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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.

Chap, Copyright No..

Shelf.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

ADVANCED

English Grammar

/JOHN HART,

Principal of several schools, and Author of

Lectures on English, &c.

B. F. Johnson Publishing Co.,

Richmond, Virginia.

1898.

TWO COPIES RECEIVED.Library of Co&gc««&

Office of t\w

DEC 1 9 WdRogist.r of Copjrl8)it%

TEiiii

49467Copyright, 1898,

BY

B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO.,

Richmond, Va.

SECOND COPV,

-^«>^§«5W»—

THIS book is dedicated to that large number of my old

pupils who have gone into the profession of teaching

and who have expressed the wish to have, in con-

venient form, for their own students, the same direct and

simple presentation of the essentials of English Grammar

which they used themselves when in my classes.

i-mt^*—

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Sketch of the English Tongue . . 9

Sources of Words 11

Alphabet 12

Classification of Letters 14

Classification of Words 15

Propositions and Sentences 15

Subject and Predicate 16

Divisions of Grammar 17

Etymology 18

Parts of Speech 18

The Noun 21, 114-118

Gender in the Noun 24

Distinctions of Gender 25-27

Person, Number and Case 28

Formation of Plural 28-33

Case 33

Possessive Case 33-34

Paradigm of Noun 34

The Verb 37, 56, 125-130

Voice 37

Mood 37-38

Tense 38-39

Person and Number 39

Transitive and Intransitive Verb 40

Regular and Irregular Verb 40

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Principal Parts of Verb 41

Conjugation 41

Auxiliary Verb 41

Unipersonal Verb 41

Various Forms of Conjugation 55

Syntax of Noun 57

Syntax of Verb 63

The Pronoun 67-77, 119-121

Personal Pronoun 67-69

Reflexive Pronoun 69

Intensive Pronoun 70

Interrogative Pronoun 70

Demonstrative Pronoun 71

Anticipative Pronoun 71

Relative Pronoun 72

Syntax of the Pronoun 74

The Adjective 73-87, 122-124

Limiting Adjective 78

Article 79

Qualifying Adjective 83

Comparison 83

Irregular Comparison 84

Syntax of the Adjective 87

The Adverb 90-96

Adverbial Phrase 94

Syntax of the Adverb 96

The Preposition 99-103

Syntax of the Preposition 102

The Exclamation 104-105

ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7

Page.

The Conjunction 106-108

Syntax of the Conjunction 107-108

Variables 109-111

Syntax 113, 131-135

Infinitive 126-129

Subjunctive 129-130

Analysis 137-140

Irregular Verb 142-148

Selections 149-157

Punctuation 159-197

ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PART I.

BRIEF SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.

THE birthplace of the English Language was the island of

Britain. The earliest inhabitants of this island were

Celts who, at the time that they became known to our present

history, had lost all record of the circumstances of their settle-

ment in Britain, and who are regarded to be a part of the great

Celtic race that lived on the continent of Europe in Gaul, the

present France.

The language of Britain was pure Celtic up to the year 55

B. C. At that time Julius Caesar made a campaign into Britain,

and in A. D. 43 the island was conquered by the Romans and

held until the year 426 as a Roman province. During these

years a considerable number of military and legal terms, and

a number of local names, were grafted from the Latin on the

Celtic speech.

The great influence, however, in the formation of the Eng-

lish language was the invasion of Britain by the Saxons, begun

in 449. These conquerors and their associates and kindred,

the Jutes and Angles, came from the low country of northern

Germany, and made a terribly complete conquest of the island.

The Angles gave their name '* Engla-land '

' to the whole terri-

tory, and the native language gave place almost entirely to the

Anglo-Saxon, the language of the conquerors.

In 596 priests from Rome began the conversion of the peo-

ple, and, in the main, grew steadily in influence and numbers.

By this means a considerable body of Latin words became part

of the language of the island.2

10 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Beginning in 870 large numbers of Danes made inroads and

settlements in Britain, and in 1017 a Danish prince, Canute,

became king. During these years a number of Danish words

were added to the language, but the value of this addition

cannot be estimated because the Danish speech was essentially

the same as the Saxon.

The next event which affected the language was the con-

quest of England by the Normans in 1066. The language of

these conquerors was Norman- French, derived from a mixture

of Latin and Celtic, and, as the island remained under the gov-

ernment of the Normans until all the various races became

one, it is hard to overestimate the effect that the Normanconquest has had on the present condition of the English

tongue.

About the beginning of the 16th century the "revival of

learning" took place. From that time to the present it has

been the custom to make—mainly out of Latin and Greek

—

such new words as are demanded by the advance in the

sciences, and a large number of terms have come into English

by this means.

While the several sources enumerated above have all con-

tributed words to the English language, they have, with the

exception of Saxon, had almost no effect on the grammar of

the tongue. The frame-work of English is wholly Saxon, and

its minor grammatical peculiarities are almost entirely so.

English is now the every-day speech of 140,000,000 people.

In the age of Elizabeth—300 years ago—it was spoken by

about 5,000,000. This is a rate of increase that has never

been equalled by any other tongue, and the character of the

peoples who speak it, its present rate of growth, its adaptation

to every purpose of human speech, and the ease with which it

can be acquired as a spoken language might seem to warrant

the claims of those enthusiasts who predict that English will

become in time the one surviving language of the earth.

INTRODUCTORY. 11

The following table gives approximately the number of

words in English from the principal sources. The proportion

of words in the language as it is spoken is very different from

that in the dictionaries, because, in speech, the commonerwords are frequently repeated. As most of these words that

occur so often are Saxon, the proportion of Saxon is far higher

in the language in motion, as spoken, than in the language at

rest, as in the lexicons

:

Celtic ........ 100 words.

In Lexicons.(

In Use.

Latin (all sources) . . . 60 per cent. 30 per cent.

Anglo-Saxon 25 " 60

Greek 10 " 5

All others 5 " 5


ALPHABET, ETC.Written languages are either Symbolic or Sylla-

bic. In a symbolic language a written sign stands

for an idea, and the language must contain a vast

number of these signs. Many ancient languages

were symbolic, and, in modern times, Chinese and

Japanese are so.

In a syllabic language a written sign stands for

a sound or syllable, and these signs, which we call

letters, can be combined in many different ways.

By this means a small number of letters may be

made to represent a countless number of sounds.

English, as well as most other languages, is syllabic.

The alphabet of a syllabic language is the arrange-

ment of all the signs that stands for sounds. TheEnglish alphabet is almost identical with the Latin,

and the present form of our written letters is sim-

plified from the Roman letters. It is likely that all

letters were originally pictures.

The letters used in printing attained their present

shape, the capitals directly from the Roman forms,

and the small letters by gradual alteration, from the

introduction of printing, 1474, down to about 1800,

when the long s went out of use. In addition to

the Roman letters we employ "J," introduced by

the early Dutch printers and suggested by the form

of the last i in Roman numerals, as vij for 7 ; "U,"

a form of the Roman V, and " W," which was the

Latin V doubled.

INTRODUCTORY. 13

The written alphabet in English contains twenty-

six letters ; the alphabet as pronounced contains

forty-three sounds. This difference is produced by

the variety of the sound given to the same letter, as

the six sounds of "a" illustrated in ale, hat, rare,

farm, task, all. It is also true that, in many cases,

different letters have the same sound, as in the use

of "c" for "a" or "k" ; the use of "y" for

i, &c.

Those letters which can be sounded without

changing the position of the organs of speech are

called vowels. They are a, e, i, o, u and also w and

y when they end a syllable. In this case w is

sounded like u, as in how, and y is , sounded like i,

as in boy. Vowels often change in words which are

of the same origin—different forms of the sameword—as band, bend, bind, bond, bundle. Twovowels pronounced as one form a diphthong, as oi

in toil. When two vowels come together and but

one is pronounced the other is termed silent, as "a"in boat. Final " e " in English is silent, as tree,

horse.

All the letters except vowels are called consonants

because they must be sounded by the help of vowels.

Consonants form the real body of a word, and, in

general, words that are kin to each other contain the

same consonants. (See example under vowels.)

The consonants are divided into classes as

follows

:


Mutes. Spirants.

Dentals . . d n t z s 1 th

Gutterals . g k ng h

Labials . . b P m V w f whPalatals . . j ch zh sh y r

The dental mutes have their sound stopped by

the teeth (dens), and the dental spirants have their

sound slightly prolonged by a breath after the

tongue leaves the teeth.

The gutteral mutes have their sounds stopped by

the throat (gutta), and the spirants have a breath

after the sound is made.

The labial mutes have their sound stopped by the

lips (labium), and the spirants have a breath after

the sound is made.

The palatal mutes have their sound stopped by

the palate (palatum), and the spirants have a breath

after the sound is made.

The action of the vocal organs in producing con-

sonant sounds should be carefully noted and prac-

ticed until the above classification can be reproduced,

not as a matter of memory, but as a matter of

observation and common sense.

INTRODUCTORY. 15

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

According to its form a word is called primitive

when no simpler word with the same sense can be

found in the language ; as, man, child.

It is called derivative when it can be obtained

from some simpler form ; as, manly, from man

;

childish, from child.

A word is called simple when it cannot be divided

into several words ; as, horse, ox.

It is called compound when it can be divided into

several words ; as, horse-fly, ox-cart.

PROPOSITIONS AND SENTENCES.

A Proposition is a thought expressed in words,

and may be principal or dependent.

A Principal Proposition is one that makes com-

plete sense by itself; as, Snow melts. It is often

called Principal Clause.

A Dependent Proposition is one that does not

make complete sense by itself, but must be under-

stood in connection with a principal proposition ; as,

When the sun shines. It is often called Dependent

Clause, and modifies some word in the principal

proposition.

The distinction is made according to the sense of

the proposition.


A Sentence is a collection of words that has somemeaning, and may be Simple or Complex or Com-

pound.

A Simple Sentence is one that contains one princi-

pal proposition.

A Complex Sentence is one that contains one prin-

cipal proposition, and any number of dependent

propositions.

A Compound Sentence is one that contains two or

more principal propositions, and it may or may not

have dependent propositions in it.

The distinction is made according to the form of

the sentence.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

Every proposition must consist of two parts—

a

Subject and a Predicate. The subject is that of

which the declaration is made. The predicate is

that which makes the declaration. Thus in the

proposition, Snow melts, a declaration is made about

snow. Snow is therefore the subject. The word

melts makes a statement about snow, and melts is

therefore the predicate.

A Phrase is a collection of words that has no

subject or predicate.

Note.—The names employed in formal grammar, in Eng-

lish, are entirely of Latin origin, and when a word is given as

the source of one of these terms, it is understood to be a

Latin word.

INTRODUCTORY. 17

THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.

Language is the expression of thought. This

expression commonly takes the form of spoken or

written words.

Grammar is the collection of the laws of lan-

guage.

A complete grammar should treat of the history

of the letters in a language, but the subject has

never been sufficiently investigated and the slight

sketch already given of the English letters must

suffice for the purposes of this book.

It should also treat of the spelling of words (or-

thography) and of their pronunciation (orthoepy).

But these—in a living language—are constantly

changing and are better left to lexicons.

It should also treat of the order of words in sen-

tences ; but people know by instinct and early prac-

tice the order of words in their own language and

rules on this subject in an English grammar, written

for English-speaking people, would be needless.

The other divisions of grammar are Etymology,

Syntax and Prosody.

Etymology is the statement of the laws that

govern the forms of single words.

Syntax is the statement of the laws by which one

word influences or governs another, and these two

are the usual divisions of grammar.


Prosody is the statement of the laws of poetry,

and is commonly considered a science by itself.

ETYMOLOGY.The words in a language are divided according to

their meaning into eight classes called Parts of

Speech. They are Noun, Verb, Preposition,

Adjective, Pronoun, Adverb, Exclamation,

Conjunction.

A Noun is the name of any person, place or

thing ; as, James, New York, hat.

A Verb is a word that declares action or being;

as, run, is. Verbs often consist of several words;

as, will run, have been.

A Preposition is a word that shows the relation

between a noun or pronoun and some other word,

as in the sentence, Run into the house, where the

preposition into shows the relation between the noun

house and the verb run.

An Adjective is a word that describes or limits

a noun ; as, tall trees. A rough road. The good

old man.

A Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a

noun ; as in the sentence, John lost his hat, the

pronoun his is used for John's.

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning

of a verb or an adjective or another adverb ; as,

He runs slowly. She is very good. He runs too

slowly.

INTRODUCTORY. 19

An Exclamation is a word used to express some

emotion ; as, Oh ! Ah ! Exclamations have no rela-

tion to other words. They are often called inter-

jections.

A Conju7ictio7i is a word used to join words or

phrases or propositions ; as, John and Henry. In

the day or in the night. I called you, but you did

not hear.

In the following exercise state the class to which

each sentence and proposition belongs, pick out the

phrases and tell what part of speech each word is.

Also point out the subjects and the predicates :

EXERCISE.

The tree fell in the road. The water deafened us with its

roar. The kind man gave the beggar some money. You will

be wet if it rains. James fell from the horse when it reared.

The train ran so fast that we were greatly frightened. Oh!

what noise was that ? Robert tried to catch the hare, but she

ran too fast. Alas ! I fear he will never reach home. Owls

stay in hollows by day, but by night they search for food. Astrong wind blew fiercely over the water, but it did not drive

the sailors from their work. I cannot tell whom you mean.

The king raised a great army that he might conquer his neigh-

bors. Do not give him the knife, lest he cut himself with it.

If we had horses we might ride. When the traveler reached

the village he found all the guides sick. If we could tell whenthe wolf was coming, we could prepare for him. No man can

fight successfully unless he has arms. We started to town be-

cause we wanted some books, but soon turned back when wesaw the horse was lame. If the river is too high you must

come home, however anxious you may be to cross. The gun


would not have exploded if Henry had not loaded it too

heavily. Many men have fought through long and dangerous

wars, and come home at last safe and sound. The family

moved from England to America, because the cost of living

was not so great in this country. The lady asked the little

girl where she lived. Ah, I am sorry for him. Columbus,

though he had many discouragements, persisted in his voyage

toward the west until, at last, he came to land. When the

merchant saw the robbers he ran into the wood and hid in a

thick tangle of bushes. The mill runs slowly because the water

is low, but when the rains come the pond will fill again, and the

wheels will turn as rapidly as ever. The depth of the river

was so great that we did not try the ford. He was chosen

king of England because he possessed the wisdom necessary

to direct the affairs of the country. The solons of the state

retreated from the capital when the enemy approached. Thecity of London is, in some respects, the capital of the world.

The clergy of New England were busy in arranging for the

occasion of the trial.

THE NOUN. 21

PART II.

THE NOUN.

1. A Noun is a name of a person or a place or a

thing. The word noun is derived fr©m the Latin

nomen, a name, through the French nom, and nouns

are of the following sorts :

(1) A Common Noun is a general or class name,

and is given to all objects of the same kind ; as,

city, town, river, man, cow.

(2) A Proper Noun is a particular name, and is

used to point out some one individual of a class;

as, James, Mary, London, Washington city.

In the last word "Washington city," the noun

city evidently shows the kind of thing spoken of,

and the noun Washington points out what special

city is meant. Proper nouns, as such, have no

meaning. The meanings which they once had (when

a man's name was Hunter because he hunted, etc.)

have been lost. They are spelled with a capital letter.

(3) An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or

an action ; as, warmth, cowardice, beauty, distance,

singing. These nouns are called abstract because

they name qualities which are considered apart or

abstracted from things to which they belong. In


the phrase "a deep river/' the depth is a quality of

the river, and taken by itself, apart from that which

has depth, it is called abstract.

(4) A Material Noun is a common noun which is

the name of a material ; as, wood, iron, glass, gold.

These nouns do not naturally have a plural

—

woods

meaning different kinds of wood, irons meaning dif-

ferent kinds of iron, etc.

(5) A Collective Noun is a common noun which is

the name of one body containing many individuals;

as, army, flock, crowd, herd. If the entire mass is

considered as one, the noun takes a singular verb;

as, The army was beaten. If the individuals form-

ing the mass are considered to act separately, the

noun takes a plural verb ; as, The people were

alarmed at the news.

(6) Sometimes common nouns become proper ; as,

the Governor, meaning a particular governor, the

Queen of England,

(7) Sometimes proper nouns become common, as

when we say a man is the Demosthenes of England,

and use the proper noun Demosthenes in place of

the common noun orator. So a great American

soldier might be called the Napoleon of America.

Refer to Exercise I. and state the class to which

each noun belongs.

THE NOUN. 23

Suggestions for Review Exercise.

Write five sentences containing a proper noun,

five containing a common noun, five containing anabstract noun, five containing a collective noun, five

containing a proper noun ' used as a common noun.

Inflection is the change of form which a word

undergoes to fit it for its different uses. The inflec-

tion of nouns and pronouns is called Declension,

that of verbs is called Conjugation, and that of ad-

jectives and adverbs is called Comparison. Prepo-

sitions, Exclamations and Conjunctions have no

inflection. These last are called Particles,


GENDER IN THE NOUN.

