Adjective Clauses

At a certain point in your writing in English, you should be able to identify every sentence you write as simple, compound, or complex.  Two additional structures, adjective clauses and appositives, will give you a much greater sentence variety within which to accomplish your writing objectives.  This page contains a small amount of information about adjective clauses along with just ten very difficult exercises.  First, we will define what adjective clauses are and how they work.

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun.  It is possible to combine the following two sentences to form one sentence containing an adjective clause:              

The children are going to visit the museum.They are on the bus.

The children who are on the bus are going to visit the museum.                  | adjective clause |

In the sentence above, there are two other ways to write the sentence correctly using the second sentence as the adjective clause. 

The children that are on the bus are going to visit the museum.The children       on the bus       are going to visit the museum.

Some other sentences can be combined into a sentence using adjective clauses in a variety of ways, and they are all correct.  Note the variety of ways in which the following two sentences can be combined.

The church is old.My grandparents were married there.

The church where my grandparents were married is old.The church in which my grandparents were married is old.The church which my grandparents were married in is old.The church that my grandparents were married in is old.The church my grandparents were married in is old.

In the sentences above, the adjective clauses are underlined.  All answers are correct.  Note the use of the word "in" and how and where it is used.

IMPORTANT NOTE ABOUT PUNCTUATION

Managing simple, compound, and complex sentences, and then adding adjective clauses into the mix can result in some confusing situations regarding punctuation.  There are some specific rules when punctuation is permissible or required around adjective clauses (when the information in the adjective clause is non-essential information); however, in my composition classes, I insist that students NOT use commas around adjective clauses for several reasons.

First, non-essential information should generally be avoided in academic writing, at least in the short essays required for these composition classes.  Thus, not including the commas will more often be right than wrong.

Second, my Spanish speaking students have a natural tendency to write long sentences using many commas inappropriately.  By not using commas around adjective clauses, students can perhaps more readily recognize when a period is required.

Third, I believe it is easier to learn to apply commas later when they are required than the other way around.  Indiscriminate use of commas is a hard habit to undo in my experience.  Therefore do not use commas around adjective clauses, at least for one semester.

Are you ready to take the quiz?

This quiz is very difficult.  These sentences are actually the hardest I could find (in the sense that you need to know ALL the rules in order to get them all correct), so please follow the directions carefully.

1.  Do not use commas in any of the completed sentences.2.  Make adjective clauses of the second sentence in every case.  (Obviously, any of these sentences could be written using the first sentence as the adjective clause; however, making adjective clauses of the second sentence is harder because it requires knowledge of all the "rules" of writing adjective clauses.)3.  Spell correctly!  This quiz is "graded" by computer, so any spelling mistake or punctuation error, like forgetting a period at the end of a sentence, will be counted wrong.

adjective Clause dinamakan juga RELATIVE CLAUSE yaitu Clause (anak kalimat) yang digunakan/berfungsi sebagai adjective yang menerangkan keadaan noun atau pronoun. Untuk lebih jelasnya penjelasan mengenai Adjective Clause, perhatikan penjelasan di bawah ini:

Contoh: I have read the book (that) you just mentioned.

Main Clause: I have read the book.Subordinate Clause: (that) you just mentioned.

Anak kalimat menerangkan kata benda the book, disebut dengan Adjective Clause The lesson (that) she is learning is very difficult.

Main Clause: The lesson is very difficult.Subordinate Clause: (that) she is learning.

Berdasarkan pada the Antecedent yang ditunjuk oleh introductory words (kata-kata pendahulunya), Adjective Clause dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 2 macam, yaitu:

1. Relative Pronoun

Kata Ganti Orang

Kata Penghubung yang digunakan adalah : Who, Whom, Whose, That

Fungsi :

a. Subjek:

- He paid the money to the man who / that had done the work

b. Objek Kata Kerja:

- He paid the man whom/that he had hired.

c. Objek Kata Depan:

- He paid the man from whom he had borrowed the money.

d. Kata Ganti Kepunyaan:

- This is the girl whose picture you saw.

