Workshop Proceedings

Tuesday 26 and Wednesday 27 February, 2013

Kathmandu, Nepal

Developing regional collaboration in river basin management in response to climate

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Summary of Presentations

Dr David Molden Director-General, ICIMOD, Nepal. Official Opening The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is an intergovernmental organisation responsive to eight countries encompassing the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. ICIMOD links science and policy to influence development, including knowledge sharing (e.g. climate adaptation) to improve livelihoods for mountain dwelling people. Trans-boundary issues including water resource management present challenges. Floods and land-slides threaten the well being of many people, and ICIMOD encourages a collaborative approach. For example, a regional program on management of the Koshi river basin involves Nepal, India and China. ICIMOD is partnering with Monash University in this project: Developing regional collaboration in river basin management in response to climate change. Dr Paul McShane Monash Sustainability Institute Monash University, Australia Developing regional collaboration in river basin management in response to climate change. Some two billion people are dependent on water resources from Himalayan-sourced rivers. Changes to monsoonal climate systems will affect flows of major rivers (e.g. Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra) through snow and glacial melts, and changes to regional rainfall patterns. Changes to demography, including population growth, and urbanisation will affect demand for water, particularly in major cities. Changes to land use and the growth in hydroelectric power will also affect water resources in South Asia with consequences for agriculture and for ecosystem services (e.g. water quality, biodiversity). The Monash Sustainability Institute (MSI) is interested in the link between research and policy, particularly in the context of climate change and regional co-operation. Policies applicable to water resource management must take into account biophysical issues such as those above and also the socio-economic issues which influence a political response to water resource allocation. What is the best use of water under circumstances of increasing scarcity? We use two approaches to link research and policy:

• systemic models which link biophysical and socio-economic variables to examine the consequences of various policy interventions and/or climate change (see Dr Chan’s presentation, this workshop).

• knowledge management which examines the way information is collected and shared (including traditional wisdom at community level) to inform and influence policy (see Dr Aaron’s presentation, this workshop).

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Challenges facing South Asia, in the context of climatic and demographic influences on Himalayan-sourced rivers include:

• the development of regional climate models for improved rainfall prediction at river basin scales; • the identification of mutual benefits to encourage a co-operative approach to river basin

management among states; • explicit valuation mechanisms for ecosystem services to account for water resource allocation and; • legal and regulatory frameworks responsive to the above.

Dr Mandira Shrestha ICIMOD, Nepal Regional water issues in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. ICIMOD has a number of regional programs that embrace four thematic areas (livelihoods, ecosystem services, water and atmosphere and geospatial solutions. Regional programs include: adaptation to change, transboundary landscapes, river basin management, cryosphere and atmosphere, mountain environment regional information systems and a Himalayan University consortium. The water resources of the Hindu Kush Himalayan region are influenced by climate change including glacial/snow melts and changes to regional rainfall. Catchments in the eastern Himalayas are less likely to be susceptible to the impacts of deglaciation compared with the west. There is much regional variation among states responsive to Himalayan-sourced rivers. Pakistan has the lowest per-capita water availability in Asia. India is the world’s largest consumer of ground water. Bangladesh is the South Asian state most vulnerable to water insecurity. Bhutan and Nepal have rich water resources but high spatial variation in availability. Afghanistan is arid mountainous and has poor water infrastructure. The rapid retreat of glaciers in the last 30-40 years has increased the frequency of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) with severe consequences. Vulnerability to floods crosses state borders. Yet there is a lack of exchange of real time data among states. There is rising conflicts due to competitive demands of upstream/downstream communities for multiple uses (e.g. hydropower, irrigation). There are obvious opportunities for regional co-operation e.g. in flood risk reduction. The establishment of a regional flood information system in the Hindu Kush region, including the timely exchange of flood data and information through an accessible and user-friendly platform, is one opportunity. Challenges include the lack of a regional river basin approach for integrated water resource management. There is a need for capacity building at institutional level responsive to integrated water resource management. Dr Douglas Hill University of Otago, New Zealand Management of trans-boundary issues in water resource management given likely change, cultural influences, and policy challenges associated with poverty reduction, energy demand, and demography. The Hindu Kush Himalayan region supports a complex mix of different agro-ecological conditions, global biodiversity hotspots, a diversity of cultures, varying levels of human development, fast growing economies and intractable poverty. Trans-boundary issues in water resource management reflect ad hoc regulatory structures and the fragmented nature of regional co-operation.

