142 regev ethno-national pop-rock music

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Ethno-National Pop-Rock Music :Aesthetic Cosmopolitanism Made from Within Motti Regev

The Open University of Israel

ABSTRACT

Pop-rock music is portrayed as a major embodiment of the transformation of national cultural uniqueness from purist essentialism into aesthetic cosmopoli-

tanism. Examining the local production of ethno-national pop-rock, and its publicreception and legitimation through half a century, the article demonstrates how

forces within the national context greatly contribute to cultural globalization.Thearticle looks at three aspects of the rise of ethno-national pop-rock music tonational legitimacy: the agency of musicians, analyzed as structurally stemming from

the intersection of the field of pop-rock and the field of national culture; a four-phase, half-century long process, called here the historical musical event of pop-rock; and the consequence of pop-rock legitimacy for performance of nationaluniqueness. The general arguments and theoretical points are illustrated by detailed reference to the cases of pop-rock music in Argentina and Israel.

KEY WORDS

aesthetic cosmopolitanism / Argentina / Israel / national culture / pop-rock music/ popular music / sociology of music

Introduction

In the lyrics to the song La Argentinidad al Palo (Argentine-ness In Erection),1

Argentinean rock band Bersuit Vergarabat partly satirize and partly celebratethings that evoke national pride in their country. The double album of the

same name, in which the song appears, received the Gardel prize for best album

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Cultural SociologyCopyright 2007

BSA Publications LtdVolume 1(3): 317341

[DOI: 10.1177/1749975507082051]SAGE Publications

Los Angeles, London,

New Delhi and Singapore


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of 2005. In another part of the world, in the 1993 song Kama Yossi (HowMany Yossi), Israeli rock auteur Berry Sakharoff reminisces about Israeli sub-urban culture of the 1960s. The song is considered by critics as one of the bestIsraeli rock songs ever recorded. Each of these songs represents a recent

moment in the popular music of Argentina and Israel. The themes of the lyrics,the language used for singing, the dialogue with earlier moments in local music,as well as the positive reviews and market success, make them a very local mat-ter in each country. For their respective local audiences, each song stands as anexpression of current national cultural uniqueness: Argentine-ness and Israeli-ness. Yet, at the same time, each of these songs is a pop-rock song. The electricand electronic instrumentation, the sophisticated studio production techniquesused for their creation and the presence of the stylistic influence of global pop-rock genres, make each of these songs an art work that shares much aesthetic

common ground with many songs produced elsewhere in the world. As com-ponents of a global form of art, each of these songs contains stylistic traces andinfluences from places and traditions alien to Israel or Argentina. The incorpo-ration of these influences thus naturalizes elements of otherness into the cur-rent sense of national uniqueness in these two countries. These songs exemplifythe transformation that has taken place in the ways national uniqueness isexpressed in, and performed through, music. This involves a shift from com-mitment to essentialist notions of folkism and traditionalism, to fluidity andconscious openness to exterior influences of pop-rock. Needless to say, these

two countries are just two cases of a prevalent phenomenon, found in the musi-cal reality of many countries. Pop-rock music stands here as a major embodi-ment of the transformation that took place in the cultural uniqueness of manynations and ethnicities (henceforth called here ethno-national cultural unique-ness): from an emphasis and quest for purism and essentialism, to a conceptionof ethno-national cultural uniqueness which I call aesthetic cosmopolitanism .

The term aesthetic (sometimes cultural) cosmopolitanism, as suggested inthe work of Urry (1995) and Szerszynski and Urry (2002, 2006), applies to thecultural realm the renewed general interest in the centuries-old concept of cos-mopolitanism (Beck, 2000; Cheah and Robbins, 1998; Hannerz, 1990, 2004;Vertovec and Cohen, 2002). These works locate aesthetic cosmopolitanism, atthe individual level, as individuals having a taste for art and culture of nationsand other groups other than ones own, and for the wider shores of culturalexperience (Tomlinson, 1999: 202). However, in late modernity, many of theart works and cultural products that signify contemporary ethno-national cul-tural uniqueness routinely and intentionally include elements drawn from out-side the nation or ethnicity which they represent. The difference between whatcounts as exterior or interior to national culture has been blurred. Therefore,in the light of Becks succinct definition of cosmopolitanism as a condition inwhich the otherness of the other is included in ones own self-identity and self-definition (Beck, 2003: 17), and following Regev (2007), I want to expand thenotion of aesthetic cosmopolitanism, and suggest that the concept should belocated not necessarily at the individual level, but at the structural collective

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level, as a cultural condition that is inextricable from current ethno-nationaluniqueness. Put differently, I want to suggest that aesthetic cosmopolitanismcomes into being not only through consumption of art works and cultural prod-ucts from the wider shores of cultural experience, but also, and more inten-

sively, through the creation and consumption of much of the local art andculture that is believed to express ethno-national uniqueness. Aesthetic cos-mopolitanism is produced from within national culture, as Beck and Sznaiderput it (2006). Aesthetic cosmopolitanism is the condition in which the repre-sentation and performance of ethno-national cultural uniqueness becomeslargely based on contemporary art forms like pop-rock music or film, andwhose expressive forms include stylistic elements knowingly drawn fromsources exterior to indigenous traditions. As such, aesthetic cosmopolitanism isnot the exception in contemporary cultural practices, but rather the normal and

the routine, and a prime manifestation of what Robertson (1995) has calledglocalization: the (re-)construction of locality in response to and under theinfluence of globalization. Following Billig (1995), it could be referred to asbanal aesthetic cosmopolitanism, as ordinary and mundane cosmopolitanism(Hebdige, 1990; Lamont and Aksartova, 2002), or as actually existing cos-mopolitanism (Robbins, 1998). While not refuting the cultural imperialismthesis, the concept of aesthetic cosmopolitanism in my view better expresses thecomplexity of cultural flows between parts of the globe in the present day.

Popular music, and especially pop-rock music, is a key cultural form in this

regard. The flourishing of domestic pop-rock music styles in many differentcountries has transformed the cultural uniqueness of each one of them, asexpressed in music, into a sonic-aesthetic space saturated with electric and elec-tronic sounds, highly inspired by, and intensively connected to, stylistic trendsand canonic works associated mostly with Anglo-American pop-rock, but alsowith pop-rock music from other ethno-national entities. Pop-rock demonstratesthat, under conditions of aesthetic cosmopolitanism, the model of world culturesuggested by Meyer et al. (1997) is not confined to the realm of instrumentalrationalized culture. Construction of ethno-national uniqueness in expressiveculture also takes the path of isomorphism, when forces inside the nation areself-mobilized to create their own pop-rock, believing this is the way to per-form uniqueness in late modernity.