Benda, Binatang

Kata Penghubung yang digunakan adalah: Which, that

Fungsi:

a. Subjek:

- Here is a book which/that describes animals.

b. Objek Kata Kerja:

- The chair which/that he broke is being repaired.

c. Objek Kata Depan:

- She was wearing the coat for which she had paid $2,00.

2. Relative Adverbs Waktu

Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: when

- This is the year when the Olympic Games are held.

Tempat

Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: where

- Here is the house where I live.

Alasan

Kata Penghubung yang digunakan: when

- Give me one good reason why you did that.

_________________________

1. Relative Pronoun

Yaitu Adjective Clause dengan memakai kata penghubung Relative Pronoun. The boy is called Bob. He gave me a present.

o The boy who gave me a present is called Bob. atauo The boy who is called Bob gave me a present.

Beberapa contoh Adjective Clause lainnya: The boy whose radio was stolen is a student. The girl whom I gave a special reward is a bright student. The bike which I borrowed last week was sold.

2. Relative Adverb

Pelajaran tentang ini dibahas lebih lengkap pada Relative Clause. Hal-hal yang perlu ditambahkan di sini, yaitu:

Kata Why (yang menunjukkan alasan) yang menjadi Adverb penghubung, mungkin (kadang-kadang) dapat digantikan dengan that atau kadang-kadang dapat dihilangkan dalam kalimat.

- The reason (that) I came should be obvious to you.- The reason (why) I came should be obvious to you.- The reason I came should be obvious to you.

When atau Where Bering dapat Baling ditukarkan dengan Preposition yang menunjukkan tempat (a preposition of Place) ditambah dengan Which.

- The small town in which (= where) I was born has grown to a large metropolis.- The day on which (= when) they were to leave finally arrived.

Kadang-kadang that dapat menggantikan where atau when. The day that (or when, on which) the trial was to take place was a stormy one. Please suggest a good place that (or where) we can meet

Beberapa Hal Penting yang Berkaitan dengan Adjective Clause

Perubahan dari Adjective Clause menjadi Adjective Phrase.

o Adjective Clause dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase yang menjelaskan noun tanpa ada perubahan arti kalimat.

o Hanya Adjective Clause yang mempunyai subjek pronoun: who, which atau that yang dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase.

o Adjective Clause dengan subjek: whom tidak dapat dirubah menjadi Adjective Phrase.

Perhatikan Contoh berikut:

a. Adjective Clause

* The girl who is sitting next to me is Lisa.==> The boy is playing the piano is Bent.

b. Adjective Phrase

* The girl sitting next to me is Lisa.==> The boy playing the piano is Bent.

Cara mengubah Adjective Clause menjadi Adjective Phrase.

(1) Subjek pronoun dan verb be dihilangkan.

* Adjective Clause: The man who is talking to Taylor is from Japan.* Adjective Phrase: The man talking to Taylor is from Japan.

* Adjective Clause: The ideas which are presented in that book are interesting.* Adjective Phrase: The ideas presented in that book are interesting.

* Adjective Clause: Ali is the man who is responsible for preparing the budget.* Adjective Phrase: Ali is the man responsible for preparing the budget.

* Adjective Clause: The books that are on the shelf are mine.* Adjective Phrase: The books on the shelf are mine.

(2) Jika tidak ada verb be dalam Adjective Clause, seringkali subjek pronoun dapat dihilangkan dan mengubah kata kerja dalam Clause itu menjadi bentuk -ing.

* Adjective Clause: English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters.* Adjective Phrase: English has an alphabet  consisting of 26 letters.

* Adjective Clause: Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome.* Adjective Phrase: Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.

Seringkali Adjective Clause digunakan dalam pola: noun + of which. Pola ini terutama digunakan untuk tulisan bahasa Inggris resmi (formal written English). Dalam pola ini biasanya Adjective Clause menerangkan "sesuatu".

