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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAVol. 96, pp. 3463–3470, March 1999Colloquium Paper

La roca magica: Uses of natural zeolites inagriculture and industry

This paper was presented at National Academy of Sciences colloquium ‘‘Geology, Mineralogy, and Human Welfare,’’ held November 8–9, 1998 at the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Center in Irvine, CA.

FREDERICK A. MUMPTON*Edit Inc., P.O. Box 591, Clarkson, NY 14430

ABSTRACT For nearly 200 years since their discovery in1756, geologists considered the zeolite minerals to occur asfairly large crystals in the vugs and cavities of basalts andother traprock formations. Here, they were prized by mineralcollectors, but their small abundance and polymineralic na-ture defied commercial exploitation. As the synthetic zeolite(molecular sieve) business began to take hold in thelate 1950s,

huge beds of zeolite-rich sediments, formed by the alterationof volcanic ash (glass) in lake and marine waters, werediscovered in the western United States and elsewhere in the

world. These beds were found to contain as much as 95% of asingle zeolite; they were generally flat-lying and easily minedby surface methods. The properties of these low-cost naturalmaterials mimicked those of many of their synthetic counter-parts, and considerable effort has made since that time todevelop applications for them based on their unique adsorp-tion, cation-exchange, dehydration–rehydration, and catalyticproperties. Natural zeolites (i.e., those found in volcanogenicsedimentary rocks) have been and are being used as buildingstone, as lightweight aggregate and pozzolans in cements andconcretes, as filler in paper, in the take-up of Cs and Sr fromnuclear waste and fallout, as soil amendments in agronomyand horticulture, in the removal of ammonia from municipal,industrial, and agricultural waste and drinking waters, asenergy exchangers in solar refrigerators, as dietary supple-ments in animal diets, as consumer deodorizers, in pet litters,in taking up ammonia from animal manures, and as ammoniafilters in kidney-dialysis units. From their use in c onstructionduring Roman times, to their role as hydroponic (zeoponic)substrate for growing plants on space missions, to their recentsuccess in the healing of cuts and wounds, natural zeolites arenow considered to be full-fledged mineral commodities, theuse of which promise to expand even more in the future.

The discovery of natural zeolites 40 years ago as large, widespread, mineable, near-monomineralic deposits in tuffa-

ceous sedimentary rocks in the western United States andother countries opened another chapter in the book of usefulindustrial minerals whose exciting surface and structural prop-erties have been exploited in industrial, agricultural, environ-mental, and biological technology. Like talc, diatomite, wol-lastonite, chrysotile, vermiculite, and bentonite, zeolite min-erals possess attractive adsorption, cation-exchange,dehydration–rehydration, and catalysis properties, which con-tribute directly to their use in pozzolanic cement; as lightweight aggregates; in the drying of acid-gases; in the separationof oxygen from air; in the removal of NH3 from drinking waterand municipal wastewater; in the extraction of Cs and Sr fromnuclear wastes and the mitigation of radioactive fallout; asdietary supplements to improve animal production; as soil

amendments to improve cation-exchange capacities (CEC)and water sorption capacities; as soilless zeoponic substrate for

greenhouses and space missions; in the deodorization of animal litter, barns, ash trays, refrigerators, and athletic footwear; in the removal of ammoniacal nitrogen from salinehemodialysis solutions; and as bactericides, insecticides, andantacids for people and animals. This multitude of uses of naturalzeolites has prompted newspapers in Cuba, where largedeposits have been discovered, to refer to zeolites as the magic

rock, hence the title of this paper.The present paper reviews the critical properties of naturalzeolites and important uses in pollution control, the handlingand storage of nuclear wastes, agriculture, and biotechnology.The paper also pleads for greater involvement by mineralscientists in the surface, colloidal, and biochemical investiga-tions that are needed in the future development of zeoliteapplications.