This article offers an outline for assessing and understanding the role of pop-rock music in the emergence of aesthetic cosmopolitanism and the trans-formation of ethno-national cultural uniqueness. I do this by considering threedimensions. First, I examine aesthetic cosmopolitanism as an outcome of thesocial logic underlying the agency of musicians and critics, as constrained by thefields of cultural production in which they act. Second, I describe the long termprocess of pop-rock gaining legitimacy and dominance in the musical field,which I call (following DeNora, 2003), the historical musical event of pop-rock .Third and finally, I analyze briefly the consequences of this legitimacy for musi-cal ethno-nationalism at the level of performance. To illustrate the general argu-ments, the article refers to the cases of pop-rock in Argentina and Israel.

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The Field of Pop-rock Music

I will begin with some clarifications as to the nature of the category of musiccalled here pop-rock and its constitution as a field of cultural production. The

term pop-rock is used here to refer to music consciously created and producedby using amplification, electric and electronic music instruments, sophisticatedrecording equipment and other sound manipulation devices. For pop-rockmusicians, these technologies of sonic expression are not just aids for enhanc-ing or capturing sound produced by traditional acoustic instruments and thehuman voice, but rather are regarded as creative tools for generating sonic tex-tures that cannot be produced otherwise (S. Jones, 1992; Thberge, 1997). Pop-rock music is predominantly a creation of recording studios, destined primarilyfor phonograms. Put differently, pop-rock is mainly an art of recorded music,

an art of making records. From a cultural sociology perspective, pop-rock is anart form mostly comparable to film. Both are defined by their technologies of creation and consumption.

Obviously, the affinity between the plethora of styles that make up pop-rock music also rests on a strong socio-cultural base. A useful way to concep-tualize sociologically the socio-cultural base of pop-rock is by using Bourdieustheory of the fields of cultural and artistic production (1992, 1993a). The his-tory of pop-rock music since the mid-1950s amounts to the emergence andinstitutionalization of a certain field of cultural production, that is, the field of

pop-rock music. The field of pop-rock has the typical hierarchical structure andlogic of struggle of all artistic fields. Thus, it has dominant positions, consistingof consecrated canonic musicians and their works (mostly albums), and corre-sponding production of meaning positions (i.e. the activities and products of critics, journalists, historians etc.) that maintain the successfully imposed crite-ria of evaluation. The history of the field is that of struggles by new entrants togain the ultimate prize of becoming part of the canon. Such struggles might takethe form of heresy (including attempts to transgress and redefine the dominantcriteria of evaluation) or may be evolutionary, occuring in the wake of alreadyexisting canonical positions. In either case, the ever developing field is con-structed of a series of additions to the canon, each justified in its turn by power-holding producers of meaning as important stylistic innovations. Thejustifications used for erecting this canon are permutations of the traditionalmodernist ideology of autonomous art, meaning that the importance of albumsand musicians is determined not necessarily by their impact in the market of phonograms, but by their perceived aesthetic and cultural value (Appen andDohering, 2006; Regev, 1994). That is, the canonic albums are believed to beultimate embodiments of the potential hidden in the expressive technologies of pop-rock for the latter to be genuine artistic and creative means. Each newaddition is typically justified by interpreting it as an expansion of the creativepossibilities hidden in existing or newly developed technologies.

A major characteristic of the field consists of the very differentiation of pop-rock music from other types of popular music. This differentiation is



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accomplished by discursive practices of critics and journalists (Jones, 2002;Lindberg et al., 2005) as well as organizational practices within the musicindustry (Negus, 1992), and it is widely acknowledged (Frith, 1981; Grossberg,1992; Longhurst, 1995; Negus, 1997; Shuker, 2001). The differentiation is

organized around a stylistic genealogy and a historical narrative for which theemergence of rocknroll in the mid-1950s, associated with the music recordedby Chuck Berry and Elvis Presley, serves as a mythical moment of birth. Manyaccounts of this genealogy use the term rock to label this cultural category.The addition here of the term pop deals with a certain blurring that is some-times admitted as to the difference between, or overlap of, pop and rock(Gammond, 1993; Shuker, 1998). This addition helps to convey the wide rangeof electric or electronic styles pertaining to the genealogy, that can metaphori-cally be described as both heavy, hard and difficult (i.e. rock) as well as light,

soft and easy (i.e. pop). Thus, salient names included by the discourse of pop-rock in its stylistic genealogy, and moments valorized in its historical narrative,include British rock (the Beatles, the Rolling Stones), soul music (JamesBrown, the Temptations), Bob Dylan and psychedelic rock (Jimi Hendrix,

Jefferson Airplane) in the 1960s; progressive rock (Pink Floyd), David Bowie,Bruce Springsteen, Stevie Wonder, Neil Young, Joni Mitchell, Led Zeppelin,disco (Chic), funk (Funkadelic), punk (Talking Heads, the Clash) and reg-gae (Bob Marley) in the 1970s; new wave (the Cure), rap (Public Enemy),Prince, U2, REM, Madonna in the 1980s; Nirvana, Radiohead, hip-hop, elec-

tronica (house, techno) in the 1990s and later. On the other hand, pop-rockdiscourse traditionally excludes and marginalizes popular music styles that donot share this cultural background (most notably musicals like The Sound of Music , easy listening of the type made by Ray Coniff, for example, and vocalpop associated with the likes of Tony Bennett, Frank Sinatra or BarbaraStreisand).Yet, it should be noted that the success of the field of pop-rock ininstitutionalizing an artistic hierarchy for popular music, based on the imposi-tion of the rock criteria of evaluation, has caused a growing pop-rockizationof almost the entire art world of popular music (Regev, 2002). Aspiring to gainartistic respectability, musicians working in idioms conventionally loathed bythe rock criteria of evaluation have over the years converted their aestheticbeliefs and adopted pop-rock creative practices. This is best expressed in theemergence of styles that go by names such as soft rock and adult contempo-rary pop, in which the difference between pop-rock and types of popular musicpreviously excluded from pop-rock discourse has been blurred. Knowledge of this historical narrative, and acquaintance with the actual stylistic innovationsor features associated with each moment or name, are the doxa of the field,both in terms of craft and belief. At any moment in its history, new entrantswho aspire to gain rewards and prizes in the field acquire at least parts of thisknowledge in order to position themselves in the stylistic map. The alreadyestablished patterns of creativity and nuances of meaning become a set of nec-essary dispositions the pop-rock habitus which serves as a platform forattempts to surpass existing forms through continuity or heresy.