* We have an antique table. The top of it has jade inlay.o We have an antique table, the top of which has jade inlay.o We toured a 300-year-old house. The exterior of the house consisted of logs

cemented with clay.o We toured a 300-year-old house, the exterior of which consisted of logs

cemented with lay.

Adjective Clause sering digunakan untuk mengungkapkan kuantitas dengan of. Ungkapan kuantitas mendahului pronoun, dan hanya whom, which, dan whose yang digunakan dalam pola ini.

Ungkapan kuantitas dengan "of" antara lain: some of, none of, both of, one of, many of, two of, all of, each of, most of, dll.

* There are 20 students in my class. Most of them are from the Outside Java.--> There are 20 students in my class, most of whom are from the Outside Java.

* He gave several reasons. Only a few of them were valid.--> He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.

Tanda Baca pada Adjective Clauses

Pedoman umum dalam Tanda Baca pada Adjective Clauses yaitu:o Jangan menggunakan tanda koma bila Adjective Clause diperlukan untuk

mengidentifikasi noun yang dijelaskan olehnya.o Gunakanlah tanda koma bila Adjective Clause hanya berfungsi untuk

memberi informasi tambahan dan tidak dimaksudkan untuk mengidentifikasi noun yang dijelaskan olehnya.

Henry whose wife works at a bank came to my house yesterday. Alex, whose wife works at a bank, came to my house yesterday.

Keterangan:

Contoh pertama menggambarkan bahwa Henry memiliki lebih dari 1 istri. Pada kalimat tersebut pembicara ingin mengindentifikasikan istrinya yang bekerja di Bank, bukan yang lainnya.

Sedangkan pada kalimat kedua, kita sudah jelas, kalau Alex memiliki hanya 1 orang istri. Frase yang berada di antara koma hanya memberikan keterangan tambahan saja. Tanpa frase tersebut pun orang lain sudah mengetahuinya kalau istrinya Alex memang bekerja di sebuah Bank karena memang istrinya cuma 1 itu.

Perhatikan contoh berikut ini untuk lebih jelasnya dalam penggunaan tanda koma dalam Adjective Clause.

o Soekarno, who is the first President of Republic of Indonesia, could deliver speech well.

Perbedaan antara Adjective Clause dan Noun Clause

Karena adanya kesamaan dalam beberapa kata pendahulunya, maka kadang-kadang antara Noun Clause dan Adjective Clause sering membingungkan.

Ada 2 macam perbedaan yang penting antara dua jenis Clause tersebut: perhatikan contoh berikut ini:

Adjective Clause biasanya didahului oleh noun atau pronoun yang diterangkan.

Adjective Clause

o I know the house where he lives.

(where he lives mempunyai antecedent the house, yang merupakan objek dari kata know)

Noun Clause

o I know where he lives.

(where he lives adalah objek dari kata know)

Preposisi yang mendahului introductory word adalah milik Adjective Clause dan bukan milik Noun Clause.

Adjective Clause The woman to whom he has been giving money is a poor relative of his.

(Adjective Clause dimulai dengan to yang merupakan bentuk a prepositional phrase dengan whom dalam Adjective Clause itu. Dan To dapat diletakkan di bagian belakang Adjective Clause. The woman, whom he has been giving money to, is a poor relative of his).

Noun Clause He gives money to whoever needs it.

(The Noun Clause dimulai dengan whoever, seluruh Noun Clause itu adalah objek dari to, yang tidak dapat dipindah letaknya. Dan juga -ever- merupakan bentuk yang hanya bergandeng (mengikuti) dengan Noun Clause.

