage

2) ________________________________________ Woman actively pushes the baby out Lasts 30 min – 2 hours Head comes out first

3) ______________________________ ~15 minutes after the baby is born, the

placenta is expelled.