2. There are four Genders or classes of nouns in

English, according to whether the thing which the

noun represents is male or female, or may be either

male or female, or has no sex and so is neither male

nor female. Gender in English is determined by

common sense, and is called Natural Gender. In

languages which determine the gender of a word by

rules of grammar, it is said to be Grammatical or

Artificial Gender.

(1) Nouns which are the names of males are said

to be Masculine Gender (from mas, a male).

(2) Nouns which are the names of females are

said to be Feminine Gender (from femina, a female).

(3) Nouns which are the names of things that

have no sex are said to be Neuter Gender (from

neuter, neither).

(4) Nouns which are the names of things that

may be either male or female are said to be CommonGender (from communis, common).

Note.—When a singular noun is used gcnerically, that is, to

stand for a whole class of things, it is masculine gender ; as,

The elephant lives in India, he often reaches the age of a hun-

dred years.

GENDER IN THE NOUN. 25

The use in English allows us to speak of small animals and

children as neuter gender ; as, The mouse ran into its hole.

The child hurt its hand.

An unpleasant but growing use is to refer to moving objects

as feminine', as when we say of a train of cars,'

' Here she

comes. '

'

Things without life are often spoken of as if they were living

beings (personification). In this way the sun is considered

masculine, the moonfeminine, etc.

3. The gender of masculine and feminine nouns

is shown in three ways. (1) By using distinct

words; (2) by using an additional word

; (3) by

adding an ending.

(1)

Distinction of Gender by Different Words.

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine.

bachelor spinster hart roe

boar sow horse mare

boy girl husband wife

brother sister king queen

buck doe lord lady

bull cow man womancock hen monk nun

dog bitch nephew niece

drake duck ram ewe

drone bee son daughter

earl countess stag hind

father mother uncle aunt

foal filly wizard witch

gander goose youth maid


f2)

Distinction of Gender by an Additional Word.

Masculine.

cock-sparrow

he-bear

man-servant

pea-cock

Feminine.

hen-sparrow

she-bear

maid-servant

pea-hen

(3)

Distinction of Gender by Adding an Ending toForm Feminine.

rasculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine.

abbott abbess hunter huntress

actor actress Jew Jewess

baron baroness Joseph Josephine

count countess lion lioness

deacon deaconess marquis marchioness

director directress master mistress

don donna murderer murderess

duke duchess negro negress

emperor empress patron patroness

enchanter enchantress poet poetess

executor executrix prophet prophetess

giant giantess spinner spinster

heir heiress sultan sultana

hero heroine traitor traitress

host hostess votary votaress

Note.—The ending er so often found in masculine nouns is

the Anglo-Saxon masculine ending (ere, man). Its corre-

sponding feminine was ster, as in spinster in list above. Thecommonest feminine termination in English is ess

}borrowed

GENDER IN THE NOUN. 27

from the Norman- French, and it is by the use of this suffix

that new feminines are formed in the language. The best usage

employs such words as author, poet, &c, for both genders,

and avoids as farias possible the use of the distinctively femi-

nine forms in ess. A small number of feminines are formed by

the Greek suffix ine, as in heroine. A small number are formed

by the South- Europe suffix a, as in sultana.

In the case of the four words bride, duck, goose and widowthe masculines are formed from the feminines.

Suggestions for Review Exercise.

Write four sentences containing masculine nouns,

five containing feminine nouns, five containing

neuter nouns, five containing nouns of the commongender.

S> & &


PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE.

4. Nouns have three grammatical forms or prop-

erties, which vary to suit the use of the word,

person, number and case.

5. Person is the character which a word has ac-

cording as it represents the speaker or the person

spoken to or the person spoken of. If John is rep-

resented as speaking, the noun John is said to be

first person. If he is spoken to, John is said to be

secondperson. If he is spoken of, John is said to be

third person. Nouns are rarely in the first person.

6. Number is a form of a word to show whether

it denotes one or more than one. There are, in

English, two numbers. When a word means but

one it is said to be Singular Number. When it

means more than one it is said to be Plural Number.

(1) The plural is commonly formed from the sin-

gular by adding s ; as, singular, boy;plural, boys.

This method is Norman-French.

(2) If the last letter of the singular does not

unite readily with s, the plural is made by adding

es ; as, box, boxes; church, churches.

(3) Nouns ending in y with a consonant before it,

change y into ies ; as, lady, ladies ; enemy, enemies.

(4) Nouns ending in o add commonly s, sometimes

es ; as, canto, cantos; potato, potatoes. About

PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE. 29

forty nouns add es. The most common are buffalo,

cargo, calico, hero, mosquito, motto, negro, potato,

tomato.

(5) Some nouns form the plural by the addition

of the Anglo-Saxon plural ending en or ne ; as, ox,

oxen ; cow, kine ; brother, brethren ; child, children.

(6) Some nouns form their plurals by changing

the vowels in the singular ; as,

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

loot teet man mengoose

louse

geese mouse

lice tooth

mice

teeth

(7) Many nouns which have comefrom other languages retain the plu

languages ; as,

into English

rals of those

Singular.

axis

datum

medium

Plural. Singular.

Latin.

axes nebula

data radius

media radix

Greek.

Plural.

nebulae

radii

radices

analysis

automaton

analyses crisis

automata miasma

French.

crises

miasmata

batteau

beau

batteaux madamebeaux monsieur

Italian.

mesdamesmessieurs

bandit banditti libretto

Hebrew.

libretti

cherub cherubim seraph seraphim


(8) A number of nouns—mainly names of fish

—

<

have the same form in singular and plural ; as,

bass dace mackerel

cannon deer perch

carp grouse pike

cod heathen sheep

In the use of these nouns the number must, of

course, be inferred from the context (other words in

the sentence). If the sentence were, A sheep is

grazing, the word sheep would be singular. In the

sentence, I caught ten perch, the wror*dperch is plural.

It is worthy of note that these last nouns name things belong-

ing to the life of those savages who spoke the earliest beginnings

of English. In general, in all languages, the irregular words

are those which are connected with the needs and emotions of

barbarians, and, as the people become civilized and learn some-

what of the science of speech, the new words that come into

their languages receive a regular form. These irregular old

words are frequently called strongs and the newer and more

regular words in a language are called weak, because the first

express strong and necessary ideas, etc.

(9) Some nouns, names of things consisting of

two similar parts, or of things taken in a body, have

no singular ; as,

(a) antipodes drawers pinchers scissors tweezers

bellows lungs pliers shears tongs

breeches pantaloons scales spectacles trousers


(b) annals dregs staggers

archives. embers stacks

ashes lees victuals

assets oats vitals

The words measles, molasses and mumps belong by their

form to this class, but they should always be used as singulars.

(10) A number of words having plural forms are

always used as singulars ; as,

amends odds small-pox wages optics

gallows pains thanks politics ethics

news shambles tidings physics mathematics

The three words, alms, riches and eaves, are true singulars in

spite of their plural forms. An alms was common English in

1600. Riches is borrowed from French. Eaves is Anglo-

Saxon efese, an edge.

(11) A number of words have two plurals with

different senses ; as,

Singular. Plural. Plural.

brother brothers (in a family) brethren (in a community)

cloth cloth (kinds of cloth) clothes (to wear)

die dies (stamps for shaping) dice (game)

fish fishes (separately) fish (collectively)

genius geniuses (gifted men) genii (spirits)

index indexes (in books) indices (in algebraic quan-

tities)

pea peas (separately) pease (collectively)

penny pennies (separately) pence (collectively)

shot shots (trials at shooting) shot (collectively)


(12) In forming the plural of compound nouns

the leading word in the compound has s added to it

;

as, looker-on, lookers-on ; commander-in-chief, com-

manders-in-chief. Where both parts of the com-

pound are nouns, both are frequently pluralized;

as, men-servants, knights-templars, women-servants.

When the last word in the compound is an adjective,

as in attorney-general, court-martial, etc., the s is

commonly added to the noun ; as, courts-martial,

attorneys-general, etc. When the compound noun

is composed of words which make no complete sense

until they are all uttered ; as, whip-poor-will, forget

me-not, etc., the s is added to the last word

(13) A number of nouns have their last syllable

man; as, German, Englishman, talisman, etc. Someare compounds of man, and some are not. They can

be tested by seeing if the feminine is formed by sub-

stituting woman for man ; as, German, Ger-woman;

Englishman, English-woman, etc. By this test it

appears that " Englishman" is a compound of man,

and " German " is not. Those that are compounds

of man form their plural in men; as, Englishmen,

Irishmen, Scotchmen, etc. Those that are not com-

pounds of man form their plurals by the addition of

s ; as, Germans, Mussulmans, Turcomans, ottomans,

talismans, etc.

(14) Abstract nouns rarely form plurals. Whenthey do so these plurals are formed in accordance

with the laws for common nouns.


(15) Proper nouns take their plural by adding s

to the singular without any further change ; as,

Berry, Berrys ; Smith, Smiths, etc.

Suggestions for Written Exercise.

Write five sentences containing singular nouns,

five containing plural nouns, five containing plurals

formed by adding es, five containing foreign plurals.

7. Case is a form of a word to show its relation

to other words in the same sentence. There are

three cases in English, Nominative, Possessive

and Objective. The word case comes from the

Latin casus, a falling, because the Roman gram-

marians considered the nominative case as a perpen-

dicular spoke in a wheel, and the other cases as the

spokes below it that had fallen from the perpendicu-

lar position. The term decline, to give the cases in

order, and declension, an orderly arrangement of the

cases, comes from the same idea. A Paradigm is a

model or example to show the parts of a word.

8. In nouns the nominative and objective cases are

alike in the singular and alike in the plural. Thedifference in their use prevents confusion.

9. The possessive case is used almost exclusively

{or proper nouns, and such common nouns as denote

persons.


The preposition of with the objective case takes

its place in other common nouns. Thus we say,

John's hat, but, The roof of the house.

(1) The possessive singular is formed by adding

an apostrophe and an s ('s) to the nominative singu-

lar. This ending (V) is the Anglo-Saxon possessive

ending es. In many proper nouns the nominative

ends in s. The possessive may then be formed by

adding an apostrophe only ; as, James' ; or it maybe formed by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) ; as,

James's. In compound nouns the apostrophe and

s are added to the last word ; as, son-in-law's.

(2) In the plural, if the last letter of the nomina-

tive be s the possessive is formed by placing the

apostrophe after the s ; as, girls, girls'. But if the

last letter of the nominative plural is not s (as in

men) the possessive is formed by adding the apos-

trophe and s (s) as in the singular. Example : men,

men's.

10. Below is the declension of the noun.

Sing. Plur, Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.

Norn. . boy boys lady ladies man menPoss. . boy's boys' lady's ladies' man's men's

Obj. . . boy boys lady ladies man men

In the following exercise classify the nouns, and

tell their gender, person, number and case :


EXERCISE I.

Alms, Ann, anvil, army, aunt, bachelor, banditti, beauty,

beaux, boat, box, brother-in-law's, camp, cargo, carts, cat, cher-

ubim, churches, children, cities, cloth, Cora's, countess, deer,

drake, dice, Doctor Jones, duchess, eaves, eggs, Englishman,

father5feet, fishes, France, giantess, girl's, goose, he-bears, hen,

honesty, horses, Irishman, iron, John Smith, keys, King George,

ladies, length, Lewis's, London, Lucy's, Major- General,

Mary's, measles, men's, molasses, moons, morning, Mr. Green,

mumps, Mussulmans, Nebulae, negro, optics, oxen, pease,

physics, pinchers, potato, Potomac river, queens, QueenMary's, rivers, Robert's, sailors, salmon, seraphim, shot, silver,

sister's, sultana, sun's, talismans, tree, victuals, widow, witch's,

wood.

Direction 1.—Go over above exercise and give

feminine of each masculine, and masculine of each

feminine.

Direction 2.—Go over above exercise and give

plural of each singular, and singular of each plural.


REVIEW OF NOUNS.(To be Written.)

1. How many classes of nouns are there? and define each

sort and give example.

2. Make a sentence containing each sort of nouns.

3. Define gender. How many genders are there ? and give

names.

4. In how many ways is gender shown ? and give examples.

5. What masculine nouns are formed from feminines ?

6. Make a sentence containing a noun of each gender.

7. Define person, and explain fully.

8. Define number. How many numbers are there ? and give

names.

9. In how many ways is the plural formed from the singular?

and give examples.

10. Write ten nouns that form plural in s.

11. Write ten nouns that form plural in es.

12. Write five nouns that have same form for singular and

plural.

13. Make a sentence containing a noun of each number.

14. Define case. How many cases are there ? and give names.

15. How is the possessive singular formed ?

16. How is the possessive plural commonly formed ?

17. In what nouns is it formed by adding (' s) ?

18. Write out the declension of five nouns.

THE VERB. 37

THE VERB.

11. A Verb is a word that declares action or

being, and every proposition must contain a verb as

its predicate to show what the subject does or is. Theword verb is derived from verbum, a word.

Since verbs make statements, they must employ

different forms to enable them to make statements

in various ways. The grammatical forms, or prop-

erties, of a verb are Voice, Mood, Tense, Numberand Person. From vox, voice ; modus, manner

;

tempus, time ; numerusynumber

;persona, person.

Voice.

12. Voice is a form of the verb to show whether

the subject acts or is acted upon. There are in

English two voices.

(1) The Active Voice represents the subject as

acting ; as, John shot.

(2) The Passive Voice represents the subject as

acted upon; as, John was shot. In general any

sentence with a passive verb can be changed to a

sentence with an active verb without altering the

meaning, and vice versa. The existence of voice in

verbs is then not so much a matter of necessity as

it is an elegance of language.


Mood.

13. Mood is a form of the verb to permit the

making of statements in various ways. There are

in English five moods.

(1) The Indicative Mood states as a fact or

asks a question ; as, The tree _/£//. Who has come?

(2) The Potential Mood states as possible or

necessary ; as, The man can sing. The hole must

be mended.

(3) The Subjunctive Mood states as doubtful

;

as, If we come.

(4) The Imperative Mood states as a commandor entreaty ; as, Shut the door. Have mercy.

These four moods all confine their statement to a

particular subject, and so are called the Finite Verb.

(5) The Infinitive Mood is so named because it

does not confine its statement to any particular

subject. It includes all the verb besides the finite

verb.

Note.—It is not necessary to include a formal potential

mood in the English verb. Exactly the same result would be

reached by regarding may, can, must, &c, as the principal

verb, and letting them govern an infinitive with to omitted.

Tense.

14. Tense is a form of the verb to show ; first, the

time of the action, and second, whether the action

is complete or incomplete.

THE VERB. 39

15. There are three times

—

Present, Past and

Future, and an action may be complete or incom-

plete in any of these times.

The tenses for incomplete action are named from

the times

—

Present Tense, Past Tense and

Future Tense, and are called simple tenses.

16. The tenses for complete (or perfect) action

are named by placing the word perfect in each of the

former names

—

Present Perfect Tense, Past

Perfect Tense, Future Perfect Tense. They

are called the compotmd tenses.

17. The present tense shows incomplete action in

present time.

The present perfect tense shows complete action

in present time.

The past tense shows incomplete action in past

time.

The past perfect tense shows complete action in

past time.

Thefuture tense shows incomplete action in future

time.

The future perfect tense shows complete action in

future time.

Person and Number.

18. Person and number are forms by which the

verb is related to its subject. If the subject be

singular, the verb must be singular, &c.


19. According to their meaning verbs are divided

into two classes :

(1) Transitive Verbs are those whose action

takes place upon an object.

(2) Intransitive Verbs are those whose action

does not take place upon an object.

The word transitive (transeo) means to pass from

one to another, and the word intransitive (in-transeo)

means not to pass from one to another. The names

are exactly suited to the facts about the verbs.

20. It often happens that the same verb is some-

times used transitively and sometimes intransitively;

as, The child breathes ; The maiden breathed a

prayer.

21. It also happens frequently that an intransitive

verb becomes a transitive verb by having a prepo-

sition joined to it ; as, The man laughed ; The manlaughed at the jest.

22. According to their form verbs are divided

into two classes

:

(1) Regular Verbs are those in which the past

tense of the indicative mood, and the past participle

are formed by adding ed to the present ; as, learn

—

learnt—learnt.

(2) Irregular Verbs are those in which the past

tense and past participle are formed in any other

way ; as, sing—sang— sung.

THE VERB. 41

23. The three parts given above—the present in-

dicative, the past indicative and the past parti-

ciple—are called the Principal Parts of a verb,

and may be readily found by observing what forms

fit in the following blanks : Now I . Yesterday

I . I have ; as, Now I come. Yesterday I

came. I have come.

The principal parts are so called because the

whole verb is built up on them.

24. The Conjugation of a verb is the arrange-

ment of all its parts in the proper order.

25. Auxiliary Verbs are those which aid in the

conjugation of other verbs by forming certain tenses.

They are be, do, have, shall, will, can, may, must.

Auxiliary verbs are often used also as principal

verbs, and they are all defective verbs ; that is, they

lack some of their forms. Certain verbs, as, get,

got, got or gotten have double forms. Such verbs

are called redundant, and may be found in the list

of irregular verbs.