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This understanding of pop-rock becomes more apparent in the context of non-Anglo-American popular music cultures, where pop-rock is often under-stood, somewhat stereotypically, as all that new, late modern, electric andelectronic music whose alleged intrusion into, and disruption of, indigenous

folk and popular music traditions, in turn involved the stigmatization of it asan embodiment of cultural imperialism (in the eyes of the left) or cultural dete-rioration (in the eyes of the right) (see Pacini Hernandez et al., 2004).Conventional descriptions of the field of pop-rock, like the one briefly pre-sented above, tend to concentrate almost exclusively on its dominant Anglo-American components. But pop-rock was from an early stage a worldphenomenon. Disseminated by the growing international music industry,Anglo-American pop-rock was present in the music cultures of many differentcountries around the world since its initial moment in the 1950s. As such, its

various styles, moments and names have been for more than half a century amajor component in the taste cultures of various social sectors in those coun-tries. Such audiences developed a sense of cultural ownership for Anglo-American pop-rock not unlike that of its native audiences in the US and UK.Pop-rock became their music for purposes of marking generational time andidentity (Frith, 1987). Inseparable from this are the generations of musiciansand critics who have been creating and mediating locally-made pop-rock sinceat least the early 1960s. In subsequent decades, in a combined process of keep-ing pace with stylistic innovations in Anglo-American pop-rock, and develop-

ing indigenous styles and sonic structures, musicians and fans in many differentcountries have developed pop-rock traditions of their own.These traditions, overwhelmingly sung in domestic languages, and becom-

ing markers of local identity for their fans (if not for their entire respectivenations and ethnic groups), are henceforth labeled here as ethno-national pop-rock. As practically unacknowledged positions (by the dominant discourse) inthe field of pop-rock, their actual existence nevertheless means that pop-rockwas from the outset a global field. The self-perception of non-Anglo-Americanpop-rock musicians and critics as participants in the global field constitutedthem as a sort of cultural transmission mechanism, that transfers aestheticforms from outside the national context into it, in order to indigenize them(and sometimes also in the other direction, involving transmission from ethno-national context to the global field). It is in this convergence of the global andthe Anglo-American with the ethnic and national, as embodied in the culturalwork of pop-rock musicians and critics, that pop-rock music becomes a majorsite for the social production of aesthetic cosmopolitanism from within thenation. It should be stressed that ethno-national pop-rock is not to be conflatedwith world music styles and discourse. While they occasionally do overlap(especially when viewed from the US or the UK), world music aesthetic sensi-bilities and artistic ideology often counter the electric emphasis of ethno-national pop-rock and its close affinity to pop-rock in general (Erlmann, 1993;Feld, 1994; Frith, 2000; Robertson and Inglis, 2005).



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Agency and the Intersection of Two Fields

Understanding how aesthetic cosmopolitanism in music is socially producedfrom within given ethno-national cultures, entails looking at musicians and crit-

ics as agents whose cultural work is structured by the simultaneous positionthey occupy in two fields of cultural production: the global field of pop-rock onthe one hand, and the specific field of ethno-national culture in which they aresituated on the other. The latter refers to the social space in which differentidentity positions within a given ethno-national setting struggle over what con-stitutes and defines legitimate national culture (Regev, 2000). Aesthetic cos-mopolitanism emerges as the socially produced consequence of the interplaybetween these two fields. The working of this interplay, its social mechanismand cultural logic, can be analyzed by considering two elaborations on

Bourdieus analysis of cultural fields.The first comes from the work of Sewell (1992), who criticizes Bourdieus

analysis of habitus because it cannot explain change as arising from within theoperation of structures (1992: 16). He then goes on to argue that the transfor-mation of structures from within is possible thanks to five key characteristics of fields (or social structures). Two of these are the multiplicity of structures andthe transposability of schemas. These two imply that individuals, as socialagents, are always situated in more than one field, and routinely transpose ele-ments from one field-specific habitus to their actions and practices in a differ-

ent field. Artists and other cultural producers are no exception: they occupypositions in more than one field, each field having its own specific forms of cap-ital and habitus, with its own hierarchies, structures and schemas. The inter-section of two (or more) fields of cultural production thus becomes a source forinnovation and change. The work of agency, of producing cultural change, isperformed through the transposition of specific types of habitus from one fieldto another. Aesthetic sensibilities, criteria of evaluation and creative patternsare some key elements transposed by cultural producers from one field toanother, as part of the dynamics of innovation and surpassing of existing pat-terns that characterize all artistic fields.

A second elaboration comes from the work of Toynbee (2000), whoapplies a key concept of Bourdieus field theory, the space of possibles (or pos-sibilities), to the work of musicians in the field of popular music. ExaminingBourdieus concept, which defines the creative trajectories available to an artistat a given moment, Toynbee goes on to develop a model he calls the radius of creativity. His main point is that within the given space of possibilities avail-able to an artist in the field, there is always a likelihood that some possibilitieswill be preferred over others. This likelihood is a function of the musicians owndispositions, her position in the field, and the readily available creative means,as offered by the actual institutions within which she works. It is this likelihoodthat ultimately defines which creative possibility will be adopted, includingstylistic innovation.



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In the light of these elaborations, it can be asserted that generations of musicians within ethno-national settings, since the 1960s and onwards, oncethey were faced with, and became fascinated by, the creative possibilitiesoffered by the globally dominant forms of the art of pop-rock (not to mention

the ideologies surrounding those creative possibilities) have been self-mobilizedinto membership and actor-hood in the global field of pop-rock. While theadoption of pop-rock might be interpreted, along the lines of the cultural impe-rialism thesis (Goodwin and Gore, 1990; Negus, 1997) as a move forced onmusicians by the industry, it is rather the willful embracing of pop-rock by cer-tain actors that has proved crucial. Indeed, if there is something we might callcultural imperialism in this regard, it consists of the acceptance of a belief inthe cultural significance and artistic value of the creative means and canonicworks of pop-rock, and the active joining of the field.

Once they came to perceive themselves as participants in the global field,pop-rock musicians in many parts of the world adopted the imperative to keepup to date with things that happen at the forefront of Anglo-American pop-rock(and sometimes musical developments coming out of other locations as well).Stylistic innovations or musicians that are valorized as important by the dom-inant (Anglo-American) production of meaning positions in the field are boundto influence and inspire pop-rock musicians in different parts of the world. Suchmusicians willfully let themselves be inspired and influenced, because it servestheir interest to feel like active, up to date and relevant actors in the global field,

and to determine their own path of creativity and innovation. But these musi-cians are also actors in their respective fields of national culture, where they arepropelled to create works whose form, content and meaning arguably represent(or they think they represent) ethno-national uniqueness, singularity and dis-tinction. As members of a given ethno-national community, and as artistswhose immediate public comes also from that same community, they areimpelled to make music that can be used by their relevant publics to sustain asense of local uniqueness, that is, of ethno-nationalism.