Noun clauseNoun Clause adalah Clause yang digunakan sebagai pengganti noun atau berfungsi sebagai noun (kata benda). Selain Noun Clause ini, sebenarnya masih ada clause lainnya seperti Adverb Clause dan Adjective Clause. Untuk mendalami penjelasan mengenai Noun Clause, silahkan perhatikan penjelasan di bawah ini:

Menurut jenis kalimat asalnya, Noun Clause dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi 4 macam, yaitu:

1. Statement (pernyataan)2. Question (pertanyaan)3. Request (permintaan)4. Exclamation (seruan).

Penjelasan:

1. Statement

a. Conjunction yang dipakai adalah: "that"

b. Fungsi Klausa ini adalah sebagai:

1) Subjek Kalimat Kangaroo lives in Australia (statement) That Kangaroo lives is Australia is well known to all (Noun Clause)

2) Subjek Kalimat setelah "It" It is well known to all that Kangaroo lives in Australia

3) Objek Pelengkap My conclusion is that Kangaroo lives in Australia

4) Objek Kata Kerja All people understand well that Kangaroo lives in Australia

5) Apositif My conclusion that Kangaroo lives is Australia is correct.

2.      Question

A. Yes/No Question

a. Conjunction yang dipakai adalah: "whether (or not/or if)"

b. Fungsi Klausa ini adalah sebagai:

1) Subjek Kalimat Can she drive the car? (Question) Whether she can drive the car doesn't concern me. (Noun Clause)

= Whether or not she can drive the car doesn't concern me. (Noun Clause)= Whether she can drive the car or not doesn't concern me. (Noun Clause)= Whether or if she can drive the car doesn't concern me. (Noun Clause)

2) Objek Pelengkap My question is whether she can drive the car.

3) Objek Kata Kerja I really wonder whether she can drive the car (or not).

4) Objek Kata Depan We discussed about whether she can drive the car.

B. Wh- Question

a. Conjunction yang dipakai adalah: "kata Tanya itu sendiri"

b. Fungsi Klausa ini adalah sebagai:

1) Subjek Kalimat What is he doing? (Question) What she is doing doesn't concern me. (Noun Clause)

2) Objek Pelengkap My question is what she is doing.

3) Objek Kata Kerja I really wonder what she is doing.

4) Objek Kata Depan

We discussed about what she is doing.

Catatan:

Posisi kembali normal, tidak seperti posisi sebuah pertanyaan normal.

3. Request

a. Conjunction yang dipakai adalah: "that"

b. Fungsi Klausa ini adalah sebagai:

1) Objek Kata Kerja Read the book! (Request) He suggested that I read the book. (Noun Clause)

Catatan:

Tanda seru hilang.

4. Exclamation

a. Conjunction yang dipakai adalah: "kata Tanya yang dipakai pada kalimat itu sendiri"

b. Fungsi Klausa ini adalah sebagai:

1) Objek Kata Kerja What a pretty girl she is? (Exclamation) I never realize what a pretty girl she is. (Noun Clause)

2) Objek Kata Depan We are talking about what a pretty girl she is.

Catatan Tambahan: Noun Clause dengan "that" digunakan sebagai subjek dari suatu kalimat hanya

dengan kata kerja tertentu. Dan kata kerja (verb) yang penting adalah linking verb, khususnya BE.

Noun Clause dengan "that" sering menjadi objek dari verb (kata kerja), beberapa verb berikut ini biasanya mempunyai subjek yang me nunjukkan �manusia. Kata-kata tersebut terutama sekali adalah verb yang digunakan dalam Indirect Speech Berta verb yang menyatakan kegiatan mental.