26. Unipersonal Verbs are verbs which have

but one person—the third person singular. Theyare also called impersonal, possibly because they

cannot have a person as a subject. These verbs

refer (1) to the weather ; as, It snows. It is warm,

etc. ; or (2) to some phrase or proposition in the

same sentence ; as, It is becoming to respect your


elders. It is true that he hurt himself; or (3) to

some emotion ; as, It pains me. It pleases us.

In the following exercise select subject and predi-

cate. State whether verb is transitive or intransi-

tive, regular or irregular, etc. Give its principal

parts, and state voice and mood

:

EXERCISE II.

Did the hunter kill a deer ? Run, and bring the gun. Aman was injured by the train. May the boys go? The wind

will blow to-night. The soldiers watched the camp. Thedeer leaped the chasm. We saw him leap. Men sometimes

murmur about nothing. The water spread over the valley.

John walked to London. Some laughed. Stay where you

are. It will rain. The boy flew the kite. The gentlemen

have withdrawn. We shall walk the horse. The sentinel

watches alt night. I read the book. What is, is right. Thevessel struck on a rock. Mary reads badly. Get your

cane. We struck the mark. Lucy plays the piano. Sheplays quite well. The bird flew. I was seen yesterday. Thebarber will shave Henry. He was laughed to scorn. Thewind blew. The tree was shaken by the wind. Do not forget.

George must start.

CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 43

CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS.

27. Below are given the forms of the auxiliary

verbs that are used in the conjugation of other

verbs.

TO BE.

Used to Form Passive.

Principal Parts :

Present—am Past—was Past Participle—been

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I am 1. We are

2. Thou art 2. You are

3. He is 3. They are

Past Tense.

1. I was 1. We were

2. Thou wast 2. You were3. He was 3. They were

Future Tense.

1. I shall or will be 1. We shall or will be2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. You shall or will be3. He shall or will be 3. They shall or will be


Present Perfect Tense.

Singular. Plural.

1. I have been 1. We have been

2. Thou hast been 2. You have been

3. He has been 3. They have been

Past Perfect Tense.

1. I had been 1. We had been

2. Thou hadst been 2. You had been

3. He had been 3. They had been

Future Perfect Tense.

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. You shall or will have

been been

3. He shall or will have 3. They shall or will have

been been

Potential Mood.

Present Tense.

1. I may, can or must be 1. We may, can or must be2. Thou mayst, canst or 2. You may, can or must

must be be3. He may, can or must be 3. They may, can or must be

Past Tense.

1. I might, could, would or 1. We might, could, would

should be or should be

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would

wouldst or shouldst be or should be

3. He might, could, would 3. They might, could, would

or should be or should be



Singular,

1. I may, can or must have

been

2. Thou mayst, canst or

must have been

3. He may, can or must

have been

Plural.

1. We may, can or must

have been

2. You may, can or must

have been

3. They may, can or must

have been

Past Perfect Tense.

1. I might, could, would or

should have been

2. Thou mightst, couldst,

wouldst or shouldst

have been

3. He might, could, would

or should have been

1. We might, could, would

or should have been

2. You might, could, would

or should have been

3. They might, could, would

or should have been

1. If I be

2. If thou be

3. If he be

1. If I were

2. If thou were

3 If he were

Subjunctive Mood.

Present Tense.

1. If we be

2. If you be

3. If they be

Past Tense.

1. If we were

2. If you were

3. If they were

Imperative Mood.

Present Tense.

Be (you—thou—ye).


Infinitive Mood.

Present—to be Perfect—to have been

Participles.

Present—being (gerund) Past—been

Perfect—having been (gerund)

TO DO.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

Sing.

I do

Thou doest

He does

Plur.

We do

You doThey do

Past Tense.

Sing.

I did

Thou didst

He did

Plur.

We did

You did

They did

TO HAVE.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

Sing.

I have

Thou hast

He has

Plur.

We have

You have

They have

Past Tense.

Sing.

I had

Thou hadst

He had

Plur.

We had

You had

They had


CAN. MAY.

Indicative Mood. Indicative Mood.

Present Tense. Present Tense.

Sing. Sing.

I can

Thou canst

He can

I mayThou mayst

He may

Plur. Plur.

We can

You can

They can

We may' You mayThey may

Past Tense. Past Tense.

Sing. Sing.

I could

Thou couldst

He could

I might

Thou mightst

He might

Plur. Plur.

We could

You could

They could

We might

You might

They might

SHALL. WILL.

Indicative Mood. Indicative Mood

Present Tense. Present Tense.

Sing.

I shall

Thou shalt

He shall

Sing.

I will

Thou wilt

He will


Plur.

We shall

You shall

They shall

Past Tense.

Sing.

I should

Thou shouldst

He should

Plur.

We should

You should

They should

Plur.

We will

You will

They will

Past Tense.

Sing.

I would

Thou wouldst

He would

Plur.

We would

You would

They would

MUST.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

Sing.

I must

Thou must

He must

Plur.

We must

You must

They must

Note.—(1) Let is used in the imperative mood to form

what might be called a thirdperson ; as, Let them come, etc.

,

i. <?., Come they.

(2) Have used as a principal verb and followed by an

infinitive ; as, He had to come, is a common idiom (peculiar

construction) in English. In such forms have shows necessity.

Have followed by a past participle ; as, He had his shoe

mended, is also a common idiom. Here have is used in place

of a periphrastic expression (roundabout way of saying a

thing). It means to cause to be done.

REGULAR VERB. 49

28. REGULAR VERB.

TO LOVE.

Active Voice.

Principal Parts :

Present—love Past—loved Past Participle—loved

Indicative Mood.

Sing, Plur.

I love We love

Thou lovest You love

He loves or loveth They love

Past Tense.

I loved We loved

Thou lovedst You loved

He loved They loved

- Future Tense.

I shall or will love We shall or will love

Thou shalt or wilt love You shall or will love

He shall or will love They shall or will love

I have loved

Thou hast loved

He has loved

I had loved

Thou hadst loved

He had loved


We have loved

You have loved

They have loved

Past Perfect Tense.

We had loved

You had loved

They had loved



Sing. Plur.

I shall or will have loved We shall or will have loved

Thou shalt or wilt have loved You shall or will have loved

He shall or will have loved They shall or will have loved

Potential Mood.

Present Tense.

I may, can or must love We may, can or must love

Thou mayst, canst or must You may, can or must love

love

He may, can or must love They may, can or must love

Past Tense.

I might, could, would or We might, could, would or

should love

Thou mightst, couldst,wouldst or shouldst love

He might, could, would

or should love

should love

You might, could, would or

should love

They might, could, would or

should love


I may, can or must have We may, can or must have

loved

Thou mayst, canst or must

have loved

He may, can or must have

loved

loved

You may, can or must have

loved

They may, can or must have

loved

Past Perfect Tense.

I might, could, would or We might, could, would or

should have loved

Thou mightst, couldst,wouldst or shouldst

have loved

He might, could, would or

should have loved

should have loved


should have loved


should have loved

REGULAR VERB. 51

Subjunctive Mood.

Present Tense.

Sing. Plur.

If I love If we love

If thou love If you love

If he love If they love

Past Tense.

If I loved If we loved

If thou lovec If you loved

If he loved If they loved

Imperative Mood.

Present Tense.

Love (you, thou, ye) Do (you, thou, ye) love

Infinitive Mood.

Present—to love Perfect— to have loved

Participles.

Present—loving (gerund) Perfect—having loved (gerund)

TO BE LOVED.

Passive Voice.

Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

I am loved

Thou art loved

He is loved

I was loved

Thou wast loved

He was loved

Past Tense.

We are loved

You are loved

They are loved

We were loved

You were loved

They were loved


Future Tense.

Sing. Plur.

I shall or will be loved We shall or will be loved

Thou shalt or wilt be loved You shall or will be loved

He shall or will be loved They shall or will be loved


I have been loved We have been loved

Thou hast been loved You have been loved

He has been loved They have been loved

Past Perfect Tense.

I had been loved We had been loved

Thou hadst been loved You had been loved

He had been loved They had been loved


I shall or will have been We shall or will have been

loved loved

Thou shalt or wilt have been You shall or will have been

loved loved

He shall or will have been They shall or will have been

loved loved

Potential Mood.

Present Tense.

I may, can or must be loved We may, can or must be loved

Thou mayst, canst or must You may, can or must be

be loved loved

He may, can or must be They may, can or must be

loved loved

REGULAR VERB. 53

Past Tense.

Sing. Plur.

orI might, could, would

should be loved

Thou mightst, c o u 1 d s t

,

wouldst or shouldst be

loved


should be loved

We might, could, would or

should be loved


should be loved


should be loved


I may, can or must have

been loved

Thou mayst, canst or must

have been loved

He may, can or must have

been loved

We may, can or must have

been loved

You may, can or must have

been loved

They may, can or must have

been loved

Past Perfect Tense.

I might, could, would or

should have been loved

Thou mightst, couldst,wouldst or shouldst

have been loved



We might, could, would or






Subjunctive Mood.

Present Tense.

If I be loved

If thou be loved

If he be loved

If we be loved

If you be loved

If they be loved


Past Tense,

Sing. Plur.

If I were loved If we were loved

If thou were loved If you were loved

If he were loved If they were loved

Imperative Mood.

Prese?it Tense—Be (you, thou, ye) loved

Infinitive Mood.

Present—to be loved Perfect—to have been loved

Participles.

Present—being loved (gerund) Past—loved

Perfect—having been loved

Note.—The only personal endings now left in the English

verb are st or est for the second person singular, and th or eth

and s for the third person singular ; j is the only one in com-

mon use.

The verb is so poor in endings that person and number can-

not generally be told from the verb alone. In order to deter-

mine them the subject noun or pronoun must be examined.

Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.

29. The method of conjugating irregular verbs is

exactly the same as the above, and requires no

notice beyond the caution to use the past participle

correctly in the compound tenses.

REGULAR VERB. 55

Different Forms of Conjugation.

30. The form of conjugation given above is the

Common form. There are several other forms to

express special meanings.

(1) The Interrogative form is used in asking

questions, and contains only the Indicative and

Potential Moods. The only difference between the

Interrogative form and the Common form is in the

order of the words, and consists in placing the sub-

ject after the first word in the verb ; as, Lovest thou

me ? May we be excused ?

The auxiliary do is employed in the present and

past tenses of the Indicative Mood of the interroga-

tive form ; as, Do you know ? Did he come ?

(2) The Emphatic form is used for strong state-

ment and contains only the present and past tenses

of the Indicative Active, and the Imperative Mood.

It employs the auxiliary do joined to the present

infinitive (to omitted); as, I do love. They did love.

Do come.

(3) The Progressive form is used to denote the

continuance of an action, and it may have all the

parts of a full verb although many of them are not

in use. In the Active Voice it employs the forms of

to be joined to the present participle of any verb;

as, I am loving. You were coming. They will be

dancing. The Progressive form in the Passive Voice


is made by placing, the present participle of be (be-

ing) just before the last word ; as, I am being loved.

They were being loved. Practically the present and

past of the Indicative are the only parts used in the

Passive Voice.

' (4) All forms of the verb may be used negatively,

i. e.ythe statement in them may be denied by the

employment of the adverb not. This is placed im-

mediately after the first part of the verb, except in

the interrogative form, when it comes immediately

after the subject ; as, I shall not love. We have not

been loved. He is not being injured. Are you not

going ? The use of not in a question shows that

the answer yes is expected.

SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 57

SYNTAX OF THE NOUN.

31. A noun may have nine uses in a sentence.

It may be (1) Subject; (2) Possessive

; (3) Direct

Object; (4) Indirect Object

; (5) Apposition; (6)

Predicate Nominative; (7) Object of a Preposition

;

(8) Absolute or Independent; (9) Adverbial.

(1) Subject.

The Subject of a sentence is that of which the

declaration is made. In the sentence, Horses run,

horses is that of which something is declared, and it

is the subject of the sentence.

Rule of Syntax.—The subject of a finite verb is

in the nominative case.

(2) Possessive.

A noun which limits the meaning of another noun

denoting a different thing is put in the possessive

case. There is generally an idea ofpossession in the

first noun ; as, John s knife, and hence the name of

the case. But in such phrases as, John's father, the

noun John has in it no notion of ownership, but it

only limits the meaning of father so as to confine it

to one particular father. The limited noun is often

understood ; as, The farm is John's (farm).5


Rule of Syntax.—A noun in the possessive

limits the meaning of another noun denoting a dif-

ferent thing.

(3) Direct Object.

The Direct Object of a sentence is that on which

the subject acts. In the sentence, John killed the

dog, dog is that on which John acts, and it is the

direct object.

Rule of Syntax.—The direct object of a transi-

tive verb is in the objective case.

Intransitive Verbs often take after them an

object in the objective case, but this object must be

of a meaning kin to that of the verb ; as, To run a

race. He dreamed a dream. He died a tragic death.

Such objects are called Cognate objects.

(4) Indirect Object.

The Indirect Object in a sentence is that with

reference to which the subject acts. In the sen-

tence, John gave the beggar money, beggar is that

with reference to which the giving was done, and it

is the indirect object. The indirect object can be

readily recognized by recasting the sentence, and

observing if the preposition to can be used before

it ; as, John gave money to the beggar.


Rule of Syntax.—The indirect object of a verb

is in the objective case.

The indirect object precedes the direct,

(5) Apposition.

Two nouns are said to be in apposition when they

mean the same thing, and have no verb between

them. In the sentence, William, the carpenter, is

sick, William and carpenter mean the same person,

and no verb is between them. They are then said

to be in apposition.

Rule of Syntax.-—Nouns in apposition agree in

case.

One of the two nouns must be exactly fixed upon

as some essential part of the sentence—-subject or

direct object or indirect object, etc.—and the other

must be said to be in apposition to it. This is

clearly necessary in order to decide their case.

(6) Predicate Nominative.

When the subject in the nominative is followed

by another noun meaning the same thing as the

subject, and an intransitive verb is the predicate, the

latter noun is also in the nominative case, and is

called predicate nominative. In the sentence, Jamesis a soldier, James and soldier are the same person,

and the intransitive verb is stands between them.


Soldier is therefore the predicate nominative. Theverb commonly stands between the subject and the

predicate nominative except in interrogative sen-

tences.

Rule of Syntax.—A noun in the predicate mean-

ing the same thing as the subject, agrees with it in

case.

(7) Object of a Preposition.

Rule of Syntax.—A noun in the objective case

may be governed by a preposition. This use of the

noun—often called phrase use—involves the subject

of prepositions. Reference is made to section 23,

where these words are treated.

(8) Absolute and Independent.

When a noun is joined to a participle, and the

noun has no grammatical relation to any word in

the sentence but that participle, the noun is con-

sidered to be in the nominative case and is called

Nominative Absolute. In the sentence, The tree

having fallen blocked up the road, the noun tree is

joined to the participle having fallen, but the noun

tree is also subject of blocked. Such forms are not

absolute. In the sentence, The tree having fallen,

we cut off the limb, the noun tree is joined to the

participle having fallen, and tree clearly has no rela-

tion to any other word in the sentence. Tree in this


latter sentence is Nominative Absolute. Absolute

constructions are equivalent in meaning to depend-

ent clauses. The sentence above is equivalent to,

When the treefell we cut off the limb.

The words during and notwithstanding are com-

monly called prepositions. They are really parti-

ciples in an absolute construction. I shall come

during the day, is, The day enduring (or lasting) I

shall come, etc.

When a noun is used merely to call the attention

of the person named, as, John, are you sick ? it can

have no grammatical relation to any other word in

the sentence. Such nouns are considered to be in

the nominative case, and are called Nominative

Independent, These nouns must clearly be of the

second person.

Rule of Syntax.—Nouns used absolutely or

independently are in the nominative case.

(9) Adverbial.

When a noun is used in a sentence in such a wayas to modify the meaning of a verb or an adjective,

as, He ran a mile ; He is ten years old, it is said to

be used as an adverb. Such nouns are considered

to be in the objective case, and are called Objective

Adverbial. Frequently several nouns together are

so used; as, They tied him hand and foot. Theywere routed, horse, foot and dragoon, etc. This


use of the noun involves the subject of Adverbs,

Reference is made to section 21, where those words

are treated.

Rule of Syntax.—A noun whose meaning allows

may be used in the objective case as an adverb.

SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 63

SYNTAX OF THE VERB.

32. Every proposition must contain a verb as its

predicate, and this verb must declare something

about a subject. The connection between the verb

and its subject is felt by understanding the sentence.

It is shown in the form of the verb by giving it a

singular form when the subject is singular number,

&c.

Rule of Syntax.—A verb agrees with its subject

in number and person.

The subject of the imperative mood is the per-

sonal pronoun of the second person. It is com-

monly omitted, and must be understood with the

verb ; as, Boys, come (you) here.

The introduction of these rules is a mingling of

syntax in etymology, but this irregularity is morethan balanced by the fact that the easiest way to

learn the forms of words is to study them in sen-

tences. And the examination of sentences necessa-

rily introduces syntax.

