Chapter 7: Verbal Communication

I. The Power of Language in Intercultural Communication

II. Definition of Verbal Codes & Rules: a. The Features of Language

i. Verbal Code: a set of rules about the use of words in the creation of messages

b. Rule Systems in Verbal Codesi. Phonology: combing phonemes – basic sound units of a

languageii. Morphology: for combining morphemes, smallest units of

meaningiii. Semantics: the study of the meaning of words

1. Denotative: public, objective, and legal meanings of a word

2. Connotative personal, emotionally charged, private, and specific to a person, subjective

iv. Syntactics: the relationship of words to one another - sequence

v. Pragmatics: the effect of language of human perceptions and behaviors – focuses on how language is actually used

c. Interpretation & Intercultural Comm.i. Difference between Translation and Interpretation

1. Translation: transfer of written verbal codes between languages

2. Interpretation: the oral process of moving from one code to another

ii. The role of interpretation in today’s worldiii. Types of Equivalence: is accurate interpretation possible?

1. Vocabulary equivalence – to establish, the interpreter seeks a word in the target language that has the same meaning in their own language.

2. Idiomatic equivalence – trying to understand the intended meanings of idiomatic expressions and to translate them into the other language.

3. Grammatical-syntactical equivalence – verb tense in Hopi language nonexistent vs U.S.

4. Experiential Equivalence – differing life experiences5. Conceptual equivalence (refers to how different

cultures define reality)III. Language, Thought, & Culture:

a. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity;

i. Ver 1. – Firmer view – Language determines the way we think. Like a prison

ii. Ver. 2 – Softer view – Language shapes how people think/experience their world.

b. Variations in linguistic grammarsi. Words: For showing respect and the nature of the relationship

ii. Pronouns: The capitalize “I” English and other languagesiii. Linguistic relativity and intercultural communication:

1. Language shapes and influences thoughts/actions

c. Language & Intercultural Communicationi. Ethnic group identity and dominance

1. Language plays an active role in relationship.ii. Alternative versions of languages

1. Dialects: versions of a language2. Accents: differences in pronunciation3. Jargon: words shared in a profession4. Argot: language of gang members

iii. Code Switching: refers to the selection of the language to be used in a particular convo

IV. Verbal Codes & Intercultural Competencea. Study another language.b. Learn about other language grammatical features.c. Motivation to want to learn about other cultures.d. Know that you may fail.

Ch. 8: Nonverbal Intercultural Communication

I. Definition of Nonverbal Codesa. A multichannel process that is usually performed spontaneously and

subconsciously… b. Nonverbal codes and verbal codes are inseparably linked together

II. Defining Nonverbal Codesa. Characteristics of Nonverbal Codes 

i. Is a silent language ii. Continuous and natural

iii. There are not dictionaries of formal sets of rules…iv. Is less precisev. Multifunctional

vi. Multichannel: NV messages can occur in a variety of ways simultaneously.

b. Relationship of Nonverbal to Verbal Comm.i. Accent

ii. Complement

iii. Contradictiv. Regulatev. Substitute

III. Cultural Universal in Nonverbal Comm. (Varona disagrees!)a. Shoulder shrug (I don’t know…Idc) b. Facial expressions andc. The need to be territorial

IV. Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Comm.: Body Movements, Space, Touch, Time, Voice, Others... a. NOTE: Nonverbal communication must be interpreted in the context

of the culture in which it occurs! i. Cultures differ in the specific behaviors that are enacted. Ex:

body positionsii. Cultures have unique sets of display rules for nonverbal

behaviors (what is required, preferred, permitted, or prohibited)

iii. Cultures vary in the interpretations or meanings of nonverbal behaviors…

1. Types of interactions: random, idiosyncratic, sharedb. Nonverbal repertoires (rules and interpretations) are NOT TAUGHT

VERBALLY. V. Nonverbal Messages in Intercultural Comm.

