World War I

I. Setting the Stage for War

• In the decades preceding WWI, nations began to make decisions w/o regard of their neighbors interests

• The conflicting interests and increased rivalry set the stage for war– Militarism, the system of Alliances,

Imperialism, and Nationalism were 4 major factors.

A. Nationalism and Imperialism

• Nations tried to unite, yet the idea of a single govt. controlling many groups had explosive possibilities

• European imperialism came to the brink of war several times as nations tried to partition Africa, Asia, and others

B. Militarism

• The glorification of armed strength

• Dominated the thinking of European leaders

• Nations drafted men to create large armies and mobilized (readied the army/resources for combat)

• Nations responded to others’ mobilization

C. The System of Alliances

• Three Emperors’ League- a secret agreement among the emperors of Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary agreeing to remain neutral if any went to war

• Triple Alliance (1882)- Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy… upsets the Balance of Power– Isolated France

• Reinsurance Treaty- Bismarck makes a new agreement with Russia (1887)– Neutral if involved in a defensive war

• Triple Entente- France, Russia, Great Britain – After William II dismissed Bismarck as chancellor– Recognized each others’ spheres of influence

• The alliances threatened world peace as Europe was divided into two armed camps

D. Assassination at Sarajevo

• June 28, 1914- the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, and his wife were shot and killed while visiting Sarajevo (the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina)

• Austria-Hungary received support of Germany and they offered an ultimatum to Serbia threatening harm if its proposals were rejected

E. War Between Austria-Hungary and Serbia

• Serbia accepted first 3 demands of ultimatum, and would submit the 4th demand to the Hague (International Court)

• Serbia mobilized troops knowing that Austria-Hungary wouldn’t accept this offer

• Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28

F. Mobilization of Europe• Germany supported Austria-Hungary

• Russia prepared to defend Serbia– Sent troops to Austro-Hungarian border and the

German border

• Germany demanded that Russia cancel its mobilization or face war– Ignored and Germany declared war Aug. 1, 1914– Germany declared war on France Aug. 3 b/c of

the belief that France would aid Russia

F. Great Britain Enters the War

• Germany attacked France directly through Belgium which broke an 1839 agreement guaranteeing Belgium neutrality and peace

• British protested and Germany still decided to go through Belgium leading Great Britain to declare war on Germany later that day (Aug. 4, 1914)

Germany invades through Belgium

G. The War Expands

• Japan enters on the side of Britain and France– Hoped to gain German possessions in Pacific

• Italy enters war in 1915 on side of Britain, France, and Japan against its former allies– Believe the Triple Alliance didn’t pertain b/c it was

a defensive alliance

• Ottoman Empire enters on German’s side• Bulgaria enters in 1915 on German’s side

Realize Italy enters war on the side of Britain, France, Russia, and Japan

II. WWI: A New Kind of War

• The soldiers believed this would be a quick, decisive victory, but they were terribly wrong.

• The war lasted for 4 years

A. The Belligerents

• CENTRAL POWERS=

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire

• ALLIED POWERS=

Great Britain, France, Russia, and partners– More soldiers, less geographic unity, more

industrial potential, largest navy– Eventually 32 allied nations

B. Innovations in War

• An Industrial War! Mass Production

• The Machine Gun- rapid fire caused great death totals of infantry– Trenches were dug as protection (Trench Warfare)

• British introduced the tank (armored vehicle)– Could tear through barbed wire and cross enemy

lines

• Airplanes- primarily for observing troop movements– Not fast, but sometimes dropped bombs

• U-Boats- German submarines – Caused extensive losses to British shipping

• Germans introduced poison gas

• All the governments were using Propaganda to stir patriotism– Ideas, facts, or rumors spread deliberately to

further one’s cause or damage the opposing cause

– Portray enemy as brutal and subhuman

C. The War from 1914-1916• French and British troops were able to defend

Paris at the Marne River against German attack in Sept. 1914 (B. of the Marne)– Changed the entire nature of the war– No hope for a swift victory, both sides dig trenches

• Russians launched an attack on the Eastern front to divert German troops from France– Battle of Tannenberg (E. Prussia)– Russians suffered a humiliating defeat and

Germans launch an offensive

1. Fighting on Gallipoli

• British and French wanted to destroy the Ottoman Empire on the Gallipoli Peninsula and move to Constantinople– Hoped to get them out of the war

• Allies abandoned their plan after 8 months of stalemate w/ 100,000’s dead

2. Naval Warfare• British blockade the North Sea to keep

merchants from Germany– Initially of raw materials, eventually starvation

• Germany responded w/ their own blockade– Used U-boats to sink ships going to Britain– Lusitania was sunk killing 1200 passengers

including 100+ Americans• President Wilson warned Germany it would not tolerate

another such incident

May 7, 1915

D. The Stalemate

• By 1916- a stalemate occurred in the west on land and in the sea

• Both sides continued launching attacks costing MANY lives

• War of Attrition- a slow wearing-down process in which each side tries to outlast the other