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Increasing water vulnerability and water stress will affect many in the region through consequences for agriculture, food security and poverty. Environmental degradation and expanding biotic and abiotic stresses will also impact on society and on regional economies. Continuing stratification in society (e.g. gender, caste) intersect with demographic changes (population growth and urbanisation) to create additional challenges for policy makers. At local scales, adaptation to change (climate, water availability) is required. This will include diversification of livelihoods, migration, and supporting local adaptive capacity. Large scale damming of rivers (mainly for hydro-power) introduce potential regional conflicts in water resource management. This can be beneficial (e.g. India providing economic support to Bhutan) or non-beneficial (e.g. water scarcity in Bangladesh following the construction of the Farakka Barrage. A regional approach, including emerging powers such as China, is required. However, trust and politics frustrate attempts to develop a co-operative approach to water resource management and adaptation to climate change in the Hindu Kush Himalayas. Dr Nasreen Islam Khan Climate Change Institute and Fenner School of Environment and Society Australian National University, Australia Working towards improving resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region (Bangladesh, China, India, and Nepal). The Climate Change Institute of the Australian National University has a current project to develop a climate adaptation toolkit for use in countries dependent on Himalayan-sourced rivers (particularly China, India, Bangladesh and Nepal). Work so far has assessed and documented the current research status, identified knowledge gaps and developed a mechanism for knowledge sharing in the region. Participatory approaches are used to identify risks, vulnerabilities and opportunities of climate change impacts on small downstream communities in Bangladesh and upstream communities in India and Nepal. Collaboration with key regional institutions (including policy makers and Universities) is an important component of the project. An expected outcome is greater understanding by policy makers of the level of risk and vulnerability to climate change impacts at the local level based on good scientific analysis.

Dr Shresth Tayal, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), India Cryospheric influences on regional river flows: regional cooperation for mutual benefits. The major rivers sourced from the Himalayas traverse national boundaries: the Indus (India/Pakistan); Ganges (Nepal/India/Bangladesh); Brahmaputra (China/India/Bangladesh). There is significant variation among these rivers in the amount of melt water (glacial/snow): Indus 44 per cent, Ganges 9 per cent, Brahmaputra 12 per cent.

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India has nearly 10,000 glaciers but, of these, most (94%) are less than 5 km in length. 3 per cent of these glaciers are larger than 10 km2. Glaciers (number, area, and length) are most important for the Indus system. The Ganges has a number of sub-basins (the Yamuna, Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, and Ghaghara basins). The Ganges also receives rivers sourced in Nepal including the Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali, and Mahakali rivers. Most of the area and volume of the Ganges river system (> 65%) is sourced in Nepal. Climate change will influence glacial melts in the Himalayas. Glacier research includes monitoring of meteorology, glaciology and hydrology to estimate run off to river systems. This requires regional co-operation including knowledge sharing. Fundamental questions in relation to climate change include:

• what is the spatial and temporal contribution of melt water to river runoff in the region? • what is the impact of climate change on glacial melting? • what is the impact of melt-water variability on local livelihoods?

Ms Amina Khan Mahbub Ul Haq Centre Lahore University of Management Sciences, Pakistan Towards an institutional framework for collaborative river basin management in the Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (IGBM) Basin. The river systems of the Himalayan region can be divided into three sub regions: Western, Central and Eastern. These subregions transcend national boundaries and introduce issues relating to water sharing. Climate change has introduced uncertainty in water resource management particularly as it is difficult to forecast regional water availability. Further to this is the prospect of increased frequency and severity of natural disasters including floods, and droughts. Water scarcity or exposure to floods can cause mass migration which must be managed by the host country (or state). Drivers of co-operation (among states) include adherence to international laws or conventions (e.g. use of international water courses); river basin organisations (e.g. Indus River Commission), and economic interdependence. Drivers of conflict include: population growth, water scarcity, environmental degradation, hydroelectric dams, political distrust, territorial disputes, asymmetric power relationships, lack of effective water sharing among riparian states, and lack of data/information sharing among riparian states. Major dams disrupt water flow, affect water quality and contribute to the acceleration of environmental degradation with social and economic impact. The Indus River basin is the most important yet heavily degraded river system in Pakistan. The Government of Pakistan is planning to build five more river development projects by 2016 that would further degrade the Indus basin: the Diamer-Bhasha, Kalabagh, Munda, Akhori, and Kurram Tangi dams. Within Pakistan the Indus River System Agency (IRSA) is involved in the resolution of intra provincial water sharing and environmental management issues but much more work is required for effective resolution. Effective stakeholder engagement is necessary to address effective trans-boundary management of river basins. Applying an appropriate legal framework promotes efficient management and helps avoid or settle conflicts between competing water users and their interests. Extant water treaties exist governing water sharing among countries (e.g. India/Pakistan; India/Bangladesh; India/Nepal), yet continuing tensions undermine their effectiveness.