PROPERTIES

A zeolite is a crystalline, hydrated aluminosilicate of alkali andalkaline earth cations having an infinite, open, three-dimensional structure. It is further able to lose and gain water

reversibly and to exchange extraframework cations, both with-out change of crystal structure. The large structural cavitiesand the entry channels leading into them contain watermolecules, which form hydration spheres around exchangeablecations. On removal of water by heating at 350–400°C, smallmolecules can pass through entry channels, but larger mole-cules are excluded—the so called ‘‘molecular sieve’’ propertyof crystalline zeolites. The uniform size and shape of the ringsof oxygen in zeolites contrasts with the relatively wide range of pore sizes in silica gel, activated alumina, and activated carbon,and the Langmuir shape of their adsorption isotherms allowszeolites to remove the last trace of a particular gas from asystem(e.g., H2O from refrigerator Freon lines). Furthermore,zeolites adsorb polar molecules with high selectivity. Thus,

polar CO2

is adsorbed preferentially by certain zeolites, al-lowing impure methane or natural gas streams to be upgraded.The quadrupole moment of N2 contributes to its selectiveadsorption by zeolites fromair, thereby producing O2-enrichedproducts. The adsorption selectivity for H2O, however, isgreater than for any other molecule, leading to uses in dryingand solar heating and cooling.

The weakly bonded extraframework cations can be removedor exchanged readily by washing with a strong solution of another cation. The CEC of a zeolite is basically a function of the amount of Al that substitutes for Si in the frameworktetrahedra; the greater the Al content, the more extraframework cations needed to balance the charge. Natural zeoliteshaveCECsfrom2to4milliequivalentsg(meqg),abouttwicethe CEC of bentonite clay. Unlike most noncrystalline ion

PNAS is available online at www.pnas.org.

Abbreviations: CEC, cation-exchange capacity; meq, milliequivalent.*To whom reprint requests should be addressed. e-mail: fmumpton@

frontiernet.net.

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exchangers, e.g., organic resins and inorganic aluminosilicategels (mislabeled in the trade as ‘‘zeolites’’), the framework of a crystalline zeolite dictates its selectivity toward competingions. The hydration spheres of high field-strength cationsprevent their close approach to the seat of charge in theframework; hence, cations of low field strength are generallymore tightly held and selectively exchanged by the zeolite thanother ions. Clinoptilolite has a relatively small CEC (2.25meqg), but its cation selectivity is

Cs Rb K NH4 Ba Sr Na Ca Fe Al Mg Li.

This preference for larger cations, including NH4, was ex-

ploited for removing NH4-N from municipal sewage effluent

and has been extended to agricultural and aquacultural appli-cations (1, 2). Clinoptilolite and natural chabazite have alsobeen used to extract Cs and Sr from nuclear wastes and fallout.

Most zeolites in volcanogenic sedimentary rocks wereformed by the dissolution of volcanic glass (ash) and laterprecipitation of micrometer-size crystals, which mimic theshape and morphology of their basalt counterparts (Fig. 1; ref.3). Sedimentary zeolitic tuffs are generally soft, friable, andlightweight and commonly contain 50–95% of a single zeolite;

however, several zeolites may coexist, along with unreacted volcanic glass, quartz, K-feldspar, montmorillonite, calcite,gypsum, and cristobalitetridymite. Applications of naturalzeolites make use of one or more of the following properties:(i) cation exchange, (ii) adsorption and related molecular-sieving, (iii) catalytic, (iv) dehydration and rehydration, and ( v)biological reactivity. Extrinsic properties of the rock (e.g.,siliceous composition, color, porosity, attrition resistance, and

bulk density) are also important in many applications. Thus,the ideal zeolitic tuff for both cation-exchange and adsorptionapplications should be mechanically strong to resist abrasionand disintegration, highly porous to allow solutions and gasesto diffuse readily in and out of the rock, and soft enough to beeasily crushed. Obviously, the greater the content of a desiredzeolite, the better a certain tuff will perform, ceteris paribus.(See Table 1 for more information on the properties of zeolites.)

APPLICATIONS

Construction

Dimension Stone. Devitrified volcanic ash and altered tuff have been used for 2,000 years as lightweight dimension stone.Only since the 1950s, however, has their zeolitic nature beenrecognized. Their low bulk density, high porosity, and homo-geneous, close-knit texture have contributed to their beingeasily sawed or cut into inexpensive building blocks. Forexample, many Zapotec buildings near Oaxaca, Mexico, wereconstructed of blocks of massive, clinoptilolite tuff (4), whichis still used for public buildings in the region. The easily cut andfabricated chabazite- and phillipsite-rich tuffo giallo napolitanoin central Italy has also been used since Roman times inconstruction, and the entire city of Naples seems to be built outof it (Fig. 2). Numerous cathedrals and public buildings incentral Europe were built from zeolitic tuff quarried in the

Laacher See area of Germany. Early ranch houses (Fig. 3) inthe American West were built with blocks of locally quarriederionite; they were cool and did not crumble in the aridclimate. Similar structures made of zeolitic tuff blocks havebeen noted near almost every zeolitic tuff deposit in Europeand Japan (5).