E. The United States and WWI

• Wilson said the U.S. would be neutral in 1914– Most Americans viewed the war as a European

issue

• The war affected the U.S. through trade of contraband (no war materials could be shipped)– Sinking of Lusitania also very influential

• British Propaganda was influential

• Zimmerman Telegram- German foreign minister sent a telegram to Mexico to draw Mexico into the war on Germany’s side

• Intercepted by British, decoded, and placed in American papers– Enraged Americans– Also, all Central powers were nondemocratic

• April 2, 1917- Wilson addresses Congress– “the world must be made safe for democracy”– Asked for a declaration of war

• April 6,1917- Congress voted to comply with the request and enter WWI

III. The Russian Revolution

• Remember, Revolution of 1905 brought no real changes– The Duma, legislative body, had little power– Czar Nicholas II was a near absolute ruler

• Grave economic problems confronted Russia and they were the least industrialized nation (they were in the process, however)

A. Russia in WWI

• WWI exposed Russian weaknesses– Lacked roads and railroads– Poorly equipped troops w/ bad leaders– Inefficient, corrupt government– Losses were enormous (1.7 million dead)

• Czar Nicholas abdicated in March 1917 after the soldiers joined rioters in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) – Ended the Romanov Dynasty that existed for 300

yrs

B. Lenin and the Bolsheviks

• A liberal provisional govt. was in place until a constitutional assembly could be elected to create a permanent govt.– Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers Deputies

• Mensheviks- socialist group

• Bolsheviks- Radical socialist group

• V.I. Lenin- leader of the Bolsheviks– “Peace, land, and bread”

• Lenin was a Marxist, yet developed his own style due to the small % of industry workers– Formed the basis of what became Communism

• Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional govt. in Nov. 1917… Bolshevik Revolution or

October Revolution (for the month in which it occurred- in the Russian calendar)

• Bolsheviks rename themselves the Communist Party

C. Peace and Civil War

• Provisional govt. kept Russia in the war

• Lenin signed a peace treaty w/ the Central Powers in March 1918– Accepted very harsh terms dictated by Germany

• Turned to internal problems– A Civil War broke out

• Reds (Communists) vs. Whites (Right-wing)

• Lasted from 1918-1921 adding to the devastation of WWI– Allies aided some of the White forces to oppose the

Communists, but the half-hearted efforts failed

• Communists renamed Russia the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union)

III. Americans of WWI• The U.S. was not ready for war directly after

Congress declared war on Germany

• The U.S. needed many more troops and the troops needed training– 16 countries had more army soldiers than the U.S.

• Still, Wilson sent General John Pershing with a small force to Europe in June of 1917

A. Preparing for War

• The U.S. offered supplies, arms, and $3 billion in loans along with 14,500 soldiers

• Pershing wanted to have 1 million troops by 1918

1. Draftees and Volunteers• Congress passed a Selective Service Act

– Authorized a draft of young men for military service (May 1917)

• The feeling that this was the “war to end all wars” led to wide acceptance of the draft– 24 million registered, 3 million were picked to serve

• Volunteers and National Guardsmen made up the remainder of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF)

2. Training for War

• Soldiers were supposed to have several months to train before going to war

• Reality check- almost all the soldiers were sent to war before receiving the full level of training

3. The Convoy System• How does the U.S. get their troops to Europe

past the German U-boats?

• The troop ships traveled in a convoy– A convoy consisted of a group of unarmed ships

surrounded by a ring of destroyers, torpedo boats, and other armed naval vessels equipped with hydrophones to track and destroy submarines

• Extremely successful– Not a single troop ship was sunk on the trip to Fr.

4. American Soldiers in Europe• Pershing kept American troops independent of

the Allied armies– He believed the Allies were too accustomed to

defensive action– He wanted American offensives

• 300,000+ African Americans served in segregated units– Marines refused to accept blacks– Most served menial jobs in the army– The Harlem Hell Fighters were an exception (they

were loaned to the French and fought valiantly)

B. Turning Tide of the War• Russia left the war after the Bolshevik

Revolution (where Lenin took over during the Russian revolution)

• The Germans, no longer fighting on 2 fronts, launched a massive offensive in early 1918 on British and French lines– Marched all the way to within 37 miles of Paris

1. Americans Save Paris

• The U.S. held strong and turned back the Germans at the Battle of Chateau-Thierry– “We dig no trenches to fall back on”– The U.S. lost more than 1/2 their troops – This was a turning point in the war

2. Allied Counterattack

• 250,000 Americans were arriving every month (1918)

• Began using the new invention (the tank) to break through barbed-wire and into German territory– Recaptured the previous German gains

• At the same time as the allied offensive, Central powers began to ask for peace – Bulgaria, Turks (Sept. 1918)– Austria-Hungary had a revolution and formed

separate governments and stopped fighting– Kaiser William II abdicated on Nov. 9, 1918

• An armistice was signed by the new German leaders to stop the fighting– Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was cancelled, Germany

had to surrender subs and most of its fleet, release war prisoners, and allies occupied German territory west of the Rhine River