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Integrated water resource management: a process that promotes the co-ordinated development and management of land, water and related resources, is widely accepted as the most sustainable, efficient and equitable approach to river basin management. Benefit sharing enables a basin-wide planning perspective which not only allows better management of the resource but provides far greater scope for indentifying co-operative management arrangements that are acceptable to all parties. Dr Arun B. Shrestha ICIMOD, Nepal Overview of River Basin Program in the new strategy of ICIMOD. ICIMOD links strategic thematic areas (livelihoods, ecosystem services, water and air, geospatial solutions) to regional programs in the Hindu Kush Himalayas. Himalayan-sourced rivers provide services to about 1.3 billion people. The Himalayas contain the largest reserve of snow and ice outside the polar regions. Modifications to monsoonal climate patterns will affect moisture transfer including both accretion and loss of glacial ice. Records at high elevation stations reveal greater rates of warming than in lower stations. These changes will affect water availability in major river systems: already water scarcity is a serious problem in South Asia. Planning and management of water resources is best undertaken at river basin scales. Improved river basin management will reduce physical vulnerabilities (e.g. to floods) and improve food and energy security for mountain and downstream communities. ICIMOD’s regional programs aim to develop and apply methodologies for regional flood and drought information collection and sharing through a framework for regional co-operation. Preparation of gender sensitive water-induced risk assessment recognises the challenge and capacity gaps faced by women in particular given climate change impacts. For example, the current program in the Koshi river basin addresses poverty reduction through evidence-based decision making and basin wide co-operation (China, India, Nepal). ICIMOD’s Indus Basin initiative examines vulnerability of upper basin communities to climate induced hazards (particularly on livelihoods). Changes in the hydrology of the upper Indus Basin will affect agriculture and socio-economic conditions in downstream communities. Dr Terry Chan Monash Sustainability Institute Monash University, Australia Systemic modelling for exploration of climate change and policy options for integrated river basin management. Systemic modelling of river basins incorporates a risk based approach and encourages stakeholder involvement through a participatory process. Models help stakeholders understand complex systems. They can incorporate uncertainty and they can assist in management and policy development through improving understanding of system responses e.g. a river basin to climate change. Our approach to systemic modelling takes a Bayesian network approach. This approach examines the relationship between functional variable in a system (e.g. river flow, water availability, water quality). Examination of bio-physical relationships (e.g. rainfall, run off, hydrology) can assist in evaluating socio-economic consequences (e.g. agriculture, crop yield, social impact).

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Examples of river basins currently under evaluation (Indonesia, South Pacific, Vietnam) show how management can be evaluated against processes affecting river basins and important consequences (e.g. water for human well being) through causal chains. We plan to apply this approach in examining river basins in South Asia particularly those responsive to changes in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. In this way research and policy are linked in evaluating the consequences of alternative policy intervention and of climate change. Dr Jeremy Aarons Monash Sustainability Institute and Knowledge Management Research Program Caulfield School of Information Technology Monash University, Australia Knowledge management for collaborative participation in natural resource management in response to climate change. Knowledge management is the systematic collection and sharing of information to inform policy and to improve understanding among stakeholders and decision makers who influence policy and management decisions. Modern technology has brought huge advances in data, information, and knowledge. This is held in diverse forms (e.g. data, reports, expert knowledge) and by multiple parties (agencies, organisations, individuals). Different stakeholders have different belief systems and there may be conflicts in values, goals and other influences on understanding (e.g. of natural resource management policy). Increasingly, communities are becoming more involved in knowledge sharing: local knowledge and traditional wisdom is important in natural resource management. Knowledge management promotes a shared understanding among stakeholders as this is important in, for example, collaborative approaches to integrated river basin management. This involves both social and technical issues. Social issues include cultural, political, religious, and linguistic differences. Education and research capability also influence societal understanding of extant issues. Technical issues include data management systems, ICT infrastructure, organisational design, and knowledge gaps/uncertainty. Monash’s task-based approach to knowledge management brings structural dimensions (e.g. technology infrastructure) and functional dimensions (learning, sense making, systemic modelling). This involves a three-step approach:

• problem identification, goals, tasks (e.g. river basin management)

• description of systems model of task activities (e.g. policy setting, institutional issues, stakeholder engagement, information sharing, priority setting).

• identification of tools and techniques to support tasks (e.g. incorporation of local knowledge, knowledge sharing, decision support tools).

Knowledge brokering transfers knowledge from source to user and involves collaboration among stakeholders involved in knowledge management e.g. for collaborative river basin management.

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This ultimately involves strategic collaboration, institutional strengthening, and behaviour change responsive to the task (e.g. integrated river basin management). Dr Shahriar Wahid ICIMOD, Nepal Management of the Koshi River Basin. The Koshi River Basin presents an example of balancing water, energy, and food security. Agriculture is the main use of water (1 tomato uses 180 ltrs. of water). The generation of energy (e.g. coal, nuclear) is water intensive. In energy hungry India, most proposed new power plants are situated in water scarce areas. Production of biofuels places further demands on increasingly scarce water resources. Water resource allocation is therefore increasingly in conflict among energy and food sectors. Responsive institutions, industries and markets are often disconnected. The Koshi river basin, which is situated in China, Nepal and India, exemplifies an opportunity to develop equitable and integrated water resource allocations strategies. Agriculture development is dependent on irrigation, improved productivity, and access to markets. Climate change will also affect water use and agriculture with concomitant effect on livelihoods. Current issues in this context include land use/change; household economics, and agricultural production practices. ICIMOD is developing an evidence-based decision support tool to assist in local community adaptation to climate change and to changes in land use. This template may be used for application in other river systems pending evaluation of the Koshi basin. Traditional knowledge is important. The current program aims to: reunite (stakeholders): reinforce (basin wide resource use); rewire (information systems); rebrand (food and energy security linked to water) and redesign (institutional arrangements responsive to water resource management). G.K. Chhopel National Environment Commission, Bhutan Developing regional collaboration for collaborative river basin management in response to climate change. In contrast to other countries in the region, Bhutan has a relatively small population (0.7 million) and abundant water resources. There is a high level commitment to resource conservation with a constitutional requirement for at least 60 per cent forest cover. There are 10 protected areas representing different ecosystems. These occupy half the country. However, Bhutan is a land-locked country with a fragile mountainous ecosystem vulnerable to climate change. Rapid melting of glaciers can trigger GLOFs with severe consequences for local communities. There are four principal river systems in Bhutan: the Amochhu, Wangchhu, Punatsangchhu, and Manas. Bhutan has unique biodiversity supported by good water quality in its riverine ecosystems. Storage systems which collect water during the wet season for use during the dry are increasingly being used in Bhutan. Multipurpose dams that incorporate hydroelectricity generation are suitable for southern regions. These also function in flood control and in irrigation. Greater efficiency in water resource utilisation can be gained from improvements in water conveyance and use of drip irrigation for fruit and vegetables. The mountainous terrain makes pumping difficult. Climate change adaptation includes the use of crops with lower water demand or higher drought resistance. There is a need for capacity building at local level to equip farmers to adapt to a changing climate. A new Water Act in Bhutan (2011) enshrines water conservation, water quality, and equitable resource allocation in legislation.