Cement and Concrete. The most important pozzolanic rawmaterial used by the ancient Romans was obtained from thetuffo napolitano giallo near Pozzuoli, Italy (6, 7). Similar

FIG. 1. Scanning electron micrograph of plates of clinoptilolitefrom Castle Creek, ID [Reproduced with permission from ref. 3(Copyright 1976, The Clay Minerals Society)].

Table 1. Representative formulae and selected physical properties of important zeolites*

ZeoliteRepresentative unit-cell

formulaVoid volume,

%Channel dimensions,

ÅThermal stability

(relative) CEC, meq/g†

Analcime Na10(Al16Si32O96)16H2O 18 2.6 High 4.54Chabazite (Na2Ca)6(Al12Si24O72)40H2O 47 3.7 4.2 High 3.84Clinoptilolite (Na3K 3)(Al6Si30O72)24H2O 34 3.9 5.4 High 2.16Erionite (NaCa0.5K)9(Al9Si27O72)27H2O 35 3.6 5.2 High 3.12Faujasite (Na58)(Al58Si134O384)240H2O 47 7.4 High 3.39Ferrierite (Na2Mg2)(Al6Si30O72)18H2O 28 4.3 5.5 High 2.33Heulandite (Ca4)(Al8Si28O72)24H2O 39 4.0 5.5 Low 2.91

4.4 7.24.1 4.7

Laumonitte (Ca4)(Al8Si16O48)16H2O 34 4.6 6.3 Low 4.25Mordenite (Na8)(Al8Si40O96)24H2O 28 2.9 5.7 High 2.29

6.7 7.0Phillipsite (NaK)5(Al5Si11O32)20H2O 31 4.2 4.4 Medium 3.31

2.8 4.83.3

Linde A (Na12)(Al12Si12O48)27H2O 47 4.2 High 5.48Linde X (Na86)(Al86Si106O384)264H2O 50 7.4 High 4.73

*Modified from refs. 103 and 104. Void volume determined from water content.†Calculated from unit-cell formula.

3464 Colloquium Paper: Mumpton Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 (1999)



materials have been used in cement production throughout

Europe. The high silica content of the zeolites neutralizesexcess lime produced by setting concrete, much like finelypowdered pumice or fly ash. In the U.S., nearly $1 million wassaved in 1912 during the construction of the 240-mile-long Los Angeles aqueduct by replacing25% of the required portlandcement with an inexpensive clinoptilolite-rich tuff mined nearTehachapi, CA (8, 9).

Lightweight Aggregate. Much like perlite and other volcanicglasses are frothed into low-density pellets for use as lightweight aggregate in concrete, zeolitic tuff can be ‘‘popped’’ bycalcining at elevated temperature. Clinoptilolite from Sloveniaand Serbia yields excellent aggregates of this type on firing to1,200–1,400°C. Densities of 0.8 gcm3 and porosities of 65% have been reported for expanded clinoptilolite products

(10). These temperatures are somewhat higher than thoseneeded to expand perlite, but the products are stronger (11).The Russian Sibeerfoam product is expanded zeolitic tuff andis used as lightweight insulating material (12). In Cuba,mortars for ferrocement boats and lightweight aggregate forhollow prestressed concrete slabs contain indigenous clino-ptilolite (13, 14). The mortars have compressive strengths of 55.0 MPa; the ferrocement boats can withstand marineenvironments.

Water and Wastewater Treatment

Municipal Wastewater. Large-scale cation-exchange pro-cesses using natural zeolites were first developed by Ames (1)

and Mercer et al. (2), who demonstrated the effectiveness of

clinoptilolite for extracting NH4 from municipal and agricul-

tural waste streams. The clinoptilolite exchange process at theTahoe–Truckee (Truckee, CA) sewage treatment plant re-

moves 97% of the NH4 from tertiary effluent (15). Hun-dreds of papers have dealt with wastewater treatment bynatural zeolites. Adding powdered clinoptilolite to sewagebefore aeration increased O2-consumption and sedimentation,resulting in a sludge that can be more easily dewatered and,hence, used as a fertilizer (16). Nitrification of sludge isaccelerated by the use of clinoptilolite, which selectivelyexchanges NH4

from wastewater and provides an idealgrowth medium for nitrifying bacteria, which then oxidizeNH4

to nitrate (17–19). Liberti et al. (19) described anutrient-removal process called RIM-NUT that uses the se-lective exchange by clinoptilolite and an organic resin toremove N2 and P from sewage effluent.