33. To parse a word is to state (1) its class, (2)

its grammatical forms and (3) the law of its use in

a sentence.

34. To analyze a sentence is (1) to state its class

(see page 6), (2) to point out its subject and predi-

cate and (3) to explain all the words, phrases and


clauses by which the subject or predicate is modified.

Analysis of the sentence can at this place be carried

through the first and second step only. As the

various parts of speech are presented, the analysis

should become more complete. Example : Parse

the following sentence : Cats catch mice.

Cats is a common noun, common gender, third

person, plural number, nominative case because it is

the subject of catch. Rule : The subject of a finite

verb is in the nominative.

Catch is an irregular transitive verb, from catch,

caught, caught, active voice, indicative mood, present

tense, third person, plural number to agree with its

subject, cats. Rule : A verb agrees with its subject

in number and person.

Note.—Of course the form above for parsing the noun

must be varied to suit the use of the noun in the sentence.

Analyze the following sentences, and parse each

noun and verb

:

EXERCISE III.

Thomas, the butler, is a strong man. James, the carpenter,

built our house. The queen has not seen her daughter. Doesthe boy study his lessons ? A traveler gave the student somemaps. Is John a carter? The child is learning French.

Could the king not have given the soldier a pardon ? Henry's

sister is a nice girl. Did the horse injure Robert's father's

buggy? Will the children have measles ? Can the servant's

boys not carry our friends the fruit ? The tiger is a ferocious

SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 65

beast. The gentleman should have given the servant's request

more attention. Henry will give John, the book-seller, the

note. If the cook call William, James will answer. Can the

mason repair the farmer's fences? Was the house burned?

If the king advance, the enemy will retreat. Will the boy

not have an apple ? The boy walked a mile. William, your

coat is torn. The bridge being gone, the boys could not cross

the river. John's father's brother is John's uncle. Henry is

six inches taller than James. The horse having been badly

hurt, was turned out. James, you should not do that. Thecane was four feet long. John was here last week. The rain

having ceased, we went home. The boys ran a race. Thechild dreams. The child dreamed a dream.


REVIEW OF VERBS.

(To be Written.)

1. Define a verb, and state difference between transitive and

intransitive verbs.

2. Write five sentences with transitive verbs as predicates.

3. Write five sentences with intransitive verbs as predicates.

4. Write five sentences containing verbs which may be used

either as transitive or intransitive.

5. What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs ?

6. Write five sentences containing regular verbs.

7- Write five sentences containing irregular verbs.

8. What is mood? How many are there in English, and

give names.

9. Make sentences containing verbs in each mood—two sen-

tences to each mood.

10. What is voice ? and illustrate.

11. Write five sentences in the active, and change them to

the passive form.

12. Write five sentences in the passive, and change them to

the active form.

THE PRONOUN. 67

THE PRONOUN.

35. A pronoun is a word that represents a noun.

The term is gotten from pro-nomen, that which

stands in place of a noun. In the sentence, John

broke his leg, the word his is used for, or instead of,

John's. It is, therefore, a pronoun. As they repre-

sent nouns, pronouns must have, in general, the

same properties and be subject to the same laws as

nouns.. They may be subject, direct object, etc., in

a sentence.

Pronouns are of several sorts.

36. Personal Pronouns are those which markgrammatical person, and so they have been used in

the paradigm of the verbs.

The personal pronoun of the first person is that

used when the speaker refers to himself (I) or to

himself and others with him (we).

The personal pronoun of the second person is

that used when the speaker refers to the person

whom he addresses (thou, you, ye).

The personal pronoun of the third person is that

used when the speaker refers to some person or

thing which he speaks of (he, she, it, they).

The personal pronoun of the first person has no

gender, but it has case and number, and is thus

declined

:


Sing. Plur.

Nom. . . I Nom. . . WePoss. . . My or mine Poss. . . Our or ours

Obj. . . Me Obj. . . Us

The personal pronoun of the second person has

10 gender, but it has person and number, and is

tnus declined

:

Sing. Plur.

Nom. . . Thou Nom. . . You or ye

Poss. . . Thy or thine Poss. . . Your or yours

Obj. . . Thee Obj. . . You

The singular of this pronoun is confined to the

language of poetry and prayer. By the influence

of the Norman-French example, the plural is used

even when one person is addressed. The context

will often show whether you, yours is singular or

plural in meaning. An unsuccessful effort was madetwo hundred years ago to introduce "you" with

a singular verb ; as, " You was at home," and so to

make a distinction by means of the verb. This

form can be found in much of the writing of the

time. The plural ye is not in present use. It was

the only form of the nominative originally, and

"you" was employed exclusively as objective.

(3) The personal pronoun of the third person has

a much clearer representative use than the other

two. It really does appear in the sentence in the

THE PRONOUN. 69

exact place of the noun, and so it must have gender

(to correspond to the gender of the noun) as well as

number and case. It is thus declined :

Singular. Plural.

Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. All Genders.

Nom . . . He She It TheyPoss . . . His Her, Hers Its Their or Theirs

Obj . . . Him Her It Them

The pronoun of the third person is perfectly pro-

vided with forms for the different genders, and it is

consequently referred to in order to discover the

gender in which a noun is used. In the sentence,

The hare ran into his hole, hare is shown to be mas-

culine gender by reference to the pronoun.

The form its came into use about three hundred

years ago. It occurs but once in King James' Bible

and never had the apostrophe.

(4) Personal pronouns are often used reflexively

;

that is, they refer back to the subject of the sentence;

as, I bought me a pair of shoes.

(5) The present tendency of the language is to

use the forms ending in self or selves in place of

the simple forms, and these are usually called the

Reflexive Pronouns. They are used only in the

objective case, and are formed from the possessive

of the first and second person, and the objective of

the third as follows :


Objective Singular. Objective Plural.

1st Pers.—Myself 1st Pers.—Ourselves

2d Pers.—Thyself, Yourself 2d Pers.—Yourselves

3d Pers.—Himself, Herself, Itself 3d Pers.—Themselves

(6) The Intensive Pronoun has the same forms

as the reflexive pronoun, but a different use. Theintensive pronoun is always in apposition to the noun

just before it, and is employed to make the noun

more emphatic. As the intensive pronoun is an

appositive it can never be an essential part of the

sentence (section 15, 5). The reflexive pronoun

is always either the direct or indirect object, and is

an essential part of the sentence.

The following examples will illustrate : The king

himself will come (intensive). The king injures

himself (reflexive) . I bought myself a cane (reflex-

ive) . I saw the queen herself (intensive)

.

37. Interrogative Pronouns are those which

are used in asking questions. The term is derived

from interrogo, to ask.

They are who, which, what, and are declined as

follows :

Singular and Plural Alike.

Masculine and Feminine. Neuter.

Which What(Whose)

Which What

Nom . . , WhoPoss . . . WhoseObj. . . . Whom

THE PRONOUN. 71

Who is applied to persons ; as, Who is he ?

Whose hat is that ? Whom did John see ?

Which is applied to persons when it is used to

ask about one of a class ; as, Which of the boys

went away ? It is regularly used for things ; as,

Which (thing) do you want ?

What is applied to things indefinitely ; as, Whatis that ? What will you have ? The possessive of

what (whose) is rarely used.

38. Demonstrative Pronouns are those that

point out some idea previously referred to ; as, Weknow that. This is so. They are this and that, and

the plurals these and those. They may have any

gender, to agree with the noun which they repre-

sent, and may be nominative or objective case.

Note.—The demonstrative pronouns this and that, whenthey refer to things, and are governed by prepositions, often

assume the forms here and there, and take the prepositions

after them ; as, hereafter, hereby, herein, for after this, by this,

in this, and thereafter, thereby, therein, for after that, by that,

in that, etc.

39. The Anticipative Pronoun.—No very sat-

isfactory classification can be given to the word there

in such sentences as, There lived a man, etc. This

use of there is commonly called anticipative, because

there anticipates or suggests beforehand some noun

which will follow it. In this use there may be singu-


lar or plural, and any gender to agree with the noun

to which it refers. Both the anticipative pronoun

and the noun to which it refers, must be in the nomi-

native case, and subject of the same verb—the pro-

noun being the grammatical, or formal, subject, and

the noun being the logical, or real, subject.

The pronoun it is often used in much the same

way as there. In such sentences as, It is true that

the plan failed, that the plan failed is the real subject

of is, and it suggests that the subject will be found

later on. Somewhat akin to this anticipative use of

it is its use to represent something well known, as

in the sentence, I tell you what, he caught it. See

Article 26.

40. Relative Pronouns are those that both rep-

resent a noun or pronoun, and also join two sen-

tences together ; as, We saw a man who was blind.

This is the boy whose book you found. Henry is

the person whom I met. Relative pronouns always

introduce a dependent clause, and join it to a princi-

pal clause. From their use in joining sentences, rela-

tive pronouns are sometimes called conjunctive pro-

nouns. The noun or pronoun to which the relative

refers is called the antecedent. It may sometimes

be omitted ; as, (He) who steals my purse steals

trash. The relative is sometimes omitted ; as, Wegot the things (which) we wanted.

The relative pronouns are That, Who, Which,

What, and are thus declined :

THE PRONOUN. 73

Singular Singular Singular Singular

and Plural. a?id Plural, and Plural, and Plural.

Nom . . . that who which what

Poss . . . whose whose

Obj. . . . that whom which what

That has no possessive, and it cannot be used

after a preposition. It is the most used of the rela-

tives, as it refers with equal propriety to persons and

things ; as, The man that we saw, etc. The house

that we built, etc. Who is applied to persons only.

Which is used when the antecedent is an animal or a

thing. What has the use of a compound, and is

equal to that which.

Besides the above, but is a relative pronoun after

a negative, in such sentences as, There is no one

but loves him. There is no one who does not love

him.

Compound Relatives are formed by adding ever or

soever to who, which and what. Their use is, in

theory, the same as that of the relatives, but their

meaning is more general. Practically they are used

only as nominatives, and their antecedent is not

expressed ; as, Whoever wishes may go, etc.

Note.—The relative which, when it is governed by a prepo-

sition, often assumes the form where and takes the preposition

after it ; as, whereafter, whereby, wherein, for after which, by

which, in which, etc.


SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN.

41. A pronoun may have nine uses in a sentence,

eight of which are, in general, identical with the uses

of the noun, given in section 31, and governed by

the same laws. The relative pronoun has an addi-

tional use—that of connecting sentences. The pro-

noun has no adverbial use.

Rule of Syntax.—A Relative Pronoun agrees

with its antecedent in gender, person and number,

and introduces a dependent clause.

42. The dependent clause introduced by the rela-

tive is used to describe or limit the antecedent ; as,

I see a boy who is running. "Who is running"

describes "boy." The case of the relative is deter-

mined by observing what use it has in the dependent

clause

—

i. e., whether it is subject or direct object, etc.

43. When the dependent clause is explanatory, it

should be introduced by who or which. In the sen-

tence, Kings, who are the refuge of the distressed,

should be merciful, the dependent clause is ex-

planatory and is properly introduced by who. Thesentence is equivalent to, Kings, and they are the

refuge of the distressed, should be merciful.

44. When the dependent clause is restrictive (or

descriptive) it is introduced by that, or, in manycases, who and which. In the sentence, This is the

SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 75

horse that I bought (or which), the dependent clause

is restrictive, and merely limits the antecedent. It

is properly introduced by that or which.

Note.—The common forms, a brother of mine, that horse

ofyours, &c, are identical in formation with the phrases, a

brother of Henry's, that horse of John's, &c. The latter are

mentioned under the heading of nouns, page 118.

Model for Parsing the Pronoun.—Do you knowthe man whose son brought me the note ? This is

a complex, interrogative sentence. Principal clause

is, Do you know the man ; Dependent clause is,

Whose son brought me the note. Subject of the

principal clause is you ; predicate is do know. Sub-

ject of the dependent clause is son ; predicate is

brought.

You is a personal pronoun, second person, singu-

lar or plural number, nominative case, subject of

do know. Rule : The subject of a finite verb is in

the nominative case.

Whose is a relative pronoun, masculine gender,

third person, singular number, to agree with its ante-

cedent, man;possessive case limiting son. Rule :

A noun or pronoun in the possessive limits the

meaning of another noun denoting a different thing.


noun, pronoun and verb :


EXERCISE IV.

Whom did you see ? We met the man whom you described.

He is the person who gave us the books. John is the boy

whose horse I borrowed. Henry was he whom you meant.

The house is Doctor Smith's, who often visits us. Why did

you not give him the money ? I have broken the gun which

my father gave me. Did you not hear the speaker whose

speeches are so praised ? Whoever wishes can come. Wefound the book we had lost. The colt hurt itself. The king

himself will write him his commission. I could have got mean umbrella. Who comes there ? Whom the gods love die

young. I engaged the person you mentioned. Whatever it

may be, I can discover it. Did you give the general himself

the letter ? That colt of mine was killed. A cousin of yours

will come.

REVIEW OF PRONOUNS. 77

REVIEW OF PRONOUNS.

(To be Written.)

1. Define pronouns. How many sorts are there? and namethem and give examples.

2. Write five sentences containing personal pronouns as

subject.

3. Write five sentences containing personal pronouns as direct

object.

4. Write five sentences containing intensive pronouns.

5. Write five sentences containing reflexive pronouns.

6. What are interrogative pronouns ? and give example,

7. What is the peculiar use of the relative pronoun ?

8. Write five sentences containing relative pronouns as

subject.

9. Write five sentences containing relative pronouns as direct

object.

10. Write the declension of the personal pronouns.

*^


THE ADJECTIVE.

45. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun (or

pronoun) to limit or qualify its meaning. The term

is derived from adjectivus, that which is added. In

the sentence, The boy saw two men who had some

red apples, the words the, two, some and red are

clearly added to certain nouns, and affect their

meaning. The first three, the, two, some, limit the

meaning of the nouns to which they belong, and the

fourth, red, states a qaality of the noun to which it

belongs.

When an adjective is joined directly to a noun, as

in the sentence above, it is said to be used attribu-

tively. When it stands in the predicate, as, Snow is

white, it is said to be used predicatively. Any num-

ber of adjectives can be joined attributively to a

noun ; as, The large, sweet, red apple. If several

adjectives are used in the predicate they must be

connected by conjunctions ; as, The child is healthy

and strong.

There are two general classes of Adjectives,

Limiting Adjectives and Qualifying Adjectives.

Limiting Adjectives.

46. A Limiting Adjective is one that merely limits

the meaning of a noun without stating any quality

that belongs to the noun. They are

—

THE ADJECTIVE. 79

47. Articles.—The limiting adjectives the and an

or a are sometimes called Articles, and are occa-

sionally regarded to form a distinct " part of speech."

They are, however, simply limiting adjectives, and

should be treated as such without any distinction

between them and the other limiting adjectives.

The is used to point out a particular thing or

things ; as, the man (a special man) ; the horses

(special horses).

An or a is used to point out any individual ; as, a

man (any man). When an is used before a word

beginning with a consonant it drops the n and as-

sumes the form a. An is used with singular nouns

only.

48. Pronominal Adjectives are those which have

the use (1) of adjectives ; as, Some men were hurt,

and (2) of pronouns ; as, Some laughed.

Following is a list of the most important pro-

nominal adjectives :

all either much several

another few neither some

any former other such

both latter own that

enough many same this


The two uses of the pronominal adjectives are

illustrated in the sentences below :

Used as adjectives, having

nouns to agree with

—

All men are mortal.

Another person must help

you.

Have you any money.

Both men helped me.

Either way is good.

I desire neither book.

Used as pronouns, having

no nouns, but standing in

place of nouns

—

All must die.

I need another.

I have not any.

Both are pleasant.

I do not like either.

Neither is good enough.

The pronominal adjectives are sometimes further

divided mtofour classes :

(1) Demonstratives—those used to point out ob-

jects ; as, This man. These men. That horse.

Those horses. The demonstratives are former, lat-

ter, that, these, this, those, same, such.

(2) Indefinites—those used to denote number in-

definitely ; as, All men. Some trees. The indefi-

nites are all, any, another, few, many, none, other,

some.

(3) Nmnerals—those used to denote numberexactly; as, Two boys. The first place. Numerals

are divided into Cardinals, which tell how many ;

as, one, two, three, etc. ; Ordinals, which tell of what

rank ; as, first, second, third, etc. ; Distributives,

which tell how many apiece ; as, each, either, neither,

one apiece, two apiece, etc.

THE ADJECTIVE. 81

(4) Interrogative and Relative pronouns when

used with a noun ; as, Which horse? Whatever

man.

49. Some of the pronominal adjectives change

their form for number and case ; either has either'

s

as possessive, another has another's as possessive,

and other has a plural

—

Norn, others ; Poss. others';

Obj. others.

The forms each other and one an other are

always pronouns. In them the each and the one are

always nominative case ; other and an other may be

any case but nominative. The sentence, The girls

love each other=The girls love one the other. Thesentence, The girls borrow each other's books=Thegirls borrow, the one the other's books. The sen-

tence, The girls give each other presents=The

girls give presents, the one to the otket. And so for

'one an other.