Kata Kerja Kalimat Tak Langsung

Admit, agree, allege, announce, argue, assert, assure, declare, aver, boast, claim, complain, confess, convince, deny, disagree, explain, foretell, hint, inform, insist, maintain, notify, persuade, pray, predict, proclaim, promise, relate, remark, remind, report, say, state, swear, teach, tell, threaten, warn

Kata Kerja Aktivitas Mental

Ascertain, assume, believe, calculate, care (untuk kalimat negative atau interrogative), conceive, conclude, consider, convince, decide, discover, doubt, dream, expect, fancy, feel, find out, forget, grant, guess, hear, hold (pendapat), hope, imagine, indicate, know, judge, learn, mean, mind (untuk kalimat negative atau interrogative), notice, perceive, presume, pretend, prove, question, realize, recall, reckon, recollect, reflect, regret, rejoice, remember, reveal, see, show, suppose, surmise, think, trust, understand, wish

Contoh:1. Alex thinks that Mary is ill.2. Bob told me that he had finished breakfast.3. Henry says that Jack is very busy.4. He insists that there is a mistake.5. He complained to his friend that his wife couldn't cook.

Dalam percakapan yang tidak resmi (informal) "that" sering dihilangkan dari objek Clause jika artinya (maksudnya) sudah jelas dapat dimengerti tanpa adanya "that".

Contoh:1. I am sorry (that) I couldn't meet you at the station.2. He says (that) they plan to come to the dance.3. We thought (that) you had already left for abroad.4. The reason we returned so early is, (that) one of the children got sick.

Noun Clause dari question (pertanyaan) yang terletak sesudah verb yang memerlukan 2 objek mungkin berfungsi sebagai salah satu atau kedua objek dari verb tersebut.

Contoh:    1. Give the man (Indirect Object) what is in this envelope (Direct Object)2. Give what is in the envelope  to the man.

Noun Clause dari pertanyaan mungkin diawali dengan kata-kata tanya yang berfungsi sebagai: Pronouns, Adjectives, atau Adverbs. Kata-kata yang dipakai adalah: Pronoun     = who (ever), what (ever(, which. (ever), Adjective = whose, what (ever), which (ever), Adverb = how (ever), when (ever), where (ever), why.

Contoh:1. We don't know who will be coming from the employment agency. (who

adalah subjek dari will be coming)2. We don't know whom the employment agency will send. (whom adalah objek

dari will send)3. We will ask whoever comes from the employment agency. (whoever adalah

subjek dari comes)4. We will ask whomever the employment agency sends. (whomever adalah

objek dari sends)

Dalam Noun Clause dari pertanyaan, subjek dan verb mempunyai susunan yang umum, yakni terletak sesudah introductory word.

Noun Clause dari permintaan dimulai dengan that- Clause ini paling sering merupakan objek dari verb yang menyatakan permintaan, saran, atau keinginan dan sebagainya.

Contoh:1. He is requesting that a company car be placed at his disposal.2. The doctor recommended that he take a vacation.3. It was suggested that she leave immediately.4. It was proposed that the meeting be adjourned.

Kadang-kadang "that" yang merupakan kata permulaan Clause dapat digantikan dengan susunan infinitive setelah kata-kata kerja yang menunjukkan permintaan seperti advise, ask, beg, command, desire, forbid, order, request, require, argue.

Subjek dari that-Clause sering dalam bentuk passive dari verbs of requesting dengan susunan anticipatory it.

Adjective Clauses

See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.

A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.

A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)

There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)

This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun Clauses.

A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.

The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)It’s a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)The car that she is driving is not hers. (That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. It’s a clause

because it has a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.) Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns they modify.

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:

1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:

The book is on the table. + I like the book.The man is here. + The man wants the book.

2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.

The book is on the table. + I like whichThe man is here. + who wants the book

3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is now an adjective clause.

The book is on the table. + which I likeThe man is here. + who wants the book

4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):

The book which I like is on the table. The man who wants the book is here.

C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.

1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.

These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.

WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.

WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a verb.

WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition.

THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).

2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.

WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are examples with whose:

The man is happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =The man whose wallet I found is happy. The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.

WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted. Here is an example with when:

I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=I will never forget the day when I graduated .

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

I will never forget the day on which I graduated .I will never forget the day that I graduated .I will never forget the day I graduated.

WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:

The building is new. + He works in the building. =The building where he works is new.

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

The building in which he works is new. The building which he works in is new. The building that he works in is new. The building he works in is new.