Pop-rock musicians, in other words, find themselves at the intersection of two fields and an expanded radius of creativity. The space of creative possibili-ties opened to them consists of both the pop-rock tradition and the ethno-national heritage of which they are successors. Likelihood of access to the creativeand institutional means that lead to success in the global field has historicallybeen low for pop-rock musicians in non-Anglo-American countries. Thus theyhave been opting, overwhelmingly, for those creative possibilities whose likeli-hood of leading to success was much higher, namely those that allow the makingof pop-rock music which is also at the same time ethno-national music. Thismeans, in practice, transposing aesthetic schemas from the global field to thenational field, and vice versa. Transposition consists of taking stylistic patterns of pop-rock and using them within ethno-national contexts, and application of ethno-national traditional patterns into the realm of pop-rock. Transpositionresults most notably in the making of ethno-national variants on whatever pop-rock style happens to be in vogue in the Anglo-American-dominated global field



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at a given moment. Thus many countries witnessed locally made rocknroll in theearly 1960s, music inspired by British rock later in that decade, progressive rock,folk rock and punk in the 1970s, new wave in the 1980s, and hip-hop or electro-dance in the 1990s. The salient ethno-national elements in these repertoires con-

sisted of singing in the native language and referring in the lyrics to subjects andissues that emanated from local, ethno-national social reality. However, in orderfor musicians to justify this music and to gain legitimacy as expressions of ethno-national uniqueness, transposition of creative practices also takes place in theother direction. This is done by incorporating into pop-rock stylistic elements andcreative techniques associated with local, ethno-national traditions of folk andpopular music. This practice includes the use of native music instruments (some-times modified to be electric), indigenous vocal techniques of enunciation throughsinging and rhythmic patterns, and, most obviously, recording electrified pop-

rock cover versions of traditional music.The pattern is most typically exemplified by folk rock singer-songwriterswhose inspiration comes from Bob Dylan, but whose notion of folk comesfrom their own heritage. The result is an electric ethno-rock, often receivedwith much enthusiasm by critics and audiences for its perceived seamless hybrid-ity of indigenous tradition and state of the art modernity. Thus in Argentina, theelectric variant of folk rhythms produced by Leon Gieco made him a nationalfigure, and in Israel Ehud Banais rock, tinged with Central Asian and MiddleEastern flavors, spawned a whole wave of ethnic pop-rock. The term hybridiza-

tion is often used to describe the creative practices employed by Leon Gieco orEhud Banai, and it certainly depicts the nature of their creativity. In the light of the above, however, it should be stressed that hybridization is not an arbitraryor whimsical creative practice, but rather an artistic practice structured bythe social embeddedness of pop-rock music in the intersection of two fields of cultural production.

It should be added that not only musicians find themselves in this intersec-tion. Critics, commentators, radio DJs and music editors in short, producersof meaning occupy important positions in this regard as well. Their practicesof transposition take place by establishing pop-rock magazines, editing and pre-senting radio programmes, writing reviews and columns in the press, and so on.Through these practices, they transpose into the local field the knowledge of pop-rock, its criteria of evaluation, its mythology of canonical works and thelatters history. Their agency ultimately involves producing the ideologicalvocabulary and artistic justification through which pop-rock music in generalbecomes culturally respectable, and home-made pop-rock gains recognition asa legitimate expression of ethno-national uniqueness.

The Historical Musical Event of Pop-rock

Gaining recognition for pop-rock music as a legitimate expression of ethno-national uniqueness amounts to the transformation of such uniqueness, as



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expressed in music, into a condition of aesthetic cosmopolitanism. The transfor-mation has taken decades to materialize, and although its exact points of begin-ning and ending are difficult to determine, it can be asserted that it lasted roughlyfrom the late 1950s until the turn of the century. It is also undeniable that the

transformation was preceded by a form of musical ethno-nationalism charac-terized by a quest for essentialist distinction through folk and traditionalpopular music, and that in its later stages musical ethno-nationalism came to becharacterized by the legitimate, sometimes overwhelming and dominant pres-ence of pop-rock music. For the purposes of characterizing this long-termproduction of aesthetic cosmopolitanism from within ethno-national contexts,I want to suggest the concept of historical musical event, and thus to presentschematically the historical musical event of pop-rock.

The concept of musical event is taken from the work of DeNora (2003).

Evolving from ethnographic work carried out in different settings (De Nora; 2000),she developed a model that demonstrates how engagement with music affects indi-vidual life courses and micro situations of everyday life. At this interactionist level,a musical event is an act of engagement with music that in some way alters the lifeof the individuals involved. I propose to generalize the use of the concept, andexamine it at a collective level, looking at how the engagement with music of agiven collective entity such as a nation alters its sense of cultural uniqueness. Thus,the ascent of pop-rock to legitimacy, and even dominance, within ethno-nationalcultures can be portrayed as the historical musical event of pop-rock. Portraying the

process as an event comes to emphasize that music is a force that does not justreflect, but actually carries and prompts, cultural change. Following the half-century duration of this event, the perception and performance of ethno-nationalcultural uniqueness has been transformed from involving emphasis on essentialism,purism and exclusivity, to being organized around fluidity, relativity and opennessto otherness.

The major aspects of the event are portrayed and described as a four-phaseprocess (schematically presented in Table I), based on the cases of Argentina andIsrael. It should be stressed, however, that evidence from other countries suggeststhat, with some variance and modification in periodization and other elements, theskeletal structure of the historical musical event of pop-rock is similar: see, forexample, Chun et al. (2004) for East Asia, Dunn (2001) for Brazil, De Kloet(2001), Baranovitch (2003), A.F. Jones (1992) for China, Loosely (2003) forFrance, Mitchell (2001) for the global spread of hip-hop, Ollivier (2006) forQuebec, Stapleton and May (1987) for African countries, Cushman (1995) andSteinholt (2005) for Russia. However, unlike these single case studies, that rarelytheorize the emergence of ethno-national pop-rock as a world phenomenon, I useArgentina and Israel as anchors for a generalized theory of world pop-rock. Also,while the emphasis of previous comparative studies was mostly institutional,focusing on policies, industry ownership and places of production (Burnett, 1996;Malm and Wallis, 1992), I propose here a cultural focus on meaning. Argentinaand Israel are chosen for substantial and methodological reasons. Both countriesare essentially modern immigrant societies, for whom constructing a unified sense



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of cultural uniqueness has been a major endeavour. The role played by folk andpopular music in this effort provided similar backgrounds to the paths of pop-rockmusic towards legitimacy in both countries. That is, pop-rock posed a potentialthreat to the perceived achievement of unified national uniqueness, and its dis-course and practice in these countries had therefore to defend and justify ethno-national relevance vigorously. Methodologically, my personal fluency in Spanishand Hebrew allowed for unmediated, first-hand deciphering of texts and dis-course. Overall, I trace the stylistic expansion and public reception of nationalpop-rock in these two countries and point to musicians, albums and styles thathave been the carriers of this socio-cultural process. Taken together, the fourphases depict the social career of pop-rock in each country from marginality tolegitimacy. They also expose the themes of linearity and achievement that under-lie the historical narratives of pop-rock, the pride of local actors about making itin terms of the artistic parameters of pop-rock, and maintenance of ethno-nationaluniqueness. The details of pop-rock presented here have been extracted from theproduction of meaning apparatuses in both countries. For the sake of brevity andfluidity, I keep direct quotes to a minimum. 2

Pre-history

This early phase consists of the musicians and albums conventionally regardedas the first to introduce rock music into local-national cultures. However,