50. The pronominal adjectives any, no (a form of

none), and some, are used with the limiting adjective

else, and the nouns body or thing between them ; as,

any body else, so7ne thing else. The last two words

in the combination form compound nouns, limited by

the adjective any or no or some. They are always

singular, and form the possessive by the regular

law ; as, any body else's, etc.


51. The numerals, pair, brace, dozen, score, hun-

dred, thousand, etc., are nouns, and may be used as

singulars with the indefinite article before them ; as,

a pair, a dozen; or they may be used as plurals ; as,

hundreds of men, pairs of horses. Such of them as

mean two (brace, couple, leash, pair, etc.,) are fol-

lowed by of and a plural noun; as, a pair of gloves,

a couple of horses. The others, in the singular, form

compound collective nouns with the following nouns

;

as, a dozen men, a hundred dollars. (The same form

is found in the phrase, a good many.) In the plural

they are followed by of and a plural noun ; as, hun-

dreds of men. These last are also used as adjec-

tives ; as, six dozen eggs, three hundred sheep. All

the other numerals are pronominal adjectives, except

in special cases ; as, by twos, byfours, etc.

1. Write five sentences containing pronominal adjectives

used as pronouns.

2. Write five sentences containing demonstrative adjectives.

3. Write five sentences containing demonstrative pronouns.

4. Write two sentences illustrating the use of each other.

5. Write five sentences illustrating the use of numeral ad-

jectives.

THE ADJECTIVE. 83

Qualifying Adjectives.

52. A Qualifying Adjective is one that names

some quality of the noun to which it is joined ; as,

A good man.

53. Regular Comparison.—Most adjectives are

qualifying, and they, together with a few limiting

adjectives, have an inflection called Comparison to

enable them to express degrees of quality or

quantity.

54. There are three Degrees of Comparison, the

Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

The Positive degree is the simplest form of the ad-

jective. The Comparative degree is formed from the

positive by the suffix er or the prefix more, and it

implies that the quality is one degree higher than

the positive. The Superlative degree is formed from

the positive by the suffix est or the prefix most, and

it implies that the quality is raised to its highest

degree.

In general, adjectives of one syllable form the

comparative and superlative by the suffixes er and

est ; as, positive

—

lo7tg, comparative

—

longer, super-

lative

—

longest ; and adjectives of more than one

syllable form the comparative and superlative by

prefixing more and most to the positive ; as, posi-

tive

—

beautiful, comparative

—

more beautiful, super-

lative

—

most beautiful.


55. Irregular Comparison.—Many adjectives

form their comparison irregularly as below :

Positive. Comparative, Superlative.

bad' \

evil[

worse worst

ill 3

far farther farthest

forth further furthest

fore former foremost

good better best

hind hinder hindmost

late later latest

late latter last

little less least

many- more most

much more most

nigh nigher next (nighest)

old older-elder oldest- eldest

rathe rather

56. Three of these above owe their extreme

irregularity to the loss of some part which they had

in Saxon, and the use of another adjective in place

of it. Thus the Anglo-Saxon weors (bad) is the

positive from which worse and worst are derived;

bet (good) is the positive that gave better and best

;

las (weak) is the positive of less and least.

Far, farther, farthest, refers to distance—I like the

farthest house.

(Forth), further, furthest, refers to something addi-

tional—I make thefurther statement.

THE ADJECTIVE. 85

Later and latest refer to time—Defer the matter

to a later date.

Latter and last refer to position—He stood in the

last place.

Older and oldest refer to persons and things.

Elder and eldest to persons.

57. Incomparables.—Some adjectives cannot, in

absolute strictness, admit of comparison, and these

are sometimes classed as incomparables. They are

adjectives in which the meaning of the positive is

already as strong as it can be made. Such are

dead, empty, eternal, infinite, left, perfect, perpetual,

square, wooden, etc.

Note.—Some of these adjectives; as, perfect, round, square,

are often used to denote an approach to the quality which they

imply. When we say, The earth is round, we do not meanexactly round but nearly so. In this use these adjectives can

be compared and such forms as, This painting is more perfect

than that one, would be correct.

58. In such sentences as, John lost his knife, the

word his may be regarded as an adjective and said

to limit knife. Then a new class of limiting adjec-

tives would be made, and the name given to them

is Possessive Adjectives.

The relation between his and knife is, however,

quite as clear if his is said to be the personal pro-

noun in the possessive case limiting knife. This

explanation of his makes the existence of the pos^

sessive adjective needless.


59. After these pronouns is often used the adjec-

tive own; as, my own home, his own father. Theadjective own has the sense of proper and qualifies

the following noun which is limited by the possess-

ives my, his, her, etc.

60. Adjectives Used as Nouns.—When the noun

to which the adjective belongs is omitted, the adjec-

tive becomes a noun ; as, The good (men) die young.

The wicked (men) flee. The nouns thus formed are

always plural and are always preceded by the defi-

nite article the. Good (happiness). Goods (prop-

erty), and evil have become ordinary commonnouns.

61. A peculiar and very common English con-

struction is the use of the noun as an adjective in

such forms as, a winter home, the garden gate, etc.

These forms may generally be regarded as com-

pound nouns.

& is, &

SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 87

SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE.

62. The comparative degree of the adjective is

followed by the conjunction than and a clause ; as,

John is taller than William (is). I like John better

than (I like) William.

The superlative degree of the adjective is fol-

lowed by the preposition of and the objective case;

as, He is the strongest of the boys.

That with which anything is compared is called

the Complement. In the above sentences William

and boys are complements.

Rule of Syntax.—Adjectives limit nouns and

pronouns.

Rule of Syntax.—Adjectives in the predicate

limit the subject. The predicate in this case is

some such verb as be, become, get, grow, look,

seem, etc.


noun, pronoun, adjective and verb :

EXERCISE V.

This coat fits you, that does not. The night was cold, but

the day was warmer. John is a strong boy. The longer

story pleases me. Robert is riding his own horse. Somebodyelse must go. The brave soldiers aided each other. Several

persons were hurt when the house was wrecked. Some chil-

dren are polite, some are rough. A hundred cattle were


grazing. The poorer people were starved. Better boys

cannot be found. The merry children gave one another

little gifts. The sleepy baby was thrown out when the clumsy

cradle fell. When the colonel was sick his major commandedthe soldiers. The boys killed many birds when they were

hunting; and they missed a good many. Twenty men were

sent; they found the spring, and filled their casks. You must

get somebody else's umbrella. James is a stronger boy than

John. You should use your own books, and not borrow some-

body else's. He is an uncle of mine. William had his own hat.

REVIEW OF THE ADJECTIVE. 89

REVIEW OF THE ADJECTIVE.

(To be Written.)

1. Define adjective, and state the two great classes and

explain.

2. What are the divisions of limiting adjectives ?

3. What is a pronominal adjective, and why is it so called ?

4. Name the classes of numerals.

5. Write out five adjectives which have regular comparison.

0. Write out five adjectives which have irregular comparison.

7. Make five sentences containing qualifying adjective in

positive degree in predicate.


comparative degree in predicate.


superlative degree in predicate.

10. Make five sentences containing adjective in positive used

attributively.

11. Make five sentences containing adjective in comparative

used attributively.

12. Make five sentences containing adjective in superlative

used attributively.


THE ADVERB.

63. An adverb is a word that limits a verb or an

adjective or another adverb. The term comes from

ad-verbum, that which is added to a verb. The fol-

lowing sentences illustrate the use of the adverb :

(1) Limiting a verb. The horse runs fast. Thesoldiers will not retreat.

(2) Limiting an adjective. The child is very ill.

The freshly painted house is pretty.

(3) Limiting another adverb. The girl reads

quite well. The note is rather badly written.

If several adverbs limit one verb or one adjective

or one adverb, the limiting adverbs must have con-

junctions between them expressed or understood;

as, He speaks clearly and well. Really and truly

beautiful. Really and truly well made.

Note.—An additional treatment of nouns, verbs, pronouns

and adjectives will be given farther on ; but adverbs, preposi-

tions, exclamations and conju?ictio?is will be presented but

once, and the treatment then will be as full as seems desirable.

Further reference t© the last four parts of speech will be

merely incidental.

64. With regard to their meaning adverbs are

divided into five classes, as follows :

(a) Adverbs of Cause answer the question, why ?

as, therefore, wherefore.

THE ADVERB. 91

(b) Adverbs ofDegree answer the question, how

much? as, enough, little, much.

(c) Adverbs ofManner answer the question, how ?

as, badly, truly, well

(d) Adverbs of Place answer the question, where ?

whither? whence? as, here, there, everywhere.

(e) Adverbs of Time answer the question, when ?

how often ? as, now, twice, frequently, seldom.

Note.—The numeral adverb—once, twice, three times, etc.,

is included among adverbs of time. This arrangement has

some convenience, and is as exact as any classification that

can be made.

The common expression, Three times two are six, must be

explained as follows : Two is the subject, and, being an

adjective used as a noun, it is limited by the numeral adverb

three times, etc. The verb in these forms should be plural

except, perhaps, when one is the subject ; as, Three times one

is three. The use of English writers is, however, very dif-

ferent as to the verb in these sentences, and many good

authorities use the singular.

65. The Responsives.—The common wordsyes and

no are better treated here than elsewhere. Whenthe question, " Did you go to town ? " is asked, the

answer, "Yes," means "I did go to town." The

answer, "No," means "I did not go to town." It

is plain that the words yes and no stand for whole

sentences, and so cannot be called parts of speech.


66. With regard to their use adverbs are divided

into three classes, as follows :

(a) Simple Adverbs are those which only modify

the words with which they are used ; as, He ran

quickly. They will come soon.

(b) Interrogative Adverbs are those used in ques-

tions ; as, Why do you go ? Where is his home ?

(c) Conjunctive Adverbs are those that not only

modify a word but connect the clauses in which they

stand with the principal propositions ; as, We know

where you went. He heard when they called. Fromthe fact that they connect propositions (like relative

pronouns) these adverbs are sometimes called rela-

tive adverbs.

Below is a list of the most important conjunctive

adverbs

:

as where and wherever whereon

than whereat whether

when whereby while

whence wherefore whilst

whenever wherein why

67. Regular Comparison.—Adverbs admit of an

inflection (Comparison) similar to that of adjectives.

Many adverbs are related to adjectives in form and

meaning. Adverbs of one syllable form their com-

parative and superlative by the suffixes er and est.

Those of more than one syllable form by joining

THE ADVERB. 93

more and most to the positive ; as, Positive

—

soon,

Comparative

—

sooner, Superlative

—

soonest; or, Posi-

tive—rapidly, Comparative

—

more rapidly, Superla-

tive

—

most rapidly. The use of comparison in

adverbs is, like that in adjectives, to supply forms

by means of which different degrees of meaning

may be assumed by the adverbs.

68. Irregular Comparison.—Like the corre-

sponding adjectives many adverbs form their com-

parison irregularly, as below

:

ositive. Comparative. Superlative.

badly )

ill 3

worse worst

far farther farthest

forth further furthest

late later (latter) last (latest)

little less least

much more most

near (nigh) nearer next

(rathe) rather

well better best

Note.—In such sentences as, He would rather send than

go, etc. , the adverb rather has exactly its old force of sooner.

The full form would be, He would send sooner than he would

go. With this use of rather the verb would can be explained

as governing the following infinitive. In the common form,

He had rather send than go, the verb had cannot be explained

at all. This latter form is, however, the preference of manygood writers. There is some ground for supposing that would

rather expresses a weak preference, and had rather a strong

one.


69. Adverbial Phrases.—Many adverbs contain

several words ; as, every once in a while, every day,

etc. They can be recognized by observing that they

modify a verb, etc., and they may be parsed as one

word since they are generally equal in meaning to

some one adverb. These phrases should be assigned

to their proper classes. Some are simple ; as, once

on a time, etc. ; some are conjunctive ; as, so soon as,

so long as, etc.

70. Position of the Adverb.—Some adverbs and

adverbial phrases demand care as to their position

in the sentence. The most important is the adverb

only. Below are given some illustrations of the

changes in sense caused by inserting only in different

positions in a sentence

:

He only will see his house=No one else will see it.

He will only see his house=He will do nothing but see it.

He will see only his house=He will see nothing else.

He will see his only house=The only house he has.

Especially to be avoided is the placing of an ad-

verb between the infinitive of the verb and its sign

to; as, to greatly admire, etc.

No law governing this matter can be stated. Theadverb should be so placed in the sentence as to

render its use as clear as possible, and whenever

the sense cannot be made entirely plain by locating

the adverb, the sentence should be recast.

THE ADVERB. 95

71. Special Adverbs.—(1) Adverbs are used as

nouns in such sentences as, Now is your time. I

have not seen him since then,

(2) Adverbs are used as adjectives in such rare

phrases as, The then owner. Thine often infirmities.

The above sentence.

(3) The same word is often used both as an ad-

verb and as a preposition ; as, He went by. Hewent by the gate. They rose up. They came up

the hill.

(4) In phrases like twice a day, etc., the whole

may be regarded as a simple adverb, or a day maybe considered an adverb (daily), limited by another

adverb, twice,

(5) The is an adverb in such forms as, the more

the better, etc. The full form is by how much (it is)

more, by that much (it is) better.

(6) As may be a simple adverb, e. g,, As strong,

as truly.

Or it may be a conjunctive adverb, e. g., He went

out as I came in.

Or it may be a relative pronoun, e. g., He is not

so good a man as I thought.

Or it may be a conjunction, e, g., As he is here,

I must go home.


SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB.

72. The comparative degree of the adverb is fol-

lowed by the conjunction than and a clause ; as,

John runs faster than William (runs). He lived here

longer than (he lived) in London.

73. The superlative degree of the adverb is fol-

lowed by the preposition <?/and the objective case;

as, He runs fastest of all the boys. Other facts as

to the use of the comparative and superlative of the

adverb may be inferred from the remarks on the

same forms of the adjective (page 123).

Rule of Syntax.—Adverbs modify verbs, adjec-

tives and other adverbs.


noun, pronoun, adjective, verb and adverb :

' EXERCISE VI.

He came slowly, but he reached home at last. I cannot

tell why he does not like me. The taller house stands where

the mill stood years ago. How did you find out what was the

matter? The gentleman gladly gave the poor man somemoney when he saw how much he needed it. Do you like

this city as much as Paris ? The general was not so brave a

soldier as the king. The more you read that history the

better you will like it. The robber ran quickly away as soon

as he saw the dog. Regularly, twice a week, he visited his

mother. The merchant will surely pay all his debts by next

SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 97

year. Robert drives more carefully than James. The boys

like the farm better than the city. We climbed three hours

up a mountain two miles high. The father being dead, the

son inherited his whole estate. Robert, have you caught the

horse at last ? I am six years older than my only brother,

John.

Sllfe:


REVIEW OF THE ADVERB.

(To be Written.)

1. Define adverb, and state classes.

2. Make two sentences illustrating use of adverbs of each

class.

3. Write in full five adverbs which have regular comparison.

4. Write in full five adverbs which have irregular comparison.

5. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying verbs.

6. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying adjec-

tives.

7. Make five sentences illustrating adverbs modifying other

adverbs.

8. Make four sentences illustrating the uses of as.

9. Make five sentences containing adverbial phrases.

THE PREPOSITION. 99

THE PREPOSITION.

74. A preposition is a word that shows the rela-

tion between a noun or a pronoun, and a verb, an

adjective or another noun. The term comes from

prae, before, and ponere, to place.

75. In the sentence, The tree is before the house,

the word before shows the relation between tree and

house. It is a preposition. The following sentences

illustrate prepositions which join (1) noun to verb.

Henry stood at the door ; (2) noun to adjective.

Lucy is fond offlowers ; (3) noun to another noun.

The man in the bed is sick.

The noun or pronoun which depends on the

preposition is said to be governed by it, and a prepo-

sition may also govern (1) an infinitive, (2) a clause,

when they are used as nouns ; as

—

(1) Noun, The man sat in the cart.

(2) Pronoun, Give the books to him.

(3) Infinitive (with to), They neversaw him except to scold him.

(4) Infinitive (in ing), His reason/br doing this is clear.

(5) Clause, I will be guided by what you say.

76. Following is a list of the most important

prepositions :


about around beyond off towards

above at but on under

across before by over underneath

after behind down round until

against below excepting since unto

along beneath for through up

amid beside from throughout uponamidst besides in till with

among between into to within

amongst betwixt of toward without

77. There are two classes of prepositions

—

Simple

and Compound.

(1) Simple Prepositions.—The following are the

simple prepositions : at, by, for, in, of, off, on, out,

with, up.

(2) Compound Prepositions are formed in several

ways

—

(a) By prefixing a preposition, a=on, be=by, to a

noun or an adjective ; as, a-cross, a-round, besides,

be-low, etc.

(b) By adding a comparative suffix to an adverb;

as, af-ter, ov-er, etc.

(c) By combining several prepositions ; as, into,

within, etc.

(d) By prefixing a preposition to an adverb ; as,

a-bove, a-bout, be-fore, etc.

Prepositions usually stand before the words that

they govern.

