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Work in the 21st CenturyChapter 12

Leadership

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Module 12.1: The Concept of Leadership

• Conceptual Distinctions

Leadership effectivenessVS.

Leader emergence

• Research indicates that emotional stability, extraversion, openness, & conscientiousness “+” correlated with leader emergence

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Problem of Defining Leadership Outcomes

• Leadership has been variously credited with many different achievements

• Problem in choosing which outcome to examine & which time frame to consider

• There is typically lag time between actions by a leader & outcomes of those actions

Figure 12.1: Toxic Triangle of Destructive Leadership

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SOURCE: Padilla et al. (2007)

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Leader vs. Manager or Supervisor

• Leader– Individual in group given task of

directing task-relevant group activities or, in absence of designated leader, carries primary responsibility for performing these functions

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Leader vs. Manager or Supervisor (cont’d)

• Attempts at leadership– Attempted leadership– Successful leadership– Effective leadership

• Manager or supervisor deals with what is to be done

• Leadership deals with how it is to be done

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Blending of Managerial & Leadership Roles

• Leadership previously seen as “icing on the cake” in managers

• Modern approaches blend many managerial duties with expectations of what represents effective leadership

• Borman & Brush’s taxonomy of managerial performance requirements– Connection b/w leadership & mgmt. very clear

Table 12.1: Areas ofManagerial Responsibility

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KSAOs of Managerial Levels

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Figure 12.2SOURCE: Mumford et al. (2007)

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Leader Development vs.Leadership Development

• Leader development– Develops, maintains, & enhances individual

leader attributes

• Leadership development– Concentrates on leader-follower development– Leadership as social exchange– Interpersonal competence

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Motivation to Lead

• Power motive• Exercise of control over others or environment is

pleasing• Activity inhibition

• Describes person who is not impulsive• Affiliation need

• Need for approval or connections with others

• Those with leadership aspirations tend to have high power motive + high activity inhibition + low affiliation needs

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Motivation to Lead (cont’d)

• Motives to lead– Affective-identity → Desire for control– Instrumental → Personal benefits– Social-normative → Duty to lead

• Bottom line: There are multiple motivations to lead besides the need for power & control

Table 12.2:Motives to Lead

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Module 12.2: Traditional Theories of Leadership

• “Great Man” theories– Life of respected leader examined for clues

leading to his/her greatness– Often focused on a galvanizing experience or

admirable trait– Tend to be of little value from the perspective

of I-O psychology

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Trait Approach

• Prevalent in 1920s & 1930s• Attempted to show that leaders possess

certain characteristics that non-leaders do not• No consistent relationships between traits &

leader effectiveness were found

Table 12.3: Some Characteristics of Leaders that Have Been Studied

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“Power” Approach

• Examines types of power wielded by leaders

• Reward power• Coercive power• Legitimate power• Referent power• Expert power

• Very practical in orientationEmma Lee/Life File/Getty Images

Guidelines on Buildingand Using Power

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Behavioral Approach Ohio State University studies

• Behavioral approach• Focused on kinds of behavior engaged in by people

in leadership roles

• 2 major types of behavior• Consideration• Initiating structure

– Represented a leap forward

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Behavioral Approach University of Michigan studies

• Focused more on dynamics of how leaders & groups interacted

• Task-oriented behavior– Similar to initiating structure

• Relations-oriented behavior– Similar to consideration

• Participative behavior

• Represented another step forward in leadership research

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Contingency Approach

• Proposed to take into account the role of the situation in the exercise of leadership

• Hersey & Blanchard’s situational theory– Proposed leadership depended in part on

maturity of subordinate• Job maturity• Psychological maturity

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Consequences of Participation: Vroom-Yetton Model

• Decision rules regarding participation– Assumes that one of most important

duties of leader is to make decisions– Suggests way to choose a decision-

making strategy– Implication that group decision-making is

not always appropriate

Guidelines forParticipative Leadership

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Module 12.3:New Approaches to Leadership

• Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory– Leaders adopt different behaviors with

individual subordinates– In-group members vs. out-group members– Recent revisions describe “life-cycle” of a

leader-follower relationship

C Squared Studios/Getty Images

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Transformational Leadership (Burns)

• Behavior of inspirational political leaders who transform followers by appealing to nobler motives (MLK Jr. & Gandhi)

• 4 general strategies– Inspirational motivation– Idealized influence

– Intellectual stimulation– Individualized consideration

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Transformational Leadership (Bass)

• Bass perceived transformational leadership as building upon transactional leadership in a hierarchy reflecting effectiveness– “Full-range” theory of leadership

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Hierarchy of Transformational Leadership

Figure 12.3Hierarchical Nature of Transformational Leadership Source: Based on Bass (1997).

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Transformational Leadership:Guidelines

The Charismatic Leader

• Charisma

– Personal attribute of a leader that hypnotizes followers and compels them to identify with and attempt to emulate the leader

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Charismatic Leader

• Followers are emotionally attached to leader, never question leader’s beliefs or actions, & see themselves as integral to accomplishment of leader’s goal

• Acquire some power from situation

• Charismatic style may work to keep followers weak

Morley/PhotoLink/Getty Images

Charismatic Leadership Theory

• Approach with many different versions of thenotion that charisma is related to leadership; (1) in a crisis situation, followers perceive charismatic characteristics in an individual and accept that person as a leader;

(2) certain leader behaviors (use of innovative strategies) contribute to a charismatic aura

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Module 12.4: Emerging Topics & Challenges in Leadership Research

• Leadership in a changing workplace– Teams/groups– Telecommuting– Temporary workers– Fuzzy boundaries of jobs

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Male & Female Leaders: Are They Different?

• Considerable disagreement among researchers

• Women tend to prefer democratic & participative styles; men favor autocratic styles

• Men tend to be more assertive; women more extraverted

• Women substantially more tender-minded

Ryan McVay/Getty Images

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Male & Female Leaders (cont’d)

• Effect of male- or female-dominated industries on leadership styles– Women in male-dominated industries– Men in female-dominated industries

• More research is necessary on gender & leadership

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Personality & Leadership

• 1 or more Big Five factors appear directly or indirectly in all leadership theories

• Big 5 factors emphasize “bright side” of leadership: Effectiveness

• Predictors for leader failure more likely to be found in measures of psychopathology

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Personality & Leadership (cont’d)

• Meta-analysis on relationship between personality & leader effectiveness in 3 settings– Characteristics positively associated with leader

effectiveness in 3 different environments:Industry Government/Military Student

Emotional stability Emotional stability Emotional stabilityExtraversion Extraversion ExtraversionOpenness to experience Conscientiousness Openness to experience

ConscientiousnessAgreeableness

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Cross-Cultural Leadership Studies

• Global leadership & organizational behavior effectiveness (GLOBE)– Large-scale cross-cultural study of

leadership by 170 social scientists & management researchers in over 60 countries

Table 12.7: Universal and Culture-Specific Aspects of Leadership

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Table 12.8: Examples of Cultural Dimensions Related to Leadership

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Leadership in a Diverse Environment

• Workplace is becoming less white, less native born, less male, & less young– Implications for leader behavior

• Appears that transformational & charismatic leadership are universally valued– Lead to positive performance results & positive

attitude reactions