327 Ethno-National Pop-Rock Music Regev

Table 1 The Historical Musical Event of Pop-rock: Transformation of Ethno-National CulturalUniqueness in Music

Before the event: Quest for essentialism and purism through emphasis on traditional and indigenous folk and

popular music

The Event:Actors: musicians, critics, fans, media professionals, music industry

Phase 1. Pre-history (Elvis and beat-bands imitations)

Phase 2. Consecrated/mythical beginning (Local Music inspired by the Beatles, Dylan, folk rock,psychedelia and progressive rock)

Phase 3. Consolidation and dominance (aligning ranks with traditional national music, local new-wave, rockization of pop)

Phase 4. Diversification, internationalization (hip-hop, electronica, metal; international success andrecognition)

After the event : Pop-rock music as legitimate expression of the ethno-nationalism Emphasis on participation and membership as equals in world pop-rock Willful openness to constant stylistic influx from outside: aesthetic cosmopolitanism


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except for factual acknowledgment, they are hardly appreciated at this time forartistic quality or authenticity. The musicians in this phase preceded themythologized, consecrated moment of the birth of ethno-national pop-rock,the moment when its proper history began, hence my use of the term pre-

history. Lack of appreciation is coupled to typical characterizations of themusic at this phase as imitative and inauthentic (Kreimer, 1970). However,while in Argentina the performers associated with this early stage enjoyedcommercial success and the status of media teen idols, in Israel, on the otherhand, the pioneering of pop-rock had the character of a suburban subculture,hardly noticed by the media or record industry. Another noticeable differencelies in the fact that early pop-rock was mostly a middle-class youth phenomenonin Argentina, while in Israel it was primarily a working-class youth affair.Interestingly, a salient source of influence on this early pop-rock in both Israel

and Argentina was the Italian pop-rock associated with the San Remo festival,and with performers such as Little Tony, Bobby Solo, Rita Pavone and others.Performers Sandro and Palito Ortega are the most salient names in

Argentina in this phase. Sandro was a local impersonation of Elvis Presley. Herecorded cover versions of early rocknroll hits, and adopted the correspond-ing appearance (hair style, body language on stage, and so on). Palito Ortega,on the other hand, was the main figure in the group of performers known as El Club Del Clan , named after the television show which regularly featured them.The models here were early 1960s North American musicians such as Paul

Anka or Neil Sedaka. Known together as La Nueva Ola (new wave) or MusicaBeat , Sandro and El Club Del Clan participants were an intrusion in the popu-lar music of Argentina, dominated by folklore, tango and other typically LatinAmerican forms of popular music.

In the case of Israel, the early musicians are usually grouped togetherunder the name lehakot ha-ketzev (the beat groups). The label refers to a num-ber of bands that sang in (bad) English covers of Anglo-American hits (origi-nally by Presley, Cliff Richard, the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Animals, theKinks, the Who etc.). With names such as Ha-shmenim ve-harazim (the FatGuys and the Slim Guys), Ha-kokhavim ha-kehulim (the Blue Stars), theGoldfingers, Ha-arayiot (the Lions), Uzi ve-ha-signonot (Uzi and the Styles)and the Churchills, the bands regularly exchanged members between eachother and performed in small clubs in the greater Tel Aviv area, most notablyin the town of Ramle. The limited cultural industries of Israel in the mid-1960sdid not pay any attention to the phenomenon. Lehakot ha-ketzev , if noticedat all by those occupying power-holding positions in the field of nationalculture, were dismissed as totally irrelevant, and at best treated as a threat tothe sought purity of national culture.

Consecrated Beginning

Each country has its quasi-mythical moment of the birth of its own ethno-national rock, a founding and constitutive historical moment. This moment,



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lasting roughly from the late 1960s throughout much of the 1970s, consists of musicians that, according to conventional narratives, were the first to makelocal rock music worthy of its name. This was in two senses. First, music thatmatched artistic standards set by leading Anglo-American artists of the period.

Second, music that could properly be called locally authentic, because of thelanguage it used, the content of its lyrics, its typical sonic texture, and the socialsources from which it emanated. Thus the consecrated beginning of pop-rockin the two countries is characterized by the appearance of enthusiasticallyreceived local versions of music inspired by the Beatles and Bob Dylan, folkrock, progressive rock and, to some extent, hard/heavy rock. Following thisperiod, leading musicians of this phase enjoyed a lasting and influential careerinto the 21st century. The albums recorded in this phase by these musicians arethe consecrated classics of local rock, its essential canon. It is with these albums

that in the countries in question the music was given the proper names of respectively Israeli rock and rock nacional .An important feature of this formative moment, as with similar moments

in other fields of art, is its collaborative nature. In each country, the birth of ethno-national pop-rock is credited to a small network of musicians thatbetween them formed bands, duos or short-lived projects, participated in eachothers solo efforts, contributed production work and authorship of composi-tions or lyrics to each others albums, and joined forces on stage in special con-certs and events. Regev and Seroussi (2004) refer to this network in Israel as the

elite of Israeli rock. The term can be applied to the parallel network inArgentina as well. Musicians and critics there repeatedly declared the releaseand success of the single La Balsa (The Raft) by the group Los Gatos in 1967as the beginning of rock nacional . Litto Nebia, front person of this band, is onemember of the elite network, whose additional prominent names include LuisAlberto Spinetta, Charly Garca, Nito Mestre, David Lebn, Leon Gieco, aswell as other members of the bands some of these musicians led ( Almendra,Pescado Rabioso, Sui Generis, Seru Giran, Pappos Blues ), and members of bands such as Manal , Vox Dei , and Arco Iris . The first album by Spinettasband, Almendra , is often credited as the constitutive work of rock nacional .The album was twice voted, in critics and musicians polls conducted by thedaily newspapers Clarn in 1985 and Pgina /12 in 1992, as the best album inthe history of Argentine rock. As Pujol (2002: 269) expresses it:

Everything seemed to be there in place: the sonic world of the [19]60s, with itsdiverse replicates, diverse styles, synthesized in thirty minutes. In this sense, it mightbe said that the influence of the Beatles on Almendra was less about direct musicalaffiliation than about the idea of the integral disc or album, like Sgt. PeppersLonely Hearts Club Band .