THE PREPOSITION. 101

78. Prepositional Forms.—A number of words

now used as prepositions are not properly such, but

the tendency is constantly stronger to regard them

as prepositions, because their construction is so

rendered more simple.

Except and save are the imperatives of the verbs

to except and to save, and the word by which they

are followed is really the direct object of the verb.

Barring, conceiving', regarding, respecting, touch-

ing, are present participles of their respective verbs,

and the word governed by them is the direct object.

During and notwithstanding are used as preposi-

tions, but they are present participles (from endure

or dure and to not withstand). The nouns are

joined to them in a construction called absolute.

Section 31, (8).

79. Prepositional Phrases are collections of

words joined by a preposition to the rest of the sen-

tence, and having the force of an adjective or an ad-

verb. Thus, in the sentence, The roses in the garden

are beautiful, in the garde7i is a prepositional phrase

used as an adjective to limit the noun roses. In the

sentence, The bird sits on thefence, o?i the fence is a

prepositional phrase used as an adverb to modify

the verb sits.

A prepositional phrase is sometimes used as a

noun in such forms as, from across the ocean, from

down the valley. Phrases so used are generally

governed byfrom.


SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION.

80. Prepositions govern the objective case.

The preposition by and the objective case ex-

presses the agent with the passive voice ; as, Thehouse was built by the carpenter.

81. Certain verbs, nouns and adjectives require

special prepositions after them. Observation and

practice will enable one to avoid errors in this

respect.

Below is a list of a few such words with the proper

prepositions :

Accord with. Convenient to (a person).

Acquit of. Convenient for (a purpose).

Adapted to (by design). Disappointed of (fail to get).

Adapted for (by nature). Disappointed in (dissatisfied

Agree with (a person). with).

Agree to (or proposition). Y2.xX.fr0m (a person).

Confer on (give to a person, Part with (a thing).

discuss a plan). Reconcile to (a person).

Confer with (a person). Reconcile with (a thing).

Analyze the following sentences and parse each

noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb and prepo-

sition :

SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 103

EXERCISE VII.

The sailor sat quietly in his boat while the storm raged

around. Several hundred sheep were in the field when the

wolf was shot. Why did you not consent to the arrangement

more gracefully? Whom did the officers find in the house

when they searched it ? After he had gone up the hill he slipped

down. How can you answer such questions so ? When the

king had come to the city he found the gates strongly guarded

by soldiers. I drove to the left so soon as I saw the hole on

the right of the road. The boy climbed into the cart, but he

soon fell out again. I can come by to-morrow, if not earlier.

The bear was standing still on a rock when suddenly he spied

me and sprang down. The wind being still we could not ad-

vance many miles up the stream. When the deer had run a

few steps he fell dead. James, is that your knife? Yes, it is.

The day being bright we went out several hours for a walk.

The house which we built is forty feet long.


THE EXCLAMATION.

82. An exclamation is a word that expresses somesudden emotion ; as, ah ! hurrah ! oh ! etc. Theterm is derived from ex-clamare, to cry out. Excla-

mations are often called Interjections.

83. Exclamations are not strictly parts of speech,

as they have no grammatical connection with other

words in the same sentence. They, therefore, have

no syntax. Really exclamations are whole sentences

in themselves. "Hurrah!' means "I am glad."

"Oh!' means "lam sorry," etc. In writing and

printing these words are followed by the exclama-

tion point ( ! )

.

84. A number of the exclamations have no mean-

ing, but are simply natural cries, almost the same in

sound coming from men as from animals. Others

are the imperatives of verbs ; as, hark ! hush ! etc.,

or shortened forms of phrases ; as, Alas, from a

lesso=.0\\, miserable me ! Adieu, from a dzeu=(I

entrust you) to God ! Good-bye=God be with you.

O dear, O a7ieu=0 God ! Welcome !=You are

well come, etc.

Below are given sentences illustrating the use of

the exclamations :

Ah ! how sorry we all were.

Aha ! I have you there.

Alack a day ! whom have we here ?

THE EXCLAMATION. 105

Alas ! I have lost them.

Ha ! what was that ?

Hark ! can you not hear the shouting ?

Hush ! he is asleep.

O John ! come here.

Oh ! how I wish we had him back.


THE CONJUNCTION.

85. A Conjunction is a word that joins proposi-

tions or phrases or words together ; as, I shall go

and see the doctor. Come either to-morrow or next

day. John and James. The term is derived from

con-jungere, to join together.

Conjunctions are of two kinds

—

(a) Co-ordinating Conjunctions are those which join

two things of the same rank, i. e.ytwo principal

propositions or two dependent propositions or two

phrases or two words.

The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are, and,

both, but, either-or, neither-nor.

(b) Subordinating Coujunctions are those which

join two things of different ranks, and their only

use is, therefore, to join a dependent proposition to

a principal proposition ; as, I gave him moneybecause he needed it, etc.

The principal subordinating conjunctions are, as,

after, because, before, ere, for, if, lest, since, than,

though, till, unless, until, while, ivhether-or.

SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 107

SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION.

Rule of Syntax.—The conjunction connects

words or phrases or propositions.

86. The conjunction has no control over the gram-

matical forms of the words which it joins. The only

requirement to be met is, in the case of co-ordinat-

ing conjunctions, that the two words, etc., should

have the same use in the sentence. If one of two

nouns joined by a conjunction is subject the other

must also be subject, etc.

The English language has completely lost the use

of the Subjunctive Mood except in rare cases and in

the practice of very exact writers. Many of the

offices performed in the classical languages by this

mood has been assumed in English by the Potential,

and many of them by periphrastic forms.

87. Many conjunctions require certain other con-

junctions to follow them to complete the sense.

These pairs are called Correlative Conjunctions,

e. g. yas-as, either-or, neither-nor, so-as, though-yet,

whether-or.

The adjective both requires the conjunction and

;

the adjective such requires the conjunction as. The

adverbs as and so require the conjunction as.

In the use of the correlative conjunctions it is not

clear that the first conjunction connects anything.


In the phrase, both John and James, the conjunction

and alone would seem to perform the office of con-

nective.

In complex sentences the conjunction that is often

omitted ; as, I told you (that) he was here, etc.

Analyze the following sentences and parse each

part of speech

:

EXERCISE VIII.

I did not see the thief because it was so dark in the hall.

John must either come himself or send a substitute. Did you

know that the President was here ? No. As he is innocent he

should be acquitted. I did not tell James whether the king

would come to-morrow or not. The general could not save

his army, though he was as prudent as any man could have

been. Both John and his father staid till morning. We can-

not go away till our guests leave. The house was so situated

that the trees hid it completely from view. I did not know he

was here. No one could tell whether the cavalry would return

in time for the fight or not. Did you walk a mile, or two ?

Mary, I cannot be ready for dinner, so do not wait for me.

The king having ended his speech, the people applauded. The

wheel being broken is no longer safe. I do not know howmany inches taller Robert is than I. This house was built

forty years ago. John minds his own business, and nobody

else's. An uncle of Robert's passed through here to-day and

left him a message. Our own house is good enough for us.

VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 109

VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH.

88. Many words vary in the uses made of them,

and consequently become different parts of speech

in different circumstances. The use of course de-

termines what part of speech a word must be, and

a little thought will commonly enable the student

to decide the question accurately. A list of a few

of the most common of these variables is, however,

appended for the sake of illustration :

A is an adjective ; as,

A is a preposition ; as,

Above is a preposition ; as,

Above is an adjective ; as,

Above is an adverb ; as,

After is a preposition ; as,

After is an adverb ; as,

All is adjective ; as,

All is a pronoun ; as,

All is an adverb ; as,

Any is an adjective ; as

Any is an adverb ; as,

Any is a pronoun ; as,

As is an adverb ; as,

As is a conjunction ; as,

As is a relativepronotm ; as,

Below is an adverb ; as

Below is a noun ; as,

Below is & preposition ; as

He has a horse.

He went ^-hunting.

He lives above the post-office.

Read the above sentence.

He lives above.

He called after me.

He came soon after. He came

after you left.

All men are sinners.

All is gone.

He went all over the place.

Has he any money ?

Is he any better ?

I have money. Has he any ?

He is as brave as you. He came

as I left.

As he did not come, I will go.

He is not such a man as I like.

He went below.

He came from below.

He lives below the hill.


But is an adverb ; as,

But is a conjunction ; as,

But is a preposition ; as,

Else is an adjective ; as,

Else is an adverb ; as,

Else is a conjunction ; as,

Enough is an adjective ; as,

Enough is an adverb ; as,

Enough is a pronoun ; as,

Full is an adjective ; as,

Full is an adverb ; as,

Like is an adjective ; as,

Like is an adverb ; as,

Like is a noun ; as,

Like is a verb ; as,

Near is an adjective; as,

Near is an adverb ; as,

Near is a preposition ; as,

Since is an adverb ; as,

Since is a conjunction ; as,

Since is a preposition ; as,

That is an adjective ; as,

That is a conjunction ; as,

That is a pronoun ; as,

What is an adjective ; as,

What is an adverb ; as,

What is an interjection ; as,

What is an inter-pronoun ; as,

What is a relativepronoun ; as,

He can £#/ do this.

He was sick but he recovered.

All are dead but him.

He saw someone else.

Where else is he ?

He will come, else he will write.

He has enough money.

He has slept enough.

He got enough.

He isfull of learning.

He hasfull many a friend.

He is like his brother.

He acts like a madman.He and his like are rascals.

I like flowers.

The rtear approach of danger

frightened him.

He was near.

He was near me.

He has not been here since he

was sick.

He cannot come since he has no

money.

He has been here since Monday.

He shot that bird.

He said that he was sick.

He rode his horse, not that of his

father.

What a noise he makes.

What with his talents and his

wealth, he became a leader.

What! did he do this?

What did he say ?

He did what he promised.

VARIABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. Ill

89. Any part of speech may be used as a verb in

such sentences as, "But me no buts," "Clerk meno clerks," etc.

The words most likely to be confused are the

adverbs, conjunctions and prepositions.

90. Any part of speech may be used as a noun in

such sentences as, He said " Yes." It spells "long"

etc. The commonly quoted sentence, "The boy

said that that that that that lady used was incor-

rect/' contains four different uses of that.

Refer to any school dictionary, and, taking a few

pages at a time, select all the words that may be

used in several ways in a sentence. Make a sen-

tence in which these variable forms are correctly

introduced.

Analyze and parse the following sentences.

Change simple sentences to compound, and com-

pound to simple. Change active verbs to passive,

and passive to active. Note each part of speech

that may be used in several ways

:

EXERCISE IX.

1. John's uncle gave him a watch. John kept the watch

two years. Now he has lost it.

2. We came to a stream. The stream was Detween two

hills. We crossed the stream on a log.

3. The house was built by my father. The house was built

during the war. It has been sold. A rich merchant bought it.

4. The boys went hunting. They went into the mountains.

They saw three deer. They shot one.


5. We shall go to London. We shall start next week.

We shall stay six months.

6. The roads were very steep. The load was quite heavy.

The horses could not pull the wagon. The driver took someof the load off.

(1) The book which we are reading was written by a welU

known scholar who lived at the close of the fifteenth century.

(2) You must come to see me again and bring with you your

daughter Mary, whom we all admire so much. (3) Dr.

Smith, who lived here so long, moved to Paris, and, when he

had been there a year, he came back to America again.

(4) The mountains which we see yonder in the distance stand

in Scotland, where I was born.

SYNTAX. 113

PART III

SYNTAX.

91. Syntax is the statement of the laws by which

one word is related to others in the same construc-

tion. The word is derived from the Greek sun-taxis,

arrangement together.

Regular Constructions follow the general laws of

Syntax, and these have been already stated partially.

Irregular Constructions (called idioms) do not fol-

low those general laws, but must be otherwise

accounted for. Commonly these idioms result from

leaving out words necessary to the exact construc-

tion. This omission is called Ellipsis.

In this part of the Grammar will be treated those

extensions of the general laws which seem most

important, and those irregular constructions which

best illustrate the idioms of the language.


NOUNS.

Nominative Case.

92. I. Rule of Syntax.—The subject of a finite

verb is in the nominative case.

The subject may be

—

1. A noun; as, John came.

2. A pronoun ; as, He came.

3. An infinitive ; as, To hunt is tiresome.

4. A phrase ; as, Reading good books is instructive.

5. A clause ; as, That he is brave is clear to all.

II. Rule of Syntax.—A noun in the predicate

meaning the same thing as the subject agrees with

it in case.

Predicate Nominative.

(1) The infinitive or participle of an intransitive

or passive verb may take a noun or pronoun after

it in the same case as a noun or pronoun preceding

it ; as, He is regarded to be a brave man. I con-

sider him to be a gentleman. In the first case manis in the nominative because he is the subject. In

the second case gentleman is in the objective because

him is the direct object.

(2) When the subject consists of more than one,

the predicate nominative is plural ; as, John arid

James are myfriends.

NOUNS. 115

Possessive Case.

93. Rule of Syntax.—A noun in the possess-

ive limits the meaning of another noun denoting a

different thing.

(1) When the limited noun may be easily under-

stood it is often omitted ; as, We are going to our

aunt's (home).

(2) When several possessives are in apposition

the last term takes the possessive ending ; as, Herode his brother Robert's horse.

(3) When several possessives are connected by

and, and separate ownership is asserted, each noun

takes the possessive ending ; as, John's and Wil-

liam's shoes. Here John and William own different

shoes.

(4) When several possessives are connected by

and, and joint ownership is asserted, the last noun

takes the possessive ending ; as, Walker and Smith's

office. Here Walker and Smith own the same office.

Objective Case.

94. I. Rule of Syntax.—The direct object of a

transitive verb is in the objective case.

The direct object may be

—

1. A noun ; as, I saw John.

2. A pronoun ; as, Robert knows us.

3. An infinitive ; as, He likes to read, or reading.

4. A phrase ; as, He wishes to have a holiday.

5. A clause ; as, He knows that you can come.


(1) Every part of a transitive verb in the active

voice may have a direct object.

(2) Verbs meaning to allow, promise, refuse, etc.,

may have a direct object after the passive ; as, Hewas promised a reward.

(3) Verbs meaning to ask, elect, choose, name,

teach, etc., may have two direct objects, one of the

person and the other of the name given or the office

bestowed, etc. ; as, The people chose him king.

He taught us grammar.

II. Rule of Syntax.—The indirect object of a

transitive verb is in the objective case.

Note.—Generally the indirect object comes before the direct

object ; as, Give the beggar (indirect object) money (direct

object). But when both objects are represented by pronouns,

the tendency is strong to place the direct object first ; as, Give

it (direct) him (indirect).

Any verb whose meaning permits may take

an indirect object in addition to its direct object.

When such verbs become passive they give two

forms of the passive sentence.

If the sentence, The hunter shot the deer, is

changed to the passive form, it can have but one

shape—The deer was shot by the hunter. The sub-

ject hunter becomes the objective, governed by by ;

the direct object deer becomes the subject ; the verb

changes from active to passive, and no other form

can be made,

NOUNS. 117

But if the sentence, The teacher gave the boys

holiday, be put in the passive, it can assume the

form, (1) The boys were given holiday by the

teacher, and (2) Holiday was given the boys by

the teacher. In the first case the indirect object ot

the active becomes the subject, in the second case

the direct object of the active becomes the subject.

In each case that object which does not become the

subject in the passive form keeps the same relation

which it had in the active.

The same peculiarity is shown by sentences which

contain two direct objects as in (3) above.

III. Rule of Syntax.—Prepositions govern a

noun or pronoun in the objective case.

(1) The object of a preposition may sometimes

be omitted ; as, The man (whom) I sent for did not

come.

(2) The objective case and the preposition of is

used instead of the possessive of common nouns

which are the names of things ; as, The foot of the

stair, instead of the stair's foot, etc. The possessive,

however, is frequently found.

(3) The objective case and the preposition of is

used instead of the possessive of antecedent ; as,

This is the house of the doctor who comes to our

house, instead of, This is the doctor's house whocomes to our house.


(4) The objective case and the preposition by is

used for the agent with passive verbs ; as, He was

hurt by the train.

(5) The preposition <?/"and the possessive case are

often found in such forms as, He is a brother of

John's, etc. This is an elliptical (shortened) form

for, He is a brother of (out of the number of) John's

brothers. The preposition governs brothers under-

stood. The similar form, in which no plural noun

can be understood ; as, That nose of John's, that

head of his, etc., does not admit the same explana-

tion. It properlv came into use as an outgrowth of

the other form.

In the following sentences parse the nouns :

EXERCISE X.

1. A wit's a feather, and a chief's a rod,

An honest man's the noblest work of God.

2. Come, gentle spring ! ethereal mildness, come !

3. Confidence is a plant of slow growth.

4. There mark what ills the scholar's life assail,

Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail.

5. A little rule, a little sway,

A sunbeam in a winter's day,

Is all the proud and mighty have

Between the cradle and the grave.

THE PRONOUN. 119

THE PRONOUN.

95. Rule of Syntax.—A pronoun agrees with

its antecedent in gender, number and person.