D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.

1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:

People who can’t swim should not jump into the ocean.

2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive clause. Here is an example:

Billy, who couldn’t swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.

E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.

1. RP + BE = 0

People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause) People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase) Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause) Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)

2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing

People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause) People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase) Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause) Students sitting in the front row usually participate more. (phrase)

 Updated Thursday, January 11, 2007 at 9:26:11 AM by John

Fleming - flemingjohn@fhda.edu

Noun Clauses

See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.

A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.

A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)

There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)

This page contains information about noun clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Adverb Clauses.

A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:

A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:

What Billy did shocked his friends.

A noun clause can be an object of a verb:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

A noun clause can be a subject complement:

Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:

Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.

A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:

Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.

B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:

To change a statement to a noun clause use that:

I know + Billy made a mistake =I know that Billy made a mistake.

To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:

George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.

To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:

I don’t know + Where is George? =I don’t know where George is.

C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the noun clause markers:

thatif, whetherWh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, whyWh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever

D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:

correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.

correct:

Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

correct:

Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.

correct:

That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

not correct:

* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question:

not correct:

* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)

correct:

Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)

not correct:

* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)

correct:

Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)

F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:

When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun clause is:

future if its action/state is laterHe thinks that the exam next week will be hard. He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard. present if its action/state is at the same timeHe thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now. past if its action/state is earlierHe thinks that George took the exam yesterday.

When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause is:

was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is laterHe thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard. He thought that the exam the following week would be hard. past if its action/state is at the same timeHe thought that Mary was taking the exam then. past perfect if its action/state is earlierHe thought that George had taken the exam the day before.

If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.

The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.

If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.

We learned that English is not easy. The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.

G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and one independent clause:

Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:

That George learned how to swim is a miracle. Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain. What Mary said confused her parents. However you learn to spell is OK with me.

Noun clauses as objects of verbs:

We didn’t know that Billy would jump.We didn’t know Billy would jump.Can you tell me if Fred is here?I don’t know where he is.George eats whatever is on his plate.

Noun clauses as subject complements:

The truth is that Billy was not very smart.The truth is Billy was not very smart.The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.The winner will be whoever runs fastest.

Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:

Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.

Noun clauses as adjective complements:

He is happy that he is learning English.We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.

Conditional Sentences

Because conditional sentences are quite complex in both form and meaning, they are a problem for most learners of English. If you have a good understanding of the

English tense system and of the modal auxiliaries, you will find it easier to understand and use conditional sentences. (The sentence you just read is a predictive conditional sentence.)

All conditional sentences contain a dependent clause and an independent clause. The dependent clause usually begins with if; it expresses a condition. The independent clause expresses a result of the condition. The if-clause is usually first, but the order of the clauses is usually not important. Thus, these two sentences have basically the same meaning:

If she goes to the store, she will buy ice cream. She will buy ice cream if she goes to the store.

You have probably noticed that different teachers, textbooks, and Web sites sometimes explain the same thing in different ways. This seems to be especially true of conditional sentences. However, two different explanations can both be correct, especially if the difference is due to the fact that complicated material has been organized in different ways. This is often true of explanations of conditionals that you find in your textbooks. Here conditional sentences are divided into three types based on their meanings: real, predictive, and imaginative conditional sentences.

Also see The Sentence, Modal Auxiliaries, Verbs A-L, Verbs M-Z, Tenses, and Adverb Clauses.

A. Real conditional sentences can express generalizations and inferences.

1. Generalizations include facts that are always true and never change, and they include present or past habitual activities that are or were usually true.

Real conditionals expressing generalizations usually have the same tense (usually simple present or simple past) in both clauses. However, if the simple present tense is used in the if-clause, will + verb can be used in the main clause without changing the meaning.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing facts:

If water boils, it turns to steam. If water boils, it will turn to steam.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing habitual activities:

If he eats breakfast, he feels better all day. If he eats breakfast, he will feel better all day. If he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.