Drinking Water. In the late 1970s, a 1-MGD (million gallons

per day) water-reuse process that used clinoptilolite cation-exchange columns went on stream in Denver, CO, (Fig. 4) andbrought the NH4

content of sewage effluent down to potablestandards (1 ppm; refs. 20–22). Based on Sims and cowork-ers’ (23, 24) earlier finding that nitrification of sewage sludge was enhanced by the presence of clinoptilolite, a clinoptilolite-amended slow-sand filtration process for drinking water for thecity of Logan, UT, was evaluated. By adding a layer of crushedzeolite, the filtration rate tripled, with no deleterious effects. At Buki Island, upstream from Budapest, clinoptilolite filtra-tion reduced the NH3 content of drinking water from 15–22ppm to2 ppm (25, 26). Clinoptilolite beds are used regularlyto upgrade river water to potable standards at Ryazan andother localities in Russia and at Uzhgorod, Ukraine (27, 28).

FIG. 2. Castel Nuovo (Naples, Italy) constructed of tuffo giallo napolitano [Reproduced with permission from ref. 105 (Copyright1995, International Committee on Natural Zeolites)].

FIG. 3. Abandoned ranch house in Jersey Valley, NV, constructedof quarried blocks of erionite-rich tuff [Reproduced with permissionfrom ref. 5 (Copyright 1973, Industrial Minerals)].

FIG. 4. Clinoptilolite-filled columns at a Denver, CO, water-purification plant [Reproduced with permission from ref. 106 (Copy-right 1997, AIMAT)].

FIG. 5. Methane-purification pressure-swing adsorption unit,NRG Company, Palos Verde Landfill, Los Angeles, CA [Reproduced with permission from ref. 106 (Copyright 1997, AIMAT)].

Colloquium Paper: Mumpton Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 (1999) 3465



These reactions await serious physiological and biochemicalexamination.

Natural zeolites and some clay minerals have proven to beeffective in protecting animals against mycotoxins (63, 64).The apparent ability of clinoptilolite and other zeolites toabsorb aflatoxins that contaminate animal feeds has resultedin measurable improvements in the health of swine, sheep, andchickens (65–67). Here also, more work is needed to verify andunderstand the mechanisms of such reactions.

Agronomy and Horticulture. Natural zeolites are used ex-tensively in Japan as amendments for sandy, clay-poor soils(68). The pronounced selectivity of clinoptilolite NH4

andK also was exploited in Japan in slow-release chemical fertilizers.By using clinoptilolite-rich tuff as a soil conditioner, significantincreases in the yields of wheat (13–15%), eggplant (19–55%),apples (13–38%), and carrots (63%) were reported when 4– 8tonneacre zeolite was used (69). The addition of clinoptilolite

increased barley yields (70); it also increased the yields of potatoes, barley, clover, and wheat after adding 15 tonnehectare to Ukrainian sandy loams (71). Clinoptilolite amendedto a potting medium for chrysanthemums behaved like aslow-release K-fertilizer, yielding the same growth for theplants as daily irrigation with Hoagland’s solution (72). Theaddition of NH4

-exchanged clinoptilolite in greenhouse ex-periments resulted in 59% and 53% increase in root weight of radishes in medium- and light-clay soils, respectively (73). A10% addition of clinoptilolite to sand used in the construction

of golf-course greens substantially reduced NO3-leaching andincreased fertilizer-N uptake by creeping bent-grass, withoutdisturbing the drainage, compaction, or ‘‘playability’’ of thegreens (74–76).

In Italy, natural zeolites have been used as dusting agents tokill aphids afflicting fruit trees (J. L. Gonzalez, personalcommunication). The mechanism of this reaction is notknown; the zeolite could be acting as a desiccant, although itis saturated almost completely with water before use, or itshighly alkaline character in water could simply kill individualinsects that come in contact with it.