(1) All pronouns agree with the nouns for which

they stand in all respects but in case. Every pro-

noun takes its case from its use in the sentence in

which it stands, and these uses are covered by the

laws given for nouns. As already stated, the pro-

noun cannot be used in the Nominative Independent,

and has one use which the noun has not—viz., the

connective use of the relative pronoun.

(2) When the antecedents of a pronoun are of

several persons, the pronoun is first person rather

than second, and second rather than third ; as, Youand John and I saw our friends. You and John saw

your friends.

(3) When the antecedents are of different genders,

the pronoun is masculine rather than feminine, and

feminine rather than neuter ; as, Neither man nor

woman neglected his task. This use is objected to

by some writers, but the form is clearly better than,

Neither man nor woman neglected their tasks, as

the sentence contains no plural as antecedent to

their. Some writers use the form, Neither man nor

woman neglected his or her task, but the repetition

of the pronoun is clumsy and needless.


(4) The preposition to with the objective of rela-

tive pronouns takes the place of the indirect object

;

as, He is the person to whom I gave the ticket, or

He is the person whom I gave the ticket to.

(5) The relative pronoun whose is commonly said

to be the correct form when the antecedent is a

person, its place being taken by ofwhich when the

antecedent is a thing; as, The man whose son

came, etc. The mountain, the top of which wesaw. This distinction, however, is not reliable, as

numerous examples of excellent English will show

—

"fruit whose mortal taste," etc.

(6) The relative pronoun which may have a

clause as its antecedent ; as, He climbed the moun-

tain, which was a difficult feat. The relative that

cannot have this use. The nearest form in which

that can be used would be, He climbed the moun-

tain and that (demonstration) was a difficult feat.

(7) The relative pronoun what has the same

power as that which. The use of what is fourfold.

It may be equivalent to

—

1. Two nominatives; as, This is what he is=the person

(pred. nom.) that (pred. nom.)

2. Nominative and Objective ; as, This is what he

saw=the thing (pred. nom.) that (dir. obj.)

3. Two objectives ; as, He got what he saw—the thing

(dir. obj.) that (dir. obj.)

4. Objective and Nominative ; as, I see what he is—

the person (dir. obj.) that (pred. nom.)

THE PRONOUN. 121

(8) In such sentences as, John gave Robert his

knife, it is not possible to say whether John or

Robert is the antecedent of his, whether it is John's

knife or Robert's. Such difficulties may generally

be removed by rearranging a sentence, using such

words asformer and latter, etc. English, however,

seems to need an additional pronoun of the third

person to be used as the representative of some

exact word in the sentence ; as, for instance, the

subject. In the above sentence the new pronoun

would refer to John, and there would be no doubt

of the meaning.

Such an additional pronoun has been frequently

suggested, but there is no inclination on the part

of people generally to adopt it.

In the following sentences parse the pronouns :

EXERCISE XL

1. Good company in a journey makes the road seem shorter

than it is.

2. They shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig-

tree.

3. No one knows what the future has in store for him.

4. Your son and I must go to-day. You and your brother

can come later.

5. I never thrust my nose into other men's porridge. It is

no bread and butter of mine. Every man for himself, and

God for us all.

6. There is no man so good that, were he to submit all

his actions to the law, he would not deserve hanging ten times

in his life.


THE ADJECTIVE.

96. Rule of Syntax.—Adjectives modify nouns

and pronouns.

(1) Adjectives in the predicate both complete the

meaning of the verb and modify the subject. In the

sentence, Snow is white, is is a verb of incomplete

predication. The adjective white completes the

meaning of the verb and, at the same time, modifies

snow.

(2) Adjectives which have different forms for sin-

gular and plural agree with their nouns in number;

as, this apple, these apples, that man, those men.

(3) Indefinite adjectives of quantity are followed

by singular nouns. Indefinite adjectives of number

are followed by plural nouns ; as, much rain, manyrains.

(4) The adjectives each, every, either, neither must

be used with singular nouns ; as, each day, every

man, either road.

97. Articles.—When several adjectives limit a

noun, and but one person or thing is meant, the

article is used before the first adjective ; as, The tall,

blue mountains. But if several persons or things

are meant, the article is repeated before each adjec-

tive ; as, The tall and the blue mountains.

In the same way when several nouns mean the

same person or thing the adjective is used before

THE ADJECTIVE. 123

the first ; as, The farmer and merchant has come

(one person). But if several things are meant, the

article is repeated before each ; as, The farmer and

the merchant have come (two persons).

98. Comparative Degree.—The comparative de-

gree is used when two things are compared. Whenthe comparative degree is used the latter term of

the comparison must exclude the former by the use

of the adjective other ; as, England is richer than

any other country. If other were omitted England

in the above sentence would be said to be richer

than itself.

99. Superlative Degree.—The superlative de-

gree is used when comparison is made between

more than two things.

When the superlative degree is used the latter

term of the comparison should include the former

;

as, England is the richest of all countries. If other

were inserted England would be said to be the rich-

est thing of a class to which it did not belong (other

countries).

100. As a multitude oi adverbs end in ly, the few

adjectives in this ending, friendly, leisurely, etc., are

sometimes misused as adverbs. This is especially

the case with friendly. Adverbs formed from these

adjectives do not exist, as they would have the

awkward forms friendlily, etc. Their place is taken

by a prepositional phrase, in afrie?idly manner, etc.


101. In such sentences as, John looks pale, Therose smells sweet, etc., the adjective is properly used,

because the reference of pale and sweet is to the

nouns and not to the verbs.

102. In such sentences as, John arrived safe, John

arrived safely, the adjective or the adverb is used

according to whether the reference is to John or to

arrive. The meaning is about the same in both

forms, but in a great majority of such sentences the

reference is intended to be to the nouns, and these

sentences should contain the adjective.

In the following sentences parse the adjectives :

EXERCISE XII.

1. These apples are not ripe.

2. The merchant lived many years and saved right muchmoney.

3. Each seems worse than the other.

4. The Pacific is larger than any other ocean.

5. The elephant is the largest of animals.

6. Oh, a dainty plant is the ivy green,

That creepeth o'er ruins old;

Of right choice food are his meals, I ween,

In his cell so lone and cold.

7. It's wiser being good than bad.

It's safer being meek than fierce.

It's fitter being sane than mad.

THE VERB. 125

THE VERB.I. Agreement.

103. Rule of Syntax.—A verb agrees with its

subject in number and person.

(1) When the subject consists of several parts,

joined by either-or, neither-nor, the verb is in the

singular ; as, Neither John nor James has come.

(2) When the subject consists of several parts,

joined by and, the verb is in the plural ; as, John

and James are here.

(3) Collective nouns take a singular verb when

the idea is one of unity. They take a plural verb

when the idea is one of plurality ; as, The army has

marched (as one man). The people were disap-

pointed (as many).

(4) When several nouns form one idea, the verb

is singular ; as, The wheel and axle was broken.

(5) When one of two subjects is excluded from

the statement of the verb by not, the verb is in the

singular and agrees with the subject which is not

excluded ; as, John, not James, is here.

(6) When several subjects are of different persons

the verb takes the first person rather than the

second and the second rather than the third ; as,

You and James and I (we) went fishing and (we)

caught some fish. You and James (you) went fish-

ing and (you) caught some fish.


(7) When subjects of different persons are joined

by either-or, neither-nor, the verb agrees with the

nearest subject ; as, Either you or I am mistaken.

Neither you nor he is mistaken.

(8) When one of two subjects of different persons

is excluded from the statement of the verb by not,

the verb agrees with the other ; as, You, not I, are

wrong. I, not you, am wrong.

(9) When several words compose the name of one

subject, the verb is singular; as, "The Curiosities

of Literature" is a valuable book.

(10) The verb to be often agrees with the predi-

cate nominative instead of the subject ; as, Thewages of sin is death.

II. Government.

Rule of Syntax.—Transitive verbs (in the active

voice) govern the objective case.

(1) Participles and infinitives have the same power

to govern nouns (that is, to cause them to be in the

objective case) as the finite verb. They have be-

sides the use of some other part of speech, as

follows :

(a) The infinitive may be a neiiter noun in the

nominative or objective case, and may be the subject

or direct object in a sentence. The infinitive used

as direct tfbject is commonly called Complementary

Infinitive ; as, To hunt (hunting) is tiresome. I

like to fish (fishing).

THE VERB. 12*

(b) The infinitive may be an adjective. It mayeither stand in the predicate with an intransitive or

passive verb, or it may be used attributively and

modify a noun directly ; as, He is to be excused

(excusable). He lent me a book to read (a reading

book).

(c) The infinitive may be an adverb. It maymodify (1) a verb ; as, I came to see you. (2) Anadjective ; as, It was dreadful to hear. (3) Anadverb ; as, To speak truly.

(d) The infinitive in ing (the gerund) may be the

object of a preposition ; as, He excels in writing.

He made a fortune by saving, etc.

Note.—With the participle there are two constructions in

English which involve little difference either in grammar or in

sense. We may say, (1) He heard the thief coming—herethief is direct object and is limited by coming used as an adjec-

tive. Or we may say, (2) He heard the thief s coming—herecoming is direct object and is limited by the possessive thief s.

Some cases might involve a preference. The farmer confessed

his horse's breaking the fence, is correct. The farmer con-

fessed his horse breaking the fence, would have no meaning.

When reference is intended to the noun, the noun is subject

or object, as in sentence (I) where thief is direct object.

When reference is intended to the participle, the participle is

subject or object, as in sentence (2) where coining is direct

object. The remarks are not limited to the present participle.

(2) The infinitive mood of a verb (being a noun)

is often the direct object of a transitive verb, and


(being a verb) may itself have a subject, direct

object, etc.

In the sentence, I saw him (to) come, him (in the

objective case) is the subject of to come.

Rule of Syntax.—The subject of the infinitive

mood is in the objective case.

(3) To is commonly omitted from infinitives after

tne active voice of bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make,

need, observe, see, and the auxiliaries ; as, I bid him

(to) go, etc. The verb need, in negative sentences,

does not take the ending (s) of the third person

singular ; as, He need not go. The use of to with

the infinitive is borrowed from the Danish.

Note.—In the construction, I needs must go, He needs

must come, etc., needs is an adverb. It may be an objective

plural kin to the objective adverbial, or it may be a pojssessive

singular in which the apostrophe has never been inserted, and

so really identical with the phrase of necessity, with which it is

identical in meaning. (See remarks on possessive of commonnouns, Article 9.)

Parse the infinitives and participles in the follow-

ing sentences •,

EXERCISE XIII.

(1) Seeing is believing. (2) By spending his money too

fast, he became poor. (3) In doing this you will not lose any-

thing. (4) To walk is pleasant. (5) We saw a boy carrying a

basket. (6) He lent me a horse to ride. (7) I have some-

THE VERB. 129

thing to tell you. (8) We saw the boy catch the colt. (9) I

wanted to look at him. (10) Bid him bring the wood.

(11) Through his trying to save a friend, the sailor himself

was drowned. (12) We like walking by the sea. (13) He is

not to blame. (14) We met the sailor coming up the hill.

(15) The king discovered the general's concealing the facts.

(16) He needs must use somebody else's books. (17) Weregretted the boy's arriving so late.

III. Tense of Infinitive.—When the infinitive ex-

presses action which is present or future at the time

of the verb on which the infinitive depends, the

present is the tense of the infinitive ; as, I wished to

see you yesterday. The seeing was to take place

while I was wishing, or a little in the future from

that time.

When the infinitive expresses action which is past

at the time of the verb on which the infinitive

depends, the perfect is the tense of the infinitive;

as, He seemed to have heard bad news. The hear-

ing was past at the time of the seeming.

104. Subjunctive Mood.—The subjunctive moodhas nearly passed out of use in English. The lan-

guage has lost much in beauty and exactness by

this fact, but there is no sort of likelihood that

the subjunctive will ever be restored to the place

which it held even seventy years ago.

The subjunctive should be used when a statement

is so made as to imply doubt or consequence or wish

in the mind of the speaker ; as (doubt), If it be clear


to-morrow I may go. (Consequence), He must take

heed lest hefall. (Wish) , I would he were here.

In the following sentences parse the verbs with

special attention to infinitives and participles :

EXERCISE XIV.

1. You will find angling to be like the virtue of humility.

2. The accusing spirit, which flew up to heaven's chancery

with the oath, blushed as he gave it in ; and the recording

angel as he wrote it down dropped a tear upon the word and

blotted it out forever.

3. The sounding cataract haunted me like a passion.

4. By governing himself, a man learns to rule others.

5. The wretch concentred all in self,

Living, shall forfeit fair renown,

And, doubly dying, shall go downTo the vile dust from whence he sprung,

Unwept, unhonored and unsung.

6. Night is the time to weep,

To wet with unseen tears

Those graves of memory where sleep

The joys of other years.

7. A noise like of a hidden brook

In the leafy month of June,

That to the sleeping woods all night

Singeth a quiet tune.

SYNTAX. 131

SYNTAX.

Subject, Predicate and their Modifiers.

105. The subject of a sentence is a noun or any

form that can be used as a noun, i. e., a noun, or a

pronoun, or an adjective used as a noun, or the infini-

tive of a verb, or a phrase, or a clause ; as,

Noun : William is here.

Pronoun : They will come.

Adjective used as a Noun : The wicked will be punished.

Infinitive : To hunt is pleasant. Running is tiresome.

Phrase: Attending to his own business makes a man rich.

Clause : That this is trtie is clear to all.

106. The predicate must be a verb. No other

word can be used as a verb. When the subject and

the predicate of a sentence have been selected all

the remaining words, phrases and clauses are modi-

fiers either of the subject or of the predicate. Thedirect object, together with its adjectives, must be

taken along with the predicate, as it is necessary to

complete its meaning.

Those which modify the Subject are adjectives or

adjectivalphrases or adjectival clauses.

Those which modify the Predicate are adverbs or

adverbialphrases or adverbial clauses.

107. The subject taken alone is called the gram-

matical subject, because it is, in grammar, the nomi-


native case to the verb. The grammatical subject

taken with all its adjectival modifiers is called the

logical or complete subject, because it is the complete

thing of which something is declared.

108. The predicate taken alone is called \}negram-maticalpredicate, because, in grammar, it agrees with

the grammatical subject. The grammatical predi-

cate taken with all its adverbial modifiers is called

the logical or complete predicate, because it is the

complete thing which makes the declaration.

109. Modifiers of the Subject.—The modifiers

of the subject may be

—

1. An adjective : as, The rich man died.

2. A noun orpronoun in the possessive case; as, John's

father came. Her father came.

3. A noun in apposition ; as, William, the tailor, mademy coat.

4. An adjectivephrase; as, The flowers in the garden are

pretty. The bird sitting on the fence is a robin

.

5. An adjective clause introduced by a relative ; as, Theboy whomyou see is Thomas.

As the noun can have any number of adjective

modifiers, the subject may be modified by any num-

ber of these adjectival forms.

110. Modifiers of the Predicate.—The modi-

fiers of the predicate may be

—

SYNTAX. 133

1. An adverb ; as, He travels slowly.

2. A direct object ; as, They saw me.

3. An indirect object ; as, He gave William a dollar.

4. An objective adverbial ; as, He walked a mile.

5. An infinitive ; as, He tried to speak.

6. An adverbialphrase ; as, He went into the garden.

7. An adverbialclause; as, He stopped because Icalledhim

As the verb may have several adverbs to modify

it, the predicate may be modified by any number of

these adverbial forms.

111. Dependent Propositions are either adjective

or adverbial, according as they modify a noun or

pronoun, or a verb in the principal propositions.

According to their meaning dependent clauses

are

—

(a) Causal, i. e , those which state a reason ; as,

Since he has come, I can go. Causal clauses are in-

troduced by the causal conjunctions, because, as, etc.

(b) Concessive, i. e., those which state a conces-

sion ; as, Though he is rich he is not happy. Con-

cessive clauses are introduced by the concessive

conjunctions, though, however, etc.

(c) Conditional, i. e., those which state a condition;

as, If he come I shall go. Conditional clauses are

introduced by the conditional conjunctions, if, etc.

(d) Comparative, i. e., those which state a compari-

son ; as, It looks as if it were going to rain. Com-

parative clauses are introduced by the comparative

conjunction, as if, etc.


(e) Final, i. e.ythose which state a purpose or

result ; as, I made the gate so the horse could get

through. I made the fence so high that the horse

did not jump it. Final clauses are introduced by

the final conjunctions, that, lest, etc.

(f) Temporal, i. e.ythose which state time ; as, I

shall come when the sun rises. Temporal clauses

are introduced by the temporal conjunctions, when,

while, etc.

(g) Relative, i. e.ythose introduced by a relative

pronoun or a relative adverb ; as, The man who was

sick got well. I know where he is.

Relative clauses introduced by a relative pronoun

are used as adjectives and modify some noun in the

principal proposition.

The other dependent clauses are commonly

adverbial, and modify the verb of the principal

proposition.

112. There is practically no use of mood peculiar

to the dependent clause in English. The tendency

to simplify the syntax has been strong enough to

abolish the subjunctive almost wholly. But there is

a peculiar use of tense illustrated in the conditional

and comparative sentence, sometimes called the

hypothetical law of tense, from hypothesis=a sup-

position.