These generalizations can also be expressed by using when or whenever instead of if:

When water boils, it turns to steam.

When he eats breakfast, he feels better all day. When he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.

2. Inferences are often expressed in real conditional sentences.

Real conditionals expressing inferences usually have parallel verb phrases in both clauses. However, if a modal which explicitly expresses an inference (must or should, for example) is used in the main clause, parallel verb phrases are not used.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing inferences:

If today is Wednesday, it is George’s birthday. If I can do it, anyone can do it. if it is raining, the streets are getting wet. If he was at school, he saw the accident. If today is Wednesday, it must be George’s birthday. If I can do it, anyone must be able to do it. if it is raining, the streets must be getting wet. If he was at school, he must have seen the accident.

B. Predictive conditional sentences can express predictions and plans.

1. Predictive conditional sentences usually contain simple present tense in the if-clause and will or be going to in the result clause. However, a weaker modal of prediction (may or should, for example) can be used in the result clause to express less certainty.

2. Examples of predictive conditional sentences:

If the exam is hard, many students are going to fail. If Mary does well on the final exam, she will get an A in the class. If George does well on the final exam, he may get an A in the class. If Fred studies, he should pass the exam.

C. Imaginative conditional sentences are the most difficult for many learners of English because of the unusual relationship between form (the tenses used) and meaning.

In this type of conditional sentence, past tense refers to present or future time; past perfect tense refers to past time. Another problem for many learners of English is that were (not was) is used with singular subjects. Be is the only English verb with two past tense forms, but only one of them (were) is used in imaginative conditional sentences.

Imaginative conditional sentences can express hypothetical or contrary-to-fact events or states.

1. Hypothetical events or states are unlikely but possible in the present or future.

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing hypothetical events or states have a past tense verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause.

Examples of hypothetical conditional sentences (present and/or future time):

If George had enough money, he would buy a new car. If I won the lottery, I would buy you a present. If she knew the answer, she would tell us.

(George probably does not have enough money; I probably will not win the lottery; she probably does not know the answer.)

2. Contrary-to-fact events or states are either impossible in the present time or did not happen in the past.

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing present contrary-to-fact events or states have a past verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:

If I were you, I would not do that. If she studied for exams, she would get better grades. If it were raining, the streets would be wet. (I am not you; she doesn’t study for exams; it isn’t raining.)

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing past contrary-to-fact events or states have a past perfect verb in the if-clause and would + have + verb (or might or could + have + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:

If George had had enough money, he would have bought a new car. If I had won the lottery, I would have bought you a present. If she had known the answer, she would have told us. (George did not have enough money; I did not win the lottery; she did not know the answer.)

Auxiliary Verbs

English has three auxiliary verbs: be, do, have.

A. Be is used as the auxiliary in continuous tenses and passive voice (in all sentences: affirmative and negative, statements and questions).

Forms without tense:

base: being: beingparticiple: been

Forms with tense:

present: am, is, arepast: was, were

B. Do is used as the auxiliary in simple past and simple present tenses (in questions and negatives only).

Forms without tense:

base: doing: doingparticiple: done

Forms with tense:

present: do, doespast: did

C. Have is used as the auxiliary in perfect tenses (in all sentences: affirmative and negative, statements and questions).

Forms without tense:

base: haveing: havingparticiple: had

Forms with tense:

present: have, haspast: had

D. Be, do, and have are not always auxiliary verbs. They can also be main verbs. Main verbs are underlined in the examples below.

She is a student. (“is” is a verb) She is studying English. (“is” is an auxiliary) She does her homework. (“does” is a verb) She doesn’t enjoy homework. (“does” is an auxiliary) Does she get good grades? (“Does” is an auxiliary) She has a computer. (“has” is a verb) She has used a computer for three years. (“has” is an auxiliary)

Modal Auxiliaries

The modal auxiliaries (or modals) include the following:can, could, may, might, must, should, will, would, . . .