The use of clinoptilolite as the principal constituent of artificial soil was developed in Bulgaria in the late 1970s. Thegrowth of plants in synthetic soils consisting of zeolites with or without peat, vermiculite, and the like has been termedzeoponics. A nutrient-treated zeoponic substrate used forgrowing crops and the rooting of cuttings in greenhouses

produced greater development of root systems and larger yields of strawberries, tomatoes, and peppers, without furtherfertilization (77). Tomatoes and cucumbers are grown com-mercially outdoors in Cuba (Fig. 6) by using zeoponic substrate(78), and vegetables currently are supplied to Moscow in the winter from greenhouses that use zeoponic synthetic soils. Byusing a treated Bulgarian clinoptilolite product, cabbage andradishes have been grown aboard the Russian space stationMir (79). Considerable attention has been paid to zeoponicmixtures of NH4- or K-exchanged natural zeolites and spar-

FIG. 6. Tomatoes grown zeoponically in Havana, Cuba [Reproduced with permission from ref. 106 (Copyright 1997, AIMAT)].

FIG. 7. Wheat grown zeoponically for use in space flights and stations, Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX [Reproduced with permission fromref. 106 (Copyright 1997, AIMAT)]. Photograph by D. W. Ming.




ingly soluble phosphate minerals (e.g., apatite; refs. 80 and 81).The small amount of Ca in the soil solution in equilibrium withthe apatite exchanges onto the zeolite, thereby disturbing the

equilibrium and forcing more Ca into solution. The apatite isultimately destroyed, releasing P to the solution, and thezeolite gives up its exchanged cations (e.g., K or NH4

).Taking the zeolite–apatite reaction one step further, theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration prepared asubstrate consisting of a specially cation-exchanged clinoptilo-lite and a synthetic apatite containing essential trace nutrientsfor use as a plant-growth medium in Shuttle flights (Fig. 7).This formulation may well be the preferred substrate for vegetable production aboard all future space missions (82) andin commercial green houses.

Aquaculture. Natural zeolites can play three roles in aqua-culture: (i) to remove ammonium from hatchery, transport,and aquarium waters; (ii) to generate oxygen for aeration

systems in aquaria and transport; and ( iii) to supplement fishrations. Zeolite cation exchange removes NH4 from recircu-

lating hatchery waters produced by the decomposition of excrement andor unused food, much as NH4

is removedfrom municipal sewage effluent (83–85). Phillipsite from theNeapolitan Yellow Tuff was used to remove NH4

from theeffluent from saline water in shrimp-culture tanks (86). Al-though zeolites are not as successful with saline-water as theyare with freshwater effluents, these results suggest limitedapplications in seawater systems. The NH3 content of tank-truck waters was reduced by such a system during the transportof live fish (87–89), and Jungle Laboratories (Comfort, TX)developed a technique of adding natural zeolites to plastic bags

containing tropical fish to take up NH3 generated duringtransport. In the U.S., at least four brands of granular clino-ptilolite are currently on the market for use in filters in homeaquaria, and fist-size blocks of zeolitic tuff have been sold asdecorative (and ammonium-removing) additions to hobbyists’fish tanks.

The physiological similarity of fish and poultry suggests thatthe results achieved by feeding natural zeolites to chickensmight be duplicated in fish at a considerable savings in cost.Several authors have reported that small additions of clino-ptilolite (2%) in the rations of trout resulted in 10% im-provement in biomass production, with no apparent ill effectson the fish (90–92).

Animal-Waste Treatment. Natural zeolites are potentiallycapable of (i) reducing the malodor and increasing the nitro-gen retentivity of animal wastes, (ii) controlling the moisturecontent for ease of handling of excrement, and (iii) purifyingthe methane gas produced by the anaerobic digestion of manure. Several hundred tonnes of clinoptilolite is used each year in Japanese chicken houses; it is either mixed with thedroppings or packed in boxes suspended from the ceilings (K.Torii, unpublished work). A zeolite-filled air scrubber was usedto improve poultry-house environments by extracting NH3

from the air without the loss of heat that accompanies ventilation in colder weather (93). Granular clinoptiloliteadded to a cattle feedlot (2.44 kgm2) significantly reducedNH3 evolution and odor compared with untreated areas (94). As more and more animals and poultry are raised close to themarkets to reduce transportation costs, the need to decrease

FIG. 8. Zeolite deodorization products from Itaya, Japan [Reproduced with permission from ref. 106 (Copyright 1997, AIMAT)].