The armistice was signed on this railroad car

IV. The Terms of Peace

• Wilson’s “Safe for democracy” speech set an idealistic reason for entering the war

• The Bolshevik Revolution and Stalemate on the Western front dampened morale

A. The Fourteen Points• Wilson’s plan for a just world after war given in

a speech to Congress in Jan. 1918

• 6 of the points contained general plans– No secret treaties, freedom of the seas for all,

removal of all tariffs, reduction of national armaments, fair adjustment of all colonial claims, w/ equal consideration or the colonial powers and the people of the colonies, AND an establishment of “a general association of nations”

• 8 points dealt w/ specific countries and regions

B. Costs of the War

• About 10 million dead and 20 million wounded

• Germany- 1.8 million• Russia and France- 1.4 million each• Austria-Hungary, Great Britain- 1 million each• U.S.- 50,000

• Destruction of property was also extremely high– Estimated $300 Billion

C. The Paris Peace Conference

• Delegates of the victorious nations met in Paris in Jan. 1919.– AKA Versailles Conference– Russia was not invited as they left the war

• Representatives of the defeated Central Powers played no role in writing the terms of the treaties– Dominated by the Big Four- G.B., Fr., U.S., Italy

The Big Four• David Lloyd George (Br)• Georges Clemenceau (Fr)• Woodrow Wilson (U.S.)• Vittorio Orlando (Italy)

D. Problems Facing the Peacemakers

• Victorious nations had many conflicting territorial demands that were difficult to reconcile– France wanted security (Alsace and Lorraine, Rhine)

• Reparations (payment for war damages)

• League of Nations (a world organization to maintain peace)- doubted its usefulness

E. The Peace: Justice or Vengeance

• The Fourteen Points represented a “peace of justice”

• The secret treaties represented a “peace of vengeance”

• Many of the victors believed the Central Powers, esp. Germany, were responsible for the war and demanded that the defeated be taught a stern lesson

V. Creating a “New Europe”

• The victorious Allied Powers made separate treaties w/ each of the 5 Central Powers (Germ, Austria, Hung., Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire)

• The treaty with Germany is called the: – Treaty of Versailles

• Signed at the Palace of Versailles

A. The Versailles Treaty

• May 1919- New German Republic representatives were presented w/ a peace treaty and told to sign it.

• Complained bitterly that it didn’t follow the Fourteen Points– Made Germany admit they were guilty of starting

the war and must pay reparations & the amount was unspecified.

– Had no choice but to sign it.

• Provided for the formation of the League of Nations

• Germany lost considerable land along borders as well as overseas colonies.

• Reparations included money and even coal to France

• Poland restored as an independent nation

• Germany had to abolish conscription and couldn’t maintain an army of more than 100k men, no manufacturing of heavy artillery, tanks, planes, gas, no submarines and few warships

B. Former Austro-Hungarian Territories

• Austria gave Tirol and Trieste to Italy– Soon sank into financial crisis

• Hungary lost territory to newly formed Czechoslovakia

C. Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire

• Bulgaria lost territory including its outlet to the Aegean Sea

• Ottoman Empire lost a great amount of territory– Territories were administered by England or France

under supervision of the League of Nations– Several new states emerged (notable: Turkish

territory became the country of Iraq)

D. Former Russian Territories

• Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declared independence in 1918 (by Baltic Sea)

• Much of restored Poland also came from Russia

E. Dissatisfied Minorities

• Peace treaties solved many problems but created new ones.– National self-determination

• National minorities-people of 1 nationality living under a govt. controlled by another nationality– Many were brutally oppressed

F. The League of Nations• President Wilson made several compromises

w/ the ideals of his Fourteen Points.

• However, he believed the League of Nations would be able to remedy any injustices caused by the treaties

• Co-authored the Covenant of the League of Nations that was ratified as part of the Versailles Treaty ( WHICH THE U.S. DIDN’T RATIFY)

1. Organization

• 2 main aims to the League of Nations– Promote international cooperation– Maintain peace by settling disputes among

nations by reducing armaments

• Assembly- all member nations get 1 vote• Council (main peacekeeping body)- 9

member nations (5 permanent members- GB, Fr., US, Italy, Japan)

• Also a secretariat agency

2. Maintaining the Peace

• Promised not to resort to war and instead use the World Court at the Hague (Neth.)

• The League could impose penalties for breaking the promise such as economic sanctions (refusing to trade or blockades) – Military force would be a last resort

3. Mandates

• Provided a way to deal w/ the colonies of the defeated Central Powers

• The colonies would be a “mandate” to an allied power until the nation was ready for independence… Annual reports were made

4. The Start of the League

• The U.S. never joined even though it was a favorite idea of President Wilson.– U.S. Senate refused to ratify the Versailles Treaty

for fear of involvement in future conflicts– Instead, the U.S. signed a different peace treaty w/

Germany

• Still, 42 member nations had an optimistic view at the first meeting in 1920 and eventually 59 countries would be a part of the League of Nations

1920