In Israel, the network consisted of singer Arik Einstein and musicians likeShalom Hanoch, Shmulik Kraus and Shem-Tov Levy who collaborated withhim intensively at this formative stage. The elite also included the bandKaveret as well as Ariel Zilber, Matti Caspi and others. Foremost among the



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albums made by members of this network are Sof Onat ha-Tapuzim (End of theOrange Season, 1976), the only album by the band Tamuz , formed by Hanochand Zilber, and Shablool (1970), by Arik Einstein and Hanoch again. AsYaakov Gilaad, a critic writing retrospectively in the mid-1980s, put it:

In a period when Israeli music sounds like a merger of a poor mans San Remo fes-tival and the Eurovision, Shablool lands like a thunder on a clear day. A real boom.The most important and best album recorded until this day in the new Israeli music Rocknroll in Hebrew. Here, at this point exactly, Israeli rock is born.(Hadashot , 5 December 1986)

It should be stressed that these valorizations are retrospective. At theiractual time of appearance, the seminal albums of ethno-national rock enjoyed,at best, modest success in the market and received fairly small attention from

some curious reviewers. In the 1970s, pop-rock had just started its struggle forlegitimacy and recognition within national culture. As Diaz (2005) points outfor Argentina, in what amounted to a typical mode of constituting a position orsub-field (in the field of national culture), pop-rocks producers of meaning por-trayed it as an invigoration of national culture, as the local implementation of new and exciting developments in world art and culture. In addition, nationalpop-rock culture was coupled to actual oppositional politics. Thus in Argentinarock came to be associated implicitly and on some memorable occasionsexplicitly (see Vila, 1987) with opposition to dictatorship and the military

regime of 197683, while in Israel a certain association emerged between rockand opposition to the Occupation of Palestine (Regev and Seroussi, 2004:658).

The accomplishment of ethno-national pop-rock during this phase was toestablish itself as a legitimate, although still minority, position in the field of national culture, next to existing positions. The valorizations quoted above,written when pop-rock had already gained prominence and even dominancein national musical cultures, mythologize this phase as a moment of rupture,canonize the pioneering status and avant-garde aura of the albums, andexpress the sense of achievement shared by pop-rock musicians and critics inthis later period.

Consolidation and Rise to Dominance

This is the phase during which pop-rock music rose to dominance in bothnational contexts. The 1980s witnessed the rockization of almost the entirefield of popular music. The historical context for this phase in Argentina wasthe demise of the military regime and the return to democracy. In Israel thisphase coincided with the transition to liberal economic policy ushered in by theright-wing Likud party. Alabarces (1993) refers in this regard to an explosionin the amount and public impact of rock produced in Argentina in the early1980s, and Regev and Seroussi (2004) write about the coming of rock during



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this period in Israel. Put differently, in this phase ethno-national culture saw theindigenization of pop-rock music, its Argentinization and Israelization.

Various phenomena came together to produce this effect. Most salient isthe general adoption of electrification, amplification and sophisticated studio

production the rock aesthetic as the standard creative practice in the field of popular music. While this adoption can be attributed to the growing embed-dedness of local cultural industries in the network of multinational corpora-tions (Getino, 1995; Regev, 1997; Wallis and Malm, 1984; Ydice, 1999), andto organizational isomorphism in the music industry (DiMaggio and Powell,1983), the dynamics of the cultural field in this regard cannot be underesti-mated. Given that rock musicians have been those who moulded and codifiedthe modes for using electric instruments, amplification and studio productiontechniques as expressive and creative tools, adoption of these practices, even by

musicians who were not rock musicians in a strict sense, signaled an accep-tance of rock as the realm of innovation for large parts of the field of popularmusic. It reflected an acknowledgment by actors that rock was the positionwhere new sonic patterns and expressive options in electric instruments and stu-dio technology are explored and formulated, involving a set of aesthetic possi-bilities that could later usefully be adopted by other positions in the field.Pop-rock musicians and instrumentalists who had already gained proficiencyand reputation during the early phases of the adoption of pop-rock practicesbecame by the 1980s the national hoard of experts from which musicians or

studio producers were recruited for making state of the art popular music.More specific phenomena that took place within this general trend consistedof collaborations and mergers of pop-rock with traditional genres. In a move thatbroadened some tendencies that already existed in earlier works, pop-rock musi-cians started to record, in rock arrangements, songs from the local folk and tra-ditional popular canon, in order to create original music in the same vein, and toteam up with prominent musicians from those genres. The two-way stylisticexchange that emerged blurred at some points the differences between pop-rockand other genres. Notable examples in Argentina include Mercedes Sosa, anational icon of folklore, who shared the stage in 1982 with Charly Garca, LeonGieco and other founders, and then moved on to record songs by these andother pop-rock authors such as Fito Pez and Alejandro Lerner. Gieco himself expanded earlier inclinations, and together with former Arco Iris leader GustavoSantaolalla, toured the country with a mobile studio. The original and traditionalmusic which they recorded with local musicians resulted in the highly valorizedfour-disc project De Ushuaia a La Quiaca (1985). Finally, Juan Carlos Baglietto,in his first solo album (1982), which became the first rock nacional album toreceive gold certification from the local industry, performed pop-rock musicusing a vocal form of delivery, and arrangements that owed much to the tradi-tional atmosphere of tango.

In Israel, the first thing to mention is the success of leading rock artists inestablishing themselves as inheritors of, rather than rebels against, the folk tra-dition of shirey eretz yisrael .3 This was achieved primarily through the series of



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albums Good Old Eretz Yisrael , in which Arik Einstein recorded classic songsfrom this folk repertoire in soft rock arrangements. The composers andarrangers who collaborated with him on the project, Shem-Tov Levy and YoniRechter, emerged in this as well as other projects as the rock-inspired heirs of

canonic eretz yisrael composers such as Sasha Argov, Mordechai Zeira andDavid Zehavi. From a different angle, the growing presence and legitimacy of the genre known as musica mizrahit (oriental music), 4 although ideologicallyantagonistic to rock, nevertheless introduced an ethnic form of pop-rock,best expressed in the work of singers Zohar Argov and Haim Moshe. In a sim-ilar vein, Yehuda Poliker left his hard rock band Benzin to become one of thecountrys most successful and beloved musicians, with his formula of Greek andother Mediterranean inspired pop-rock music. Ehud Banai, mentioned earlier,also emerged with a successful career and a sonic idiom that fuses rock with

Middle Eastern and Asian influences.A further important phenomenon in this context is the transformation of traditional vocal pop into so-called soft rock or adult-oriented rock. Here, theniche of sentimental ballads has been conquered by singer songwriters such asAlejandro Lerner in Argentina and Rami Kleinstein in Israel, whose inspirationcomes from the likes of Elton John, for example. Most saliently, this niche cameto be associated with female singers, sometimes characterized as glamorous popdivas, whose grandiose sonic idiom is set within pop-rock parameters of instru-mentation and production (synthesizers, electric guitars, and so on). The obvi-

ous names to mention here are the Israeli singer Rita, and the Argentine SandraMihanovich. More than any other style, this phenomenon reflects the rockiza-tion of pop and indeed, the expansion of rock to become pop-rock.