a. Kinesics (Body movements)i. Emblems: nonverbal behaviors that have a direct verbal

counterpart (good-bye – waving) ii. Illustrators: NV behaviors that are directly tied to, or

accompany a verbal messageiii. Affect displays: facial and body movements that show feelings

and emotions (expressions of happiness/sadness)iv. Regulators: NV behaviors that help to synchronize the back-

and-forth nature of conversations.1. Mmm, nodding, eye contact, postural shifts2. Regulators used by speakers to indicate whether others

should take a turn, etc. v. Adaptors: personal body movements that occur as a reaction to

an individual’s physical or psychological state1. Scratching an itch, fidgeting, tapping pencil, twisting

hair, biting nails 2. Performed unintentionally, mindlessly

b. Proxemics (space): Hall’s 4 Spatial Zones – High-low contexti. How people differ in their use of personal space

ii. Territorality: 1) cultures can differ in the general degree of territoriality that its members tend to exhibit

c. Haptics (Touch)i. Used for playfulness, means of control, for ritual purposes,

task-related (passing something)

d. Chronemics (Time) – monochromic/polychromice. Vocalics: pitch, rate, volumef. Others

i. Chemicalii. Dermal

iii. Physicaliv. Artifactual code systems

VI. Synchrony of Nonverbal Comm. Codesa. Cultures train members to synchronize various nonverbal behaviors…b. This synchronization forms a response pattern of the culture…c. Variations in response patterns are clearly noticed.d. Competent nonverbal behavior require appropriate coordination

i. Ex: actorsVII. Nonverbal Comm. and Intercultural Competence

a. The rules and norms that govern nonverbal comm, are both cultural-specific and learned unconsciously.

b. Nonverbal comm. Operates largely outside of one’s conscious awareness.

c. Monitoring one’s emotional reactions to differences in nonverbal behaviors alerts a person to the interpretations he or she is making.

d. Observe general tendencies in nonverbal behavior of different cultural groups.

e. One can practice ability to observe, evaluate, and behave in effective ways during intercultural encounters.

Ch. 9: The Effects of Code Usage in Intercultural Communication

I) Preferences in the Organization of Verbal Codesa) Cultures have distinct organizational preferences.

USA JAPAN HINDIDirectSpecificExplicit

IndirectionImplication

Digression (saying circular things about the topic w/o implying or being direct)

Linear Stepping Stone CircularSpeaker-responsible Listener-responsibleRude and aggressive Confusing

ImpreciseIllogicalDisorganizedUnclear

b) Organizational preferences in Englishc) Organizational preferences in other Languages

II) Cultural Variations in Persuasion

Cultures differ in what is evidence, logic, and in persuasive styles.

USA Other Cultures Physical evidence and eyewitness

accounts Quasilogical Style: Statistics

Testimonial accounts

In some African Cultures to speak out is regarded as suspicion

Presentational Style: emotional appeals –pathos

Analogical Style: stories, parables, and analogiesEx: Jesus

a) Quasilogical style: resembles formal logic. Connect evidence to persuasive conclusion.

b) Presentation Style: it is understood that people, rather than the idea itself is persuasive, uses language, rhythmic qualities,

c) Analogical style: seeks to establish an idea/conclusion thru stories/fables i) Assumption that the collective experience of groups of ppl/culture

rather than the ideas are persuasive.

III)Cultural Variations in the Structure of ConversationsAll convos differ on a number of important dimensions: how long one talks, the nature o the relationship between the conservants, the kinds of topics discussed.

a) Value of talk and silence p.216i) Euro-Americans/African Americans: spoken word is seen as reflection of

person’s inner thoughts .(1) Legal oaths(2) Silence: awkwardness, embarrassment, disapproval, shyness, lack of

verbal skillsii) vs. Japanese, Chinese

b) Rules for conversationsi) Lengthii) Turn takingiii) Kind of topicsiv) The way information is presentedv) What shows interestvi) The nature of the relationship between the conversants

c) Rules of Conversations (2) p.220Cultural Variations in Conversational Style

(Gudykunst & Tiny-Toomey dimensions)

Elaborate (Latino/Arab- frequent use of metaphors, fig language) ---

Succinct (long pauses, understatement) Personal (individual is center of action) --- Contextual (emphasis on social

roles that ppl have in relationships w others) Instrumental (comm is goal-oriented, depends on explicit, verbal messages)

--- Affective (emotionalm require sensitivity to the underlying meanings)

IV)Effects of Code Usage on Intercultural Competencea) Just knowing the syntactic rules of other languages is not enough.b) Understand that other cultures may organize their ideas, persuade others,

and structure conversations differently.c) Look for differences in how people from other cultures converse and use

logic.d) Avoid dismissing differences as illogical, irrational, or wrong.