FIG. 9. Footwear and garbage-can zeolite deodorization products [Reproduced with permission from ref. 106 (Copyright 1997, AIMAT)].




air pollution in areas of large population becomes ever moreapparent.

Other Applications

Consumer Products. Numerous natural zeolite-containingconsumer products have come on the market in the U.S.,Japan, Hungary, Cuba, and Germany, chiefly as deodorizing

agents and as pet litters to take up water and odor-causing NH3

from animal urine (Fig. 8). A horse-stall refreshener consistingsolely of crushed clinoptilolite also has been sold in the U.S.,and similar materials have been used for years at majorlivestock shows to decrease odors in barns and stalls. Theseapplications depend mainly on the ability of clinoptilolite toexchange NH4

from aqueous solution, thereby preventing therelease of NH3 into the atmosphere. Other natural zeolitedeodorization products have been marketed to remove mal-odors from shoes, boots, and athletic footwear (e.g., StinkyPinkys and Odor Zappers) and from garbage cans, refrigera-tors, and walk-in coolers (ref. 95 and 96; Fig. 9). The mech-anismbywhichtheseproductshaveachievedsuccessisnotwellunderstood, but it is probably a surface-adsorption phenomenaon the zeolite. In Russia, an unusual product (Zeo-Light) hasbeen developed, consisting of zeolite-filled pillows and padsfor funeral caskets to eliminate malodors.

Medical Applications. Natural phillipsite and certain syn-thetic zeolites were found to be effective filter mediato removeNH4

from the dialysate of kidney patients during hemodial- ysis, thereby allowing the cleansed saline solution to be usedrepeatedly in recirculating home and portable dialysis systems(97, 98). Zeolites, especially the natural varieties, are substan-tially less expensive than the zirconium phosphate ion ex-changer currently used. In Cuba, inexpensive, indigenousnatural zeolites are being studied as buffers to reduce stomachacidity and to treat stomach ulcers (99). External applicationof zeolite powder has been found to be effective in thetreatment of athlete’s foot (100) and to decrease the healing

time of wounds and surgical incisions (101, 102). Although nosystematic study has been made, anecdotal information fromthree mining operations in the United States indicates that thecuts and scrapes of mine and mill workers exposed to on-the- job zeolite dust heal remarkably quickly. In Cuba, it is commonpractice to dust the cuts of horses and cows w ith clinoptiloliteto hasten the healing process. The bactericidal reactivity of natural zeolites is an untouched field.

ROLE OF MINERAL SCIENTISTS

Mineralscientists have played leading roles in the developmentof applications for natural zeolites, e.g., Ames (41) studied thecation-exchange properties of clinoptilolite and its use in

treating municipal sewage and nuclear waste waters; Sto- janovic (10) and Bush (11) studied the expansion properties of clinoptilolite; Filizova (57) developed zeolite pills and cookiesto counteract Chernobyl fallout; White and Ohlrogge (60)developed rations for ruminants fed nonprotein-nitrogen-supplemented feeds; and U.S. Geological Survey (80) andNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (82) mineralscientists used zeoponic substrate in space vehicles and green-house soils.

Although they brought to the table a broad base of scientificknowledge, most were less than expert in agriculture or animalscience or in surface chemistry, colloid chemistry, or biochem-istry, and they often had to prod or persuade agricultural,chemical, biological, and engineering colleagues to apply theirexpertise to these fascinating problems. In the future, mineralscientists investigating the use of natural zeolites (or of any of the industrial minerals mentioned above) must become moreproficient in surface chemistry, cation exchange, biologicalreactivity, and colloid chemistry if they are to continue to

contribute to the development of zeolite applications. In turn,the chemist, agronomist, animal scientist, biochemist, andengineer must become more knowledgeable about the mineralsciences. Multidisciplinary, cooperative efforts are essential if we are to understand, for example, how a zeolite functions inan animal’s gastrointestinal system, how a zeolite gives rise togreater growth or healthier animals, the specific mechanism of surface adsorption of amine-treated zeolites with other organ-

ics in aqueous solution, or how untreated zeolites adsorboffending odors from footwear and other enclosed spaces. Theadsorption, cation-exchange, dehydration, catalytic, and bio-technical properties of zeolitic materials must therefore be-come a major part of a mineral scientist’s portfolio if he or sheis to become a full partner in future investigations.

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