Finally, this phase in the on-going historical event witnessed a new gener-ation of pop-rock musicians whose careers either took off following collabora-tions with the founders (Yehudith Ravitz in Israel, Fito Pez in Argentina), orwho were influenced by new frontiers of stylistic innovation most notablypost-punk and new wave (the bands Soda Stereo and Virus in Argentina, andMashina in Israel). Given the already legitimized position of the founders, theentry of these newcomers into the framework of what counts as nationalmusic, was smoother and faster than was hitherto possible, and met with posi-tive reviews that stressed how they allowed local culture to keep pace withbroader artistic innovations. This type of acceptance was facilitated by a dis-course, developed in music magazines, newspaper supplements, and radio andtelevision shows that flourished at this point, which were written and edited bycritics and journalists whose professionalism was totally based on the pop-rockhabitus. This discourse mythologized the founders of national rock, and pre-sented the expansion of pop-rock as a natural, conflict-free linear evolution.While this discourse, as Alabarces (1993: 88) notes, neutralizes the oppositionalcharacter rock initially had, and therefore de-ideologizes the ideological, andde-politicizes the political, it nevertheless depicts the position reached by pop-rock during the 1980s: that of dominance and centrality in these national fieldsof popular music.



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Diversification and Internationalization

The most recent phase of national pop-rock, during the 1990s and into the nextcentury, consisted not only of stylistic diversification in accordance with trends in

global pop-rock, but also of the development of indigenous patterns, decoupledfrom such trends. In addition, local musicians made forays into the global field withoccasional success, thus bringing pride into the national field about the latters per-ceived artistic quality. This phase also witnessed the appearance of written or tele-vised histories of national pop-rock, and the institution of prizes and awards by theindustry, the media and the state to honour the work of pop-rock musicians.

Diversification along the lines of global trends is best exemplified by the intro-duction of national hip-hop ( Illya Kuryaki & Los Valderramas , and SindicatoArgentino del Hip Hop in Argentina, Shabak Samech and Hadag Nahash in Israel)

and local electro-dance or electro-pop (house, techno, etc.). More significant, how-ever, were the indigenous stylistic developments that indicated self-confidence onthe part of national pop-rock musicians about their ability to create their owninnovations, decoupled from Anglo-American trends a development that to someextent rendered US and UK pop-rock less relevant for national pop-rock cultures(Frith, 2004). In Argentina this point became most explicit with the appearance of the trend known as rock chabn , best exemplified by bands such as Los Piojos andLa Renga (Semn and Vila, 2002; Semn et al., 2004). The critique by older rock-ers of this styles artistic quality and the form of nationalism it expressed (Marchi,2005) exposed rock chabn as a rupture in the perceived smoothness and linearityof rock evolution. In Israel, the phenomenon to mention is the fusion between theup until then conflicting musical cultures of musica mizrahit and rock. The fusionof these forms is exemplified by Tea-Packs and other bands that surfaced from thesouthern town of Sderot, deploying an ethnic sound that owed as much to existingIsraeli and dominant Anglo-American pop-rock as to musica mizrahit . The soundof Sderot thus defied existing categories, and was hailed by critics as a quintessen-tial, indigenous Israeli idiom of pop-rock (Saada-Ophir, 2006).

Another aspect of this phase consisted of the growing embeddedness of national fields in the global field, through the relatively successful forays of cer-tain local artists into global markets. With these, national pop-rock critics andmusicians celebrated a sense of achievement. Such successes served as apparentproof of the artistic quality reached by national pop-rock musicians, and theirabilities to match or even surpass dominant Anglo-American pop-rock stan-dards. In the case of Israel, there was the worldwide success of the Israeli-madeelectronic style of goa-trance music, with duos such as Astral Projection andInfected Mushroom becoming globally recognized names in this scene. Theworldwide success of female singers Ofra Haza and Noa contributed to Israelspresence in the world music context, while intensive touring of the band

Rockfour in the USA, as well as the collaboration of Israeli star Aviv Geffenwith Steven Wilson (leader of UK progressive rock band Porcupine Tree ) underthe name Blackfield , brought respect to Israeli music in some alternative rockscenes in the USA and Europe.



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In the case of Argentina, internationalization meant primarily that localmusicians and bands became prominent and influential names in the Spanishspeaking pop-rock scene of Latin America, Spain and the USA, also known asrock en espaol . During the 1990s, Argentinean bands such as Soda Stereo , Los

Fabulosos Cadillacs and Los Enanitos Verdes as well as rock auteur Fito Pez,became leading names of this scene across the continent, enjoying both marketand critical success. The successful cross-Atlantic career of Andrs Calamaromade him a prominent pop-rock artist in Spain as much as in his nativeArgentina. Additional contributions to the sense of international achievementcame, for example, from the high profile of Gustavo Santaolalla as musical pro-ducer of leading names of Latin pop-rock and other genres, and from the warmcritical reception in American and British rock publications offered to albumsby singer-songwriter Juana Molina.

Finally, the historical musical event of pop-rock culminated by the turn of the century in both countries with the publication and broadcasting of histo-ries of national pop-rock in Argentina (Bitar, 1993) and in the television seriesSof Onat ha-Tapuzin in Israel; and the launching of encyclopedic websites of national pop-rock (www.rock.com.ar for Argentina; www.mooma.com forIsrael). In addition, local honours patterned after the US Grammy awards andthe UK Mercury prize have been instituted in both countries, both operating asannual events of appraisal for current musicians, and also honouring veteranmusicians with special lifetime achievement awards (the Gardel prize in

Argentina, the ACUM and TAMUZ awards in Israel). These discursive prod-ucts, media events and ceremonies have further institutionalized the mytholo-gized narrative of pop-rock in both countries, and have become annual ritualsfor celebrating the sense of long history, wealth of repertoire, variety of stylesand artistic achievement of national pop-rock.

Pop-Rock and the Transformation of Musical Nationalism

Following the historical musical event of its emergence, legitimation and insti-tutionalization, pop-rock music came to be prominent in many countries, andcertainly in Argentina and Israel, as a corpus of cultural products set within adiscourse of appraisal. It remains to be seen what this presence means at thelevel of practice vis-a-vis the performance of musical nationalism (Turino,2003). Traditionally, musical nationalism has attached cultural uniqueness inmusic to styles associated with rural life, or early modern urban genres, and hasinstitutionalized specific genres as national folk and popular music. In the caseof Israel, an iconic relation has been established between nationhood and thefolk genre of shirey eretz yisrael ; in Argentina such a relation was establishedbetween nationhood and certain types of Andean and other indigenous musicstyles from various parts of the country, as well as the urban genre of tango.