Modals are always followed by the base form of a verb or auxiliary verb.

Modals are always the same form no matter what the subject is.

In standard American English, a predicate verb phrase cannot contain more than one modal.

correct

He will be able to go.

not correct

* He will can go.

Below are example sentences containing the modal may and the verb go. Notice that the form of the modal does not change. Also notice that the base form of a verb or auxiliary verb always follows the modal.

I may go. You may go. He may go. It may go. We may go. They may go. He may have gone. They may have gone. He may be going. They may be going. He may have been going. They may have been going.

Modals and related verb phrases add meanings to verbs. Below are some of those meanings:

Ability/Availability

future: will be able to

present: can, am/is/are able to

past: could, was/were able to

Requests

present/future: can, could, will, would

Permission

future: will be allowed to

present/future: may, can, could, am/is/are allowed to

past: could, was/were allowed to

Possibility

present/future: may, might, could

past: may have, might have, could have

Impossibility

present/future: couldn’t, can’t

past: couldn’t have

Advisability

present/future: should, ought to, had better

past: should have, ought to have, had better have

Expectation

present/future: should, ought to

past: should have, ought to have

Necessity

future: will have to

present/future: must, have to, has to

past: had to

Lack of Necessity

future: won’t have to

present/future: don’t have to, doesn’t have to

past: didn’t have to

Prohibition

present/future: must not, may not, cannot

past: could not

Logical Deduction (=Probability)

present: must, have to, has to

past: must have, have to have, has to have

SOCIAL MODALS The choice of modal depends partly on the social situation.

We often use formal language with strangers (people we don’t know) and superiors (people with some power over us such as our employers, doctors, and teachers).

We often use informal language with our equals (our friends and family) and subordinates (people we have some power over such as our employees or children).

General requests (present and/or future):

Will you help me? (Informal Are you willing?) Would you help me (Formal Are you willing?) Can you help me? (Informal Are you able?) Could you help me (Formal Are you able?)

Requests for permission (present and/or future):

May I leave the room? (Formal)Might I leave the room? (Formal rarely used) Could I leave the room? (Less formalCan I leave the room? (Informal)

Expressing suggestions, advice, warnings, necessity (present and/or future): The choice of modal depends partly on the urgency of the message or the authority of the speaker/writer or both.

Suggestions:You could see the doctor. You might see the doctor.Advice:You should see the doctor. You ought to see the doctor. Warning/strong advice:You had better see the doctor. Strong advice/necessity:You have to see the doctor. You have got to see the doctor. You must see the doctor.No choice:You will see the doctor.

MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about present time)The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.

Someone is knocking at the door.

That could be Fred.That might be Fred.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.

That may be Fred.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.

That should be Fred.That ought to be Fred.

= I’m expecting Fred and I think he’s here.

That must be Fred.That has to be Fred.That has got to be Fred.

= It’s probably Fred. I have a good reason to believe it is Fred.

That will be Fred.

= I believe it is Fred. I’m about 99% sure.

That can’t be Mary.That couldn’t be Mary.

= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.

That is Fred.

= I know it’s Fred. I’m 100% sure.

MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about past time)The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.

Someone was knocking at the door.

That could have been Fred.That might have been Fred.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.

That may have been Fred.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.

That must have been Fred.That has to have been Fred.That has got to have been Fred.

= It was probably Fred. I have a good reason to believe it was Fred.

That couldn’t have been Mary.

= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.

That was Fred.

= I know it was Fred. I’m 100% sure.

MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about future time) The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.

What will the weather be like tomorrow?

It could rain tomorrow.It might rain tomorrow.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.

It may rain tomorrow.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.

It should rain tomorrow. It ought to rain tomorrow.

= I expect it will rain.

It will rain tomorrow.

= I believe it is going to rain. I’m about 99% sure.

It couldn’t snow tomorrow.

= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.