Ch. 10: Intercultural Competence in Interpersonal Relationships

I. Cultural Variations in Interpersonal Relationshipsa. Types of Interpersonal Relationships

i. Stranger: be friendly, be helpful vs. no obligation, no relation1. Collective: Stranger: “They’re not in my in-group.”2. Individualistic: “Treat all strangers the same.”3. Ex: Korea – IDC, US – fear strangers

ii. Acquaintance: someone you know, but only casually1. Superficial interactions

iii. Friend1. Friendships are voluntary 2. European: friends, allies, neighbors – individ3. S. Africans: brothers, sisters4. Differs: whom is a friend, how long friendship lasts,

iv. Romantic Partners1. EU: dating casually2. Spain: dating more serious3. India: arranged marriages by parents

v. Family1. Ex: nuclear family includes extended family vs. nuclear

family ONLY2. How the family is defined, formality of roles,

importance of family in personal decisions, etc.

b. Dimensions of Interp. Relationships p.231

People throughout world use 3 primary dimensions to interpret interpersonal messages:

i. Control: involves status or social dominance1. the way supervisors can touch subordinates, how you

address teacher, CEO need more personal space2. Indonesia: speak Balinese which reflects their caste

ii. Affiliation: used to interpret the degrees of friendliness, social warmth that is communicated.

1. Ex: close physical proximity, touching, smiling, friendly tone of voice

2. High- contact cultures: stand closer, fewer barriers, warmer climates,

iii. Activation: refers to the way people react to the world around them

1. Some react to things very excitedly, some very calm or peaceful.

2. Thais, Malays neutralize their emotions in convos whereas Iranians are very emotionally expressive.

c. Dynamics of Interp. Relationshipsi. Autonomy-connection dialectic (desire for

separation/connection)ii. Novelty-predictability dialectic (desire for change/stability)

iii. Openness-closedness dialectic (desire to share/withhold info)

II. The Maintenance of Face in Interp. Relationshipsa. Face (everyone has desire to maintain face.)

i. Is the public (social) expression of one’s inner selfii. Is the favorable social impression that an individual wants

othersiii. Only meaningful when considered in relation to others in

social networkb. Three types of face needs: p.236

i. For control: autonomy (personal authority), freedom1. In control of one’s own fate, freedom of action

ii. For approval: honest, respectable

1. Related to ppl’s need for others to know their friendliness and honesty

iii. For admiration: capabilities, accomplishments1. For others to respect, acknowledge their talents, skills

Facework refers to the actions taken to deal with the face-needs of oneself and others. (Face-threats: control, affiliation, culture-specific: cultures make unique assessments about the degree to which particular actions are inherently threatening to one’s face.)

III. Improving Intercultural Relationshipsa. DEFINE: Uncertainty & Anxiety Management

1. Uncertainty: refers to the extent to which a person lacks the knowledge…to understand and predict the intentions and behaviors of others.

2. Anxiety: refers to an individual’s degree of emotional tension and inability to cope with change (due to lack of knowledge)

ii. Causes1. Expectations about further interactions (wanting to

know more about a person or not based on seeing one another in future)

2. The incentive value:a. Perceived likelihood that the other person can

fulfill various needs that you have, you benefit b. if you will benefit lots, want to know more

3. The degree of deviance from what you have been expecting

a. When a person is acts deviant, anxiety and uncertainty level is high – b/c unpredictable.

iii. Positive/Negative Consequences1. Expectancy Violations Theory: All behaviors that differ

from expectations will increase uncertainty in interaction.