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A requirement for a 30 mtr. buffer zone (forested) assists with maintenance of water quality as does a requirement for minimum water flow. A national approach to water resource management reflects stakeholder engagement and a commitment to restore polluted or depleted water bodies. Water regulations support the provisions of the Water Act by assigning costs among users and operators of water services by means of a system of fees, charges, and fines. River basin management plans are being developed for the four main river systems. Mr Ch. Mushtaq Ahmad and Mr Ashraf Abid Water and Power Development Authority, Pakistan Management of rivers of Pakistan under climate change scenario. Pakistan is a country of some 180 million people with one of the world’s lowest per capita water availability. Most of the land area is dedicated to agriculture with wheat the main crop (23 million tonnes annually) followed by rice (5 million tonnes) and maize (3 million tonnes). Agriculture depends on water from the Indus River and its tributaries, as Pakistan is generally arid with substantial desert areas. More than 70 rivers and hundreds of streams join the Indus river. There are six major tributaries: Sutlej, Bias, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum and Kabul. All of these rivers except the Kabul originate in India. The Kabul river has its origin in Chitral Pakistan, enters Afghanistan before re-entering Pakistan near Warsak. Under the Indus Water Treaty (1960) between Pakistan and India, the Indus river system was divided into two systems:

• Eastern rivers (controlled by India): Ravi, Sutlej and Bias. • Western rivers (controlled by Pakistan): Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.

The Indus river system derives much of its water from snow and glacial melts. Surface waters are utilised through:

• 3 major reservoirs; • 19 barrages/headworks; • 12 link canals; • 46 irrigation canals; • 100,000 small irrigation channels/water courses.

With this, the Indus river basin supports the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world. River basin management focuses on soil and water conservation. Regulation of river flows, principally through dam construction and operation is a major focus. Dams can assist in reduction of bank erosion, flood control and allocation/distribution of water in rivers. However, Pakistan must cope with extremes of water availability (floods and droughts). High sediment loads can exacerbate flood and decrease water quality. Climate change and dam construction (India) will affect water availability in Pakistan. Shifting of monsoonal circulation from central Pakistan to the north will affect rainfall by intersecting with westerly low pressure systems prompting heavy precipitation. Elevated temperatures (with climate change) will increase demand for water (as will continued growth in human population) and reduce supply (through evaporation). This adds to Pakistan’s existing water scarcity problem.

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Dr Gautam Rajkarnikar Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Nepal Flood information system in Nepal. Floods are increasingly prevalent in Nepal arising from intensive rainfall events and GLOFs. A network of hydrometric stations provides for forecasting of flood events. Data transmission systems linked to Internet-based retrieval assists in improving reliability and timeliness of flood forecasting. The flood information system in Nepal is designed to provide an early warning system for all major flood-prone rivers. This is co-ordinated with national, regional, and international organisations involved in disaster risk management. Importantly, community engagement is embedded via local radio stations, district policy offices, and local community organisations. Professor Shaikh Abdus Salam and Ms Saadlee Shehreen University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. River Management in Bangladesh: impact on environment and climate change. There are 309 rivers in Bangladesh, 57 of which are shared with India or Myanmar. Floods are common during the wet season with Indian-sourced rivers (Padma, Meghna and the Jamuna) overflowing in Bangladesh. Climate change introduces other problems including saline intrusion and soil degradation. In the dry season, navigation on rivers becomes difficult. A combination of erosion and sedimentation in rivers and flood plains causes uplifting of the river bed. Reduction of river flows caused by dams results in decreased water quality (e.g. increased salinity). The disruption of flows from the Ganges caused by the Farakka barrage could be accentuated by proposed river linking in India. Present salinity levels, particularly in coastal regions, exceed the tolerance of many crop species. This frustrates poverty reduction strategies given that agriculture is a major source of economic and social well being for Bangladeshi people. Co-operative and collaborative river basin management is required to address environmental degradation through improved water flows and water sharing strategies.

Dr Pradeep Mool, Cryosphere Initiative, ICIMOD, Nepal Cryosphere monitoring in the Hindu Kush Himalayas. Most of the Himalayan glaciers (~75%) are retreating. However, there are substantial regional differences in climate in the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH). The orographic influence of the Himalayas on monsoonal circulation patterns contributes to this regional variation in climate. Yet there are gaps in data/information in the Himalayas: accessibility to high altitude sites is problematic.

