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X-bar theory: Attach to X-bar level

Multiple X-bar levels possible

2

Is compositional: not rotely memorized Infinite range of application Even though store of examples is finite

Is subject to grammaticality judgments, intuitions

Can be described in formal, mathematical ways

Varies widely but regularly across languages

3

A sentence has multiple meanings Lexical ambiguity Different meanings, same syntactic structure;

differences at word level only e.g. bat (flying mammal, sports device)

▪ Yesterday I found a bat. Morphological ambiguity Different meanings, different morphological

structure; differences in morphology e.g. axes (axe+s, axis+s) Pay attention to these axes.

4

Sentence has multiple meanings based on constituent structure alone

Frequent phenomena: PP-phrase attachment ▪ I saw the man with a beard. (not ambiguous) ▪ I saw the man with a telescope. (ambiguous)

Nominal compound structure ▪ He works for a small computer company.

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We’re all wired with the same machinery for language Basic system + parameters

L1 acquisition: finding out which parameters apply to mother tongue

Setting parameters differently for the basic system accounts for different languages

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Head: where English, French, Spanish, etc.: verb-medial Japanese, Hindi, Armenian, etc.: verb-final

Movements: when & where Verb raising WH- movement Cliticization

Case assignment: whether

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The interaction of morphology and syntax

Many interesting aspects This course: only two Verb inflection Case

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Type of inflectional morphology Marks an NP’s grammatical role in the

sentence English Disappeared for nouns, remnant for 3rd

person singular masc/fem pronouns Nominative/accusative/genetive

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Is assigned structurally (syntactically) Subject NP (nominative): assigned by I Object NP (accusative): assigned by V, P Possessor NP (genetive): assigned by head

N Case filter: rules out structures that

violate case assignment

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Sentential Scope is over sentence

▪ John finally listened to the music. ▪ Paul taunted her, unfortunately.

Adverbial Scope is over verb phrase

▪ John intently listened to the music. ▪ Paul taunted her mercilessly.

Diagnostics (fortunately, forcibly, openly, certainly)

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We’re endowed with language Specific mental capacity Genetically transmitted Limited flexibility, needs to be fine-tuned

Universal principles, parameters Exhaustive rule systems are too

complicated

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Basic crosslinguistic core X-bar Thematic relations Headedness

Parameters that need setting Values: 2, or more?

Lexical content is language-specific

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pro-drop Inflection Expletive subjects Free subject/verb inversion Empty resumptive pronouns Long wh-movement of subjects

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At each stage, wild variation is constrained Conventional vs. creative

Only have to address parameters (nothing lower)

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We come hard-wired for language Rules (X’, c-command, syllable structure) Categories: POS, sound classes, etc. Invariant core that applies to all languages Called Universal Grammar (UG)

Parameters have to be instantiated Phrasal head order Syllable types Subject-drop

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Full adult-like linguistic competence? Same basic grammar, rules as adults? Something less?

Ability to be conventional Ability to be creative Ability to balance both of these

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Major intellectual achievement Universal Children everywhere learn language, no matter

which No normal children fail to learn language

Incredibly short time-span 18 mo.: 50 words; 6 yr.: 13,000 words

One of greatest miracles of life Why a “grammar”? Infinite variation Regularities (sometimes too closely)

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