a. Positivei. Emotional: include increased levels of

self-disclosure, heightened interpersonal attraction, increase in intimacy behaviors, more frequent nonverbal displays of emotion

ii. Informational: facts or inferences about their culture, increased accuracy in

judgments made about their beliefs, values, norms

iv. Strategies to reduce uncertainty avoidance1. Make an accurate assessment about many kinds of info:

a. Individ characterisics of person you interact withb. Social episodes that are typical of the particular

setting c. Specific roles playedd. Rules of interaction that govern what people

say/do

b. Cultural Variations on Self-Disclosurei. Breadth: range of topics

ii. Depth: degree of “personalness”iii. Valence: positive/negativeiv. Timing: when the disclosure occursv. Target: to whom self-disclosure info is given

c. Conflict: Handling Differences in Intercultural Settings

Collectivistic Individualistic Person-oriented Group-oriented Indirect, non-confrontational Face and relationship orientation Implicit communication codes

Task or issue-centered Individual-oriented Direct, confrontational Action and solution orientation Explicit

IV. Intercultural competence requires:a. Knowledge, motivation, skillsb. Appropriate/effective behaviorsc. Willingness to understand the face needs of people from other

cultures, try alternate relational dynamics

Chapter 11: Episodes, Contexts, and Intercultural Interactions

I. Social Episodes in Intercultural Relationshipsa. The Nature of Social Episodes

i. Are interaction sequences that are repeated over and over again

ii. Are very repetitive, predictable, and routine behaviors

iii. Participants generally know what to expect, how to behave, what to say, and how to interpret the actions/intentions of others

iv. Ex: Class as a studentv. (give info on how to interpret verbal/nonverbal symbols of the

interactants

b. 5 Components of Social Episodes p.252i. Cultural Patterns: shared judgments about what the world is

and what it should be, and widely held expectations on how ppl should behave

1. The behaviors’ interpretations vary greatly, depending on the cultural patterns the person/culture has – Chinese vs. Aussie

ii. Social Roles: set of expected behaviors associated with people in a particular position

1. In many episodes, you play clearly defined roles that guide you in how to act/behave – your expectations of your role’s appropriate behaviors

2. Even so, role varies widely between culture iii. Rules of Interaction: provide a predictable pattern or structure

to social episodes and give relationships a sense of coherence1. Include aspects of what to wear, what’s acceptable to

talk about, sequence of events (main course or salad first)

2. Ex: ok to talk about work at dinner (US) or not (France)iv. Interaction Scenes: are made up of the recurring, repetitive

topics that people talk about in social conversations.1. Ex: talk about health/weather or business or latest

news2. Varies between cultures 3. Extent of time spent on a topic varies too (what u did,

get to know you)v. Interaction contexts: are the settings or situations within

which social episodes occur1. Contexts impose a frame, a guide of what actions mean

what, what behaviors are expected

II. Contexts for Intercultural Communicationa. The Health Care Context

i. Cultural Patterns affect how people see and understand health care...

ii. Three general approaches: p.2591. Magical-religious (or personalistic): health and

illness are closely linked to supernatural forcesa. Bc of good/evil, karma,

b. To treat: treatment directed towards soothing, removing problematic forces. Healers. (African & Asian cultures)

2. Holistic (naturalistic): humans desire to maintain a sense of harmony with the forces of nature

a. Emphasize illness when there’s imbalance inside body, not good health.

b. Some illnesses thought to be affected by larger social, political, and environment

c. Wind, weatherd. Often explain illness in terms of person’s

relationship to naturee. Native Americansf. Ex: Yin Yang – harmony and balance

3. Biomedical (Western): ppl are thought to be controlled by biochemical forces

a. Disease occurs when part of body breaks downb. Doctors target biochemical problem affecting

broken partiii. Family and Gender Roles p. 261

1. Some cultures focus on health of whole family, US just the individual

2. Certain females uncomf taking off clothes to male doctors

iv. Intercultural Competence of professionals...

b. The Educational ContextCultural patterns influence people's expectations about:

a) Learning stylesb) Teaching Stylesc) Evaluation stylesd) Classroom behaviorse) The role of the family

c. The Business Context p. 274Cultural patterns influence people's expectations about:

a. Communication Stylesi. Indiv: single person

ii. Collect: group of repsb. Decision making stylesc. Reward systems expectations

i. Individual recognition or group support/solidarity

d. Gender expectations p. 282i. Either bluntly saying it (US) or saying it formally

in writing subtly (Japan)