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Thus, there is an underrepresentation of meteorological observation in the high Himalayas. As glaciers retreat, glacial lakes form and expand. Many are observed at elevations of about 4,000 mtrs. These can cause GLOFs with severe consequences. At least 56 GLOFs have been recorded in the HKH, with about 10 of them transboundary in nature. Glacial mass balance studies tend to be fragmented, unco-ordinated and generally based on short time series. Improved understanding of cryosphere dynamics will improve flood risk management and water resource management more generally. Crysophere monitoring, initiated by ICIMOD, integrates in situ measurements, remote sensing and modelling to improve knowledge and management of glaciers and snow melts. Links to other organisations, and further capacity building initiatives will provide a basis for a collaborative regional approach to understanding the consequences of climate change on the cryosphere. Professor Narendra Raj Khanal Department of Geography Tribhuvan University, Nepal Flood risk management in trans-boundary rivers of Nepal: issues and challenges. Nepal has a large network of rivers. All are transboundary with some flowing into India and others originating in Tibet. Climate change effects, including relatively high rates of temperature change in high altitudes increase the risk of GLOFs. Landslides and flash floods are also consequences of changes in rainfall patterns. These natural disasters have severe economic and social consequences. More than 29 areas of Nepal have been inundated following construction of earthen embankments, gates, and barrages which restrict water flow and increase the risk of flooding. Joint initiatives for flood control (India and Nepal) aim to address flood risk and adopt co-operative management strategies. Droughts are also problematic in Nepal with declining rainfall in some regions (e.g. Panchkhal). Nepal’s National Water Resources Strategy (2002) and the National Water Plan (2005) have adopted integrated water resource management (IWRM). Recently drafted national water resources policy has also emphasised IWRM based on river basin management. Objectives include conservation of water resources and flood risk management. Plans for two sub-basins: Dudhkoshi and Indrawati in the Koshi River Basin have been prepared. However, opportunities for improved regional co-operation, including transboundary management of river basins exist. There is a need for strengthened institutional capacity in IWRM, sharing of hydrological data and improved forecasting of climate change impacts (downscaled to river basins). Professor Hari K. Shrestha Nepal Engineering College, Nepal Sand mining: as an adaptation measure to climate change induced disaster in Chitwan district of Nepal. Chitwan is a southern district of Nepal vulnerable to floods. Heavy monsoonal rainfall prompts landslides and sedimentation. This is accentuated by anthropogenic loosening of the soil (tilling of sloped land), over grazing, and development activities without slope stabilisation. Deposition of sediment, debris, in river beds can increase vulnerability to floods including river course diversion. Current adaptation measures include: slop stabilisation, forestation, dams, retaining walls, and side drains in upstream areas. Sand mining is an important economic activity that can assist in reducing sediment (sand) build up in areas vulnerable to floods.

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Positive effects of sand mining include maintenance of river bed elevation and reduced flooding in riparian settlements. There are also socio-economic benefits including employment opportunities for the poor and unskilled. However, sand mining activities are not well managed. Scraping of river beds for sand mining can expose clay and undermine infrastructure (e.g. bridges). Thus, negative impacts of sand mining include river bank erosion, deforestation, land-slides, and environmental degradation. Improved management, including better and practical guidelines, can address these negative impacts to concentrate on the positive benefits of sand mining in Nepal. Dr Dhruba Pant Kathmandu, Nepal Institutional set up for river basin management in Nepal. Water resource development in Nepal is governed by the Water Resources Strategy and the National Water Plan (2005). It aims to encourage the active participation of all stakeholders including the private sector. The Water Resources Act (1992) emphasises poverty alleviation and vests ownership rights (of water) to the government. The Forest Act (1993) seeks to protect the environment. It grants usage rights of forest and forest products to the users and elicits participation by users in resource management. Responsible institutions include: the Ministry of Water Resources, the Ministry of Irrigation, the Ministry of Forest and Watershed management, the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Science and Technology, and the Ministry of Local Development. These institutions and their district equivalents respond to a Basin office (within the Ministry of Science and Technology. Stakeholder participation (in river basin management) includes NGOs. The Forest Act has been effective in creating strong institutions at local level. However, water resources development lacks an overall policy framework and sectoral approach. Mechanisms for water resource allocation (among sectors) are unclear. Co-ordination among districts is generally weak and district water resource committees are not functional. There is a need to establish a co-operative framework to advance regional understanding of shared issues (e.g. climate change, water resource management). This should occur trans-nationally. Luna Bharati and Pabitra Gurung International Water Management Institute Jhamsikhel, Lalitpur, Nepal Climate change and its impact on river basin hydrology. Downscaled general circulation models for climate projections in Nepal have indicated changes to temperature and rainfall associated with climate change. The use of various models and scenarios offer conflicting projections particularly in relation to regional rainfall. This reflects the uncertainty in modelling monsoonal climates in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. Sensitivity analyses including evaluation of socio-economic impacts have been used to establish a vulnerability map indicating climate change impacts. Hydrological modelling using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is used to predict surface runoff and charging rates of aquifers and major rivers. Case studies including the West Seti river sub basin and Koshi basin reveal projected changes in rainfall impacting on river flows. These projections include both positive and negative results for flows. Watershed interventions including afforestation, on farm conservation, infiltration ponds, and improved water storage can reduce vulnerability to climate change.