The constitutive power of music for nationalism, however, goes deeper thanthe mechanical attachment of a given genre, style or repertoire of works to a



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specific national community. With music, membership in a national communitybecomes an experience of the body. This is because music, in ways unlike anyother form of art, moves the body. It does so either internally, by vibratinginner organs and arousing emotions, or externally, by prompting actual move-

ments of the head, hands, feet or the whole body, with dancing being theparadigmatic example (DeNora, 2003; Shepherd and Wicke, 1997). Frith refersin this regard to the way music makes people feel intensely present (1996: 144),and Bourdieu asserts that musical experiences are rooted in the most primitivebodily experience. There are no tastes except perhaps in food more deeplyrooted in the body than musical tastes. (1993b: 104) Performance of music,understood as both listening and creation (Hennion, 2001), thus connects thecultural connotations of the music in question to a pattern of bodily experience.With musical nationalism, membership in the nation is calibrated to specific gen-

res and styles, and through them to specific forms of corporeality, of feelingintensely present.Following the historical musical event of pop-rock, musical nationalism

has been transformed. Nationhood has been re-calibrated to the electric, elec-tronic and amplified aesthetic of pop-rock sonic idioms. National pop-rock hasbecome a prevalent expression of cultural uniqueness, for some sectors of national societies, if not for the nation at large. This is evident, for example,from the following review of a concert where the Argentine band Bersuit Vergarabat hosted on stage the rock performer Andrs Calamaro:

In the same decade that Bersuit erected itself as ideologist of the National Being,Andrs Calamaro has been added, on the strength of a thousand and one songs, tothe holy trinity of Argentine rock soloists (Luis Alberto Spinetta, Charly Garcaand Fito Pez). For this, Bersuit and Calamaro are already synonyms of Argentina,or rather, of Argentine-ness. ( La Nacion , 22 November 2004)

In Israel, pop-rock ballads came to dominate various national and state cer-emonies. Thus the commemoration rally for Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin,held exactly one week after his assassination, was a music-only event, with mostof the participants being pop-rock singers who performed various Israeli pop-rock ballads (Vinitzky-Seroussi, 1998). Also notable is the current dominanceof pop-rock ballads in radio play-lists on Memorial Day, a national day of mourning, and their presence in school ceremonies marking that day and othernational events (Lomsky-Feder, 2003).

The sonic textures of pop-rock, and therefore the forms of corporealitythey evoke, are obviously dissimilar to those associated with earlier folk andpopular music. Given the inter-mingling of stylistic influences, national pop-rock of one country also shares much aesthetic common ground with pop-rockelsewhere in the world. National pop-rock thus increases the proximitybetween musical nationalisms, and is a forceful embodiment of the complexconnectivity (Tomlinson, 1999) between the forms of cultural uniqueness of different nations. The specificity of the corporeality, and the sense of intensivepresence, associated with one ethno-national entity, come to include elements



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that are present in the specificity of other entities as well. We may think of crowds in concerts by Charly Garca (in Argentina) and Shalom Hanoch (inIsrael) that move together to the sound of songs that evoke locally particularlife trajectories, generational memories and a specific mode of being

Argentinean or Israeli during the last decades of the 20th century. The bodymovements of these crowds, their mode of feeling intensely present as mem-bers of their respective national communities, have much aesthetic commonground to them. The proximity of their aesthetic experience is greater than theone between, for example, listeners to folk dances such as queca (in Argentina)or hora (in Israel). It is this proximity and this complex connectivity that ulti-mately characterizes aesthetic cosmopolitanism and sets it apart from earlierconditions of ethno-national cultural uniqueness.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I want to evoke the hypothetical example of a recently discov-ered island society proposed by Meyer et al. (1997) in their model of worldsociety. In their account, following its discovery, the hypothetical island soci-ety will soon develop political institutions, school curricula, health care sys-tems, public administration, financial management and other forms of scientifically grounded rationalized instrumental culture that will make this

society similar in many aspects to other nation-states around the world, regard-less of its particular heritage.

The authors, however, hardly say anything about the expressive culture of this hypothetical island society, about how its cultural uniqueness will or willnot persist. But if the example of this hypothetical island society is extended toexpressive culture, then we may just as well predict that island musicians willsoon develop their own ethnic pop-rock music. Traditional music will behybridized with pop-rock styles, indigenous instruments will be plugged intoamplifiers, and modes of vocal delivery will be adjusted to the use of micro-

phones and amplification. In addition, electric guitars and synthesizers will beincorporated as standard instruments, and multi-channel recording studios willbe built and used by musicians to explore and create newly found sonic tex-tures. In doing so, the musicians will record albums of their indigenized pop-rock music while absorbing influences from Anglo-American pop-rocktraditions.

All of this will be done because musicians and audiences will feel that theirown locally authentic variants of rock, hip-hop or electro-dance qualify theirethno-national music to equal actor-hood in expressive world culture. In short,

ethno-national pop-rock music, as a major incarnation of aesthetic cosmopoli-tanism, stands as an exemplary case of isomorphic processes in world culture,in which ethno-national cultural uniqueness and diversity are re-orchestratedinto greater proximity.



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Acknowledgement

Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the IASPM-LA conference, BuenosAires, August 2005, and at the conference on The Local, The Regional and The

Global in the Emergence fo Popular Music Cultures, Copenhagen, October 2005.

Notes

1 All translations from sources in Spanish or Hebrew are by the author.2 In general, I rely for Israel on music magazines ( Lahiton , Musica ), music supple-

ments or sections in leading newspapers ( Yedioth Aharonot , Maariv , Haaretz,Hadashot, Ha-Yir, Kol-Hayir ), and websites (especially www.mooma.com). ForArgentina, I rely on websites (especially rock.com.ar), and on the abundance of trade books that in fact summarize the discourse originally published in maga-zines and newspapers (Abalos, 1995, 2004; Aguirre et al., 2005; Bitar, 1993;Gonzales, 1997; Grinberg, 1993; Guerrero, 1994; Kreimer, 1970; Lunardelli,2002; Marchi, 2005; Polimeni, 2001; Ramos and Lejbowicz, 1991). Existingscholarly work is also extensively consulted. For Israel, Eliram (2006); Regev(1992, 1996); Regev & Seroussi (2004). For Argentina: Alabarces (1993);Beltrn Fuentes (1989); Carnicer (2000); Carnicer and Diaz (2000); Diaz (2005);Madorey (2005); Pujol (2002); Semn and Vila (2002); Semn et al. (2004); Vila(1987); and Waisman and Restiffo (2005).

3 Shirey eretz yisrael (literally the songs of the land of Israel) is the conventionallabel for the repertoire of songs, mostly pastoral ballads, with lyrics praising thecountrys nature and history, which function in Israels public culture as repre-sentations of Jewish native-ness and patriotism.

4 Musica mizrahit is a genre that mixes pop-rock instrumentation and influenceswith East Mediterranean, North African and Middle Eastern traditions (seechapters 9 and 10 in Regev and Seroussi, 2004).

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Motti Regev

Mot ti Regev is Associate Professor of Sociology at The Open University of Israel. His

major interest is in popular music studies. He is the author of Popular Music and NationalCulture in Israel(2004, co-authored with Edwin Seroussi), Rock: Music and Culture(1994,in Hebrew) and d and Guitar: The Musical Culture of the Arabs in Israel(1993, inHebrew), as well as articles on the sociology of popular music. He edited (with Jason

Toynbee) a special issue of Popular Music(25/1, 2006) on canonization.Address: Department of Sociology, Political Science and Communication, The Open

University of Israel, 108 Ravutski st., P.O. Box 808, Raanana 43107, Israel.

E-mail: [email protected]



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