 III. Episodes, Contexts, and Intercultural Competence

a. Intercultural competence requires an understanding of the episodes and contexts within which interaction occurs.

b. Cultural differences related to episodes and contexts can be a cause of misunderstanding in intercultural interactions

Chapter 12: The Potential for Intercultural Competence

I. Intercultural Contacta. Intercultural contact to be successful needs to meet certain

characterisics.; otherwise it can reinforce negative attitudesb. Dominance and subordination between groups:

i. Dominant cultures have primary access to economic and institution power and often devalue the language of subordinate cultures…

c. Attitudes among cultural members:i. Some conditions should be met for positive intercultural

interactions, such as: support from top, perceived gains, degree of perceived threat, degree of typicality with which interactants are viewed, the nature of interactants’ cultural stereotypes

d. Outcomes of Intercultural Contact:i. Adaptation: the process by which people establish and

maintain stable, helpful relationship with others in an unfamiliar setting

1. dominant culture: cultural group that has primary access to institutional and economic power

2. muted group theory: individuals who do not belong to the dominant group are often silenced by having a lack of opportunities to express their experiences, perceptions, and worldviews.

a. in order to have concerns publicly recognized, subordinate group members have to use dominant comm styles.

1. Contact Hypothesis - conditions that function together to reduce prejudice, increase positive 1st - must be support on top ( for intercultural contact) 2nd - those involved have a personal gain in the outcome. (and something to

lose if they are unsuccessful) 3rd - the actual intercultural contacts are pleasing, constructive, and

enjoyable 4th - related to perceived outcome of interaction - if they both have common

goals, or both see benefit

II. Cultural Shock – Re-entry Shocksa. Honeymoon > Crisis (when they don’t like how people look at them,

do things, some people fall of here) > Adaptation (once you adapt, you come back to the honeymoon. IF it comes to your own country, you might experience crisis) > Crisis > Adaptation

III. Types of Adaptation (know the definition, the difference!)a. Assimilation: taking on a new culture’s beliefs, values, norms, and

social practices; and it is not considered to be important to maintain one’s cultural identity.

b. Integration: occurs when an individual or group retains its original culture identity and integrate other cultures values, beliefs, norms, and social practices.

c. Separation: occurs when a culture does not want positive relationships with another culture.

i. Amish,d. Segregation: occurs when the dominant culture does not want

intercultural contact with other subculturese. Marginalization: occurs when an individual or group neither retains

their original culture nor maintain positive contacts with other cultures.

i. Unless you like live in a cave or something

IV. Intercultural/Global Personhood:Becoming an Intercultural Competent Communicator

a. Individuals adapt in different ways and different rates.b. Intercultural transformation refers to the process of moving

beyond the feelings and behaviors of one’s own culture to incorporate other cultural realities.

V. The Ethics of Intercultural Communicationa. When in Rome…

i. You don’t want to assimilate. Implies assimilation. NO.b. Are cultural values relative or universal?c. Do the ends justify the means?

i. Should all intercultural contacts be encouraged?1. No, maybe not. If they are disrespectful.

ii. Is it ethical to go to another country unprepared?1. No, we should prepare a bit. As not to cause pain.

Readings. iii. Should those who are prejudiced seek intercultural contact?

1. Yes, to overcome those prejudices. But if they don’t want to, maybe not

d. What is your code of ethics for intercultural interactions? (ON THE TEST)

VI. The Perils and Prospects for Intercultural Competencea. Impacts of national and International events:

i. Destruction of the Twin Towers in NY (9/11)

ii. War on Iraq, 2003, now in Afghanistan…Terrorismb. Forces that pull together and apart:

i. Globalism and secularism (media, technology, transportation…)

ii. Nationalism and tribalism: to protect language, religion, values, and way of life…what is seen as unique but threatened

iii. The effects of culture on communication: Interpretation of the meaning of messages across cultures.

iv. One’s culture provides the “filter”, or the meaning systems, through which all messages are experienced and interpreted.