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Prem Sagar Chapagain and Dr Jagat K. Bhusal Department of Geography, Tribhuvan University, Nepal River basins and water resource management issues, Nepal. The headwater basin Kali Gandaki is located in the trans-Himalayan region of Nepal and represents a vulnerable highland ecosystem. Climate change will affect flows through increases in temperature and changes to rainfall patterns. Snow melt contribution could reach up to 40 per cent of total river flows in the Kali Gandaki river basin. The Water Resource Strategy of Nepal (2002) has set water sector activities for sustainability of the resource, while providing economic growth through water resource development, hazard mitigation, environment protection, and constructive methods of resolving water use conflicts. However, water science and policy are not harmonised. Existing hydropower licensing has not considered integrated water resource management and the two ministries (Ministry of Irrigation, Ministry of Energy) responsible for water and energy lack co-ordination. Population growth and urbanisation along river banks create issues of water quality (e.g. sewerage, waste, pollution). Under Federalism in Nepal, natural resource rights are assumed by the government. Recognition of traditional wisdom including innovation and flexibility of local people (especially farmers) can assist in developing community-based adaptation strategies given likely climate change in Nepal. Discussion Potential for a multilateral approach to river basin management. A Track 2 (professionals, stakeholders) /Track 3 (community) framework offers a powerful community based approach to management. Consortia comprising community and riparian representatives offer realistic scales that embrace state boundaries and a holistic approach to river basin management. Joint studies of combined environmental impact assessment (e.g. of changes to the Brahmaputra basin affected by dams). Third party facilitation of data sharing could address current knowledge management issues frustrating water sharing among states. Water quality affects communities measurable through water-borne diseases with concomitant economic and social impact. Greater use of wet-lands (including artificial wet-lands) can assist in water quality improvement strategies as can targeted community-level education (e.g. of sanitation). The valuation of ecosystem services can assist in the identification of benefit sharing among states. For example the retention of forested catchments can reduce rates of sedimentation and improve water quality in downstream states. Governance, legal, and regulatory frameworks applicable to river basins lack clarity and co-ordination among states. Opportunities for arbitration/resolution of water sharing disputes can be developed (e.g. among provinces in India). Research to identify legal inconsistencies or conflicts is needed. The establishment of a Glacial Monitoring research centre is needed to address data asymmetry in high altitude areas of the Himalayas. This will assist in improved forecasting including flood risk management and improved understanding of glacial dynamics.

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The establishment of a South Asian River Basin Organisation can assist in the encouragement of collaborative and co-operative management of river basins. It should be apolitical but should also engage with policy makers/planners from riparian states. The Organisation could also encourage a standardised approach to research and development (e.g. shared and aligned methodologies/models) and a uniform approach to water resource management policy (e.g. IWRM) among states. The attachment of monetary values to water (including ecosystem services) will assist in transparency in water resource allocation particularly given increasing water scarcity and increasing demand for water (particularly for irrigation/agriculture). Improved water conservation strategies (including more efficient water conveyance/irrigation) can assist in managing scarce water supplies (during the dry season). Three case study basins were chosen to develop regional collaboration: The Teesta, Indus and Koshi river basins. These represent trans-boundary river systems important to the social and economic development of the region. They offer an opportunity to build on existing studies (e.g. the Koshi River project of ICIMOD, Peking University, Tribhuvan University) and include most riparian states in the region (including China).