SYNTAX. 135

When the speaker says, If I had money, I could

pay you, the reference is to present time, but the

verb is past tense. When the speaker says, If I

have money, I can pay you, the reference is to

future time, but the verb is present tense. Whenthe speaker says, If I had had money, I could have

paid you, the reference is to past time, but the verb

is past perfect tense.

The law is that in sentences containing supposi-

tions, the verb slips backward one step—for future

time the verb is present, for present time the verb

is past, for past time the verb is past perfect.

113. When the speaker gives the exact words of

another person, as in this sentence, I saw Mary and

she said, "I am not well," the form is called direct

narration {oratio recta), and is enclosed in quotation

marks as above.

When the speaker gives, not the exact words, but

the substance of what another person says, as in

this sentence, I saw Mary and she said that she was

not well, the form is called indirect narration {oratio

obliqud). Clauses in oratio obliqua always depend

on the verb (of saying or thinking) in the principal

sentence. Consequently these clauses are always

dependent.

In the following exercise analyze the sentences,

classify the clauses, turn oratio recta into oratio

obliqua and vice versa.


EXERCISE XV.

1. The boy said that he was going- to town to-day to get his

books.

2. No one could imagine where the deserters went.

3. The king made the wall so thick that the enemy could

not break through.

4. We did not know our lessons because we did not study

them long enough.

5. The lion looked as if he would spring upon us.

6. This man is a great benefactor to the poor, though he is

so poor himself.

7. Henry said, " I shall not lend John my knife again in a

hurry."

8. When the whistle sounded, all the workmen left the

factory.

9. We dug this ditch that the water might be drawn off.

10. You look as if you did not believe us.

11. We shall see him if he comes to-morrow.

12. The lady declared that her little daughter was too ill to

be at school.

13. We send this now, lest we forget it to-night.

14. The master asked John whether he was fond of skating

or not.

15. As you are here, we can go to church together.

16. Though these boys are brothers, they do not love each

other.

17. I cannot go with you if my cousin, William, does not go.

18. I feel as if I should faint.

19. Those boys whom we saw at the corner were going

hunting.

20. Whenever he sees me he says that I am like my father.

21. We made the fence that the horse might not get away.

22. We made the fence so that the horse did not get

away.

SYNTAX. 137

114. The following examples will illustrate the

complete analysis of the sentence

:

1. Simple Sentence.

Washington, the commander of the Americans, captured

the British army under Cornwallis at Yorktown.

This is a simple declarative sentence.

Grammatical Subject— Washington,

Adjectival modifiers—(a) the commander of the

Americans.

I. i Grammatical Predicate

—

captured.

Adverbial modifiers— (b) the British army under

Cornwallis.

(b) at Yorktown.

Modifiers of the Subject

—

(a) The commander of the Americans.

Central word

—

commander, in apposition to

Washington.

Modifiers—(a') the, adjective limiting com-

mander.

fa') of the Americans, prepositional

p h r a s e=adjective limiting

commander.

Modifiers of the Predicate

—

(b) The British army under Cornwallis.

Central word

—

army—direct object of captured.

Modifiers (b') the— adjective limiting army.

j I J (b') British—adjective limiting army.

(b') under Cornwallis, prepositional

phrase=adj. limiting army.

(c) At Yorktown. Prepositional phrase used as an

adverb of place to limit captured.10

II.


This analysis is sufficient for the simple sentence

because it reduces the elements of the sentence to

phrases, and the composition of these can be seen

at a glance. The compound sentence, in case it

does not contain dependent clauses, can be divided

into its simple sentences and each simple sentence

analyzed by the above method.

2. Complex Sentences.

The king, who was frightened at the condition ofthe treasury,

took those measures to fill it which were suited to his needs.

This is a complex, declarative sentence.

Grammatical Subject

—

King.

Adjectival Modifiers—(a) the.

(a) who was frightened at the

I. \ condiiio?i of the treasury.

Grammatical Predicate

—

took.

Adverbial modifiers—(b) those measures tofill it which

were suited to his needs.

Modifiers of the Subject

—

(a) The—adjective limiting king.

(a) Who was frightened at the condition of the treas-

ury, dependent clause used as an adjective

limiting king,

(a) Who was frightened at the condition of the

treasury.

Subject

—

who.

Adjectival modifiers—(a7

) (none).

Predicate

—

wasfrightened.

Adverbial modifiers— (b') at the condition of

the treasury—prepositional phrase used as

adverb modifying was frightened.

II

\\l.\

SYNTAX. 139

Modifiers of the Predicate

—

(b) Those measures to fill it which were suited to his

needs.

Central word

—

measures—direct object of took.

Adjective modifiers— (a') those— adjective lim-

iting measures.

(a') to Jill it—infinitive

phrase used as an

adjective modifying

measures.

(a') which were suited to

his needs—relative

clause used as an

adjective limiting

measures.

(a') To fill it.

Central word

—

toJill.

Adverbial element—(b") it—direct object of to

jut.

(a') Which were suited to his needs.

Subject

—

which.

Adjective modifiers—(a") (none).

Predicate

—

were suited.

Adverbial modifiers—(b") to his needs—prepo-

sitional phrase used as an adverb modifying

were suited.

III. 1

I

The compound sentence may be divided into

simple and complex sentences, and the complex

sentences analyzed as above.


Analyze the following sentences

:

EXERCISE XVI.

1. His sons, of whom the old man had three, were con-

stantly plotting against their father's peace of mind.

2. Where the torrent poured last winter there is now a

rocky bed in which great boulders lie.

3. Such men as William Tell will be venerated as long as

there are nations to bless their benefactors.

4. In his guarded tent

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour

When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent,

Should tremble at his power.

5. When we came to the brook we found that we could cross

by climbing from rock to rock.

6. Although the location was unfavorable the settlers found

that they prospered in their new home.

7. While he was calling his men to come to his rescue the

robber chief was killed by a shot from the attacking party.

8. It may be true that he is a selfish man in general, but I

know some instances of his generosity.

9. Those who were injured in the battle we. had to carry

many miles before we could leave them in safety.

10. Whenever we go to the country we feel relief from our

ordinary duties.

11. Have you never seen the people who live in your old

home?

12. We could not tell whether the enemy would attack us

or wait for us to attack them.

SYNTAX. 141

13. In order that he might rob a neighbor whom he had

promised to defend, black men fought on the coast of Coro-

mandel and red men scalped each other by the great lakes of

North America.

14. Spake full well in language quaint and olden,

One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine,

When he called the flowers, so blue and golden,

Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine.

15. If, as you say, 1 you never had any friends to aid you,

how did you succeed so well ?


LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.

Present. Past. Past Participle.

abide abode abode

arise arose arisen

awake awoke-ed awaked

be was been

bear (to produce) bore born

bear (to carry) bore borne

beat beat beaten

begin began begun

behold beheld beheld

bend bent-ed bent-ed

bet bet-ed bet-ed

bereave bereft bereft-ed

beseech besought besought

bid bid, bade bid, bidden,

bind bound bound

bite bit bit, bitten

bleed bled bled

blend blent-ed blent-ed

bless blest-ed blest-ed

blow blew blown

break broke, brake broken

breed bred bred

bring brought brought

build built-ed built-ed

burn burnt-ed burnt-ed

burst burst burst

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 143


buy- bought bought

cast cast cast

catch caught caught

chide chid chid, chidden

choose chose chosen

cleave (to adhere) clave, cleaved cleaved

cleave (to split) clove, cleft, clave cleft, cloven

cling clung clung

clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad

come came come

cost cost cost

creep crept crept

crow crew, crowed crowed

cut cut cut

dare durst, dared dared

deal dealt-ed dealt-ed

dig dug, digged dug, digged

do did done

draw drew drawn

dream dreamt-ed dreamt-ed

dress drest-ed drest-ed

drink drank, drunk drunk, drunken

drive drove driven

dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled

eat ate, eat eaten, eat

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed

feel felt felt

fight fought fought


Prese?it. Past. Past Participle.

find found found

flee fled fled

fling flung flung

fly flew flown

forbear forbore forborne

forget forgot forgot, forgotten

forsake forsook forsaken

freeze froze frozen

get got got, gotten

gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt

gird girded, girt girded, girt

give gave given

go went gone

grind ground ground

grow grew grown

hang hung hung

have had had

hear heard heard

heave heaved, hove heaved

hew hewed hewn-ed

hide hid hid, hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

keep kept kept

kneel knelt- ed knelt-ed

knit knit-ed knit-ed

know knew known

lade laded laded, laden



lay laid laid

lead led led

leap leapt-ed leapt-ed

learn learnt-ed learnt-ed

leave left left

lend lent lent

let let let

lie lay Iain

light lit, lighted lit, lighted

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

mow mowed mowed, mown

pass passed, past passed, past

pen penned, pent penned, pent

prove proved proven-ed

put put put

quit quit-ed quit-ed

rap rapped, rapt rapped, rapt

read read read

rend rent rent

rid rid-ed rid

ride rode ridden

ring rang, rung rung

rise rose risen

rive rived rived, riven

run ran run

saw sawed sawed, sawn



say- said said

see saw seen

seek sought sought

sell sold sold

send sent sent

set set set

shake shook shaken

shave shaved shaved-en

shear sheared, shore shorn, sheared

shed shed shed

shine shone, shined shone, shined

shoe shod shod

shoot shot shot

show showed shown, showed

shred shred shred

shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk,shrunken

shut shut shut

sing sang, sung sung

sink sank, sunk sunk

sit sat sat

slay- slew slain

sleep slept slept

slide slid slid, slidden

sling slung slung

slit slit-ed slit-ed

smell smelled, smelt smelled, smelt

smite smote smitten, smit

sow sowed sown-ed

speak spoke spoken



speed sped, speeded sped, speeded

spell spelled, spelt spelt, spelled

spend spent spent

spill spilled, spilt spilt, spilled

spin spun, span spun

spit spit, spat spit

split split, splitted split, splitted

spoil spoilt- ed spoilt-ed

spread spread spread

spring sprang, sprung sprung

stand stood stood

stay- stayed, staid stayed, staid

steal stole stolen

stick stuck stuck

sting stung stung

stride strode stridden

strike struck struck

string strung strung

strive strove striven

swear swore, sware sworn

sweep swept swept

swell swelled swollen, swelled

swim swam, swum swum

swing swung swung

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

think thought thought


Present. Past Past Participle.

thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived

throw- threw thrown

thrust thrust thrust

tread trod trodden, trod

wake woke, waked waked, woke

wear wore worn

weave wove woven

wed wedded, wed wedded, wed

weep wept wept

wet wet, wetted wet, wetted

win won won

wind wound, winded wound

work worked, wrought worked, wrought

wring wrung wrung

write wrote written

EXERCISES. 149

The following selections are for further exercise

in analysis and parsing

:

Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring

Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess sing;

That wrath which hurled to Pluto's gloomy reign

The souls of mighty chiefs untimely slain :

Whose limbs unburied on the naked shore,

Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore :

Since great Achilles and Atrides strove,

Such was the sovereign doom, and such the will of Jove.

Declare, O muse ! in what ill-fated hour,

Sprung the fierce strife, from what offended power ?

Latonai's son a dire contagion spread,

And heaped the camp with mountains of the dead;

The king of men his reverend priest defied,

And, for the king's offence, the people died.

—Opening of Homer' s Iliad—Pope's Translation.

Arms and the man I sing, who, forced by fate,

And haughty Juno's unrelenting hate,

Expelled and exiled, left the Trojan shore :

Long labors, both by land and sea, he bore;

And in the doubtful war, before he won

The Latian realm, and built the destined town :

His banished gods restored to rites divine,

And settled sure succession in his line;

From whence the race of Alban fathers come,

And the long glories of majestic Rome.

O, muse ! the causes and the crimes relate,


What goddess was provoked, and whence her hate :

For what offence the queen of Heaven began

To persecute so brave, so just a man;

Involved his anxious life in endless cares,

Exposed to wants and hurried into wars;

Can heavenly minds such high resentment show,

Or exercise their spite in human woe ?

Opening of Vergil's sEneid—Dryden s Translation.

Arms and the chief I sing, whose righteous hands,

Redeemed the tomb of Christ from impious bands;

Who much in council, much in field sustained,

Till just success his glorious labors gained;

In vain the powers of Hell opposed his course,

And Asia's arms, and Libya's mingled force;

Heaven blessed his standards, and beneath his care

Reduced his wandering partners of the war.

O sacred muse ! who ne'er in Ida's shade,

With fading laurels deck'st thy radiant head;

But sitt'st enthroned, with stars immortal crowned,

Where blissful choirs their hallowed strains resound;

Do thou inflame me with celestial fire,

Assist my labors and my song inspire.

—Opening of Tasso' sJerusalem Delivered—Hoole's Translation.

Of man's first disobedience and the fruit

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste

Brought deach into the world and all our woe,

With loss of Eden, till one greater man

EXERCISES. 151

Restore us and regain the blissful seat,

Sing heavenly muse, that on the secret top

Of Horeb or Sinai didst inspire

That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed,

In the beginning how the Heavens and Earth

Rose out of Chaos; or, if Sion hill

Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed,

Fast by the oracle of God ; I thence

Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song,

That with no middle flight intends to soar

Above the Ionian mount while it pursues

Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme.

— Opening of Miltori s Paradise Lost.

Harp of the North ! that mouldering long hast hung

On the witch-elm that shades Saint Fillan's spring,

And down the mournful breeze thy numbers flung,

Till envious ivy did around thee cling,

Muffling with verdant ringlet every string

—

O minstrel Harp, still must thine accents sleep ?

Mid rustling leaves and fountains murmuring,

Still must thy sweeter sounds their silence keep,

Nor bid a warrior smile nor teach a maid to weep ?

Not thus in ancient days of Caledon,

Was thy voice mute amid the festal crowd,

When lay of hopeless love, or glory won,

Aroused the fearful or subdued the proud.

At each according pause, was heard aloud

Thine ardent symphony sublime and high;


Fair dames and crested chiefs attention bowed :

For still the burden of thy minstrelsy-

Was knighthood's dauntless deed and beauty's matchless eye.

O wake once more ! how rude soe'er the hand

That ventures o'er thy magic maze to stray;

O wake once more ! though scarce my skill command

Some feeble echoing of thine earlier lay;

Though harsh and faint and soon to die away,

And all unworthy of thy nobler strain,

Yet if one heart throb higher at its sway

The wizard note has not been touched in vain,

Then silent be no more ! Enchantress, wake again !

—Opening of Scott's Lady of the Lake.

I purpose to write the history of England from the accession

of King James the Second down to a time which is within the

memory of men still living. I shall recount the errors which,

in a few months, alienated a loyal gentry and priesthood from

the House of Stuart. I shall trace the course of that revolu-

tion which terminated the long struggle between our sover-

eigns and their parliaments, and bound up together the rights

of the people and the title of the reigning dynasty. I shall

relate how the new settlement was, during many troubled

years, successfully defended against foreign and domestic

enemies ; how under that settlement the authority of law and

the security of property were found to be compatible with a

liberty of discussion and of individual action never before

known; how, from the auspicious union of order and freedom,

sprang a prosperity of which the annals of human affairs had

EXERCISES. 153

furnished no examples; how our country, from a state of

ignominious vassalage, rapidly rose to the place of umpire

among European powers ; how her opulence and her martial

glory grew together ; how, by wise and resolute good faith,

was gradually established a public credit fruitful of marvels

which to the statesmen of any former age would have seemed

incredible; how a gigantic commerce gave birth to a maritime

power, compared with which every other maritime power,

ancient or modern, sinks into insignificance; how Scotland,

after ages of enmity, was at length united to England, not

merely by legal bonds, but by indissoluble ties of interest and

affection; how, in America, the British colonies rapidly became

far mightier and wealthier than the realms which Cortes and

Pizarro had added to the dominions of Charles the Fifth; how,

in Asia, British adventurers founded an empire not less splendid

and more durable than that of Alexander.

— Opening of Macaulay* s History of England.

I have friends whose society is extremely agreeable to me;

they are of all ages and of every country. They have dis-

tinguished themselves both in the cabinet and in the field, and

obtained high honors for their knowledge of the sciences. It

is easy to gain access to them, for they are always at my service,

and I admit them to my company and dismiss them from it

whenever I please. They are never troublesome, but imme-

diately answer every question I ask them. Some relate to

me the events of past ages, while others reveal to me the

secrets of nature. Some teach me how to live, and others how

to die. Some by their vivacity drive away my cares and

exhilarate my spirits while others give fortitude to my mind,


and teach me the important lesson how to restrain my desires

and depend wholly on myself. They open to me, in short, the

various avenues of all the arts and sciences, and upon their

information I safely rely in all emergencies. In return for all

these services they only ask me to accommodate them with a

convenient chamber in some corner of my humble habitation,

where they may repose in peace—for these friends are more

delighted by the tranquillity of retirement than with the

tumults of society.

—

Petrarch,

Learning is like mercury—one of the most powerful and

excellent things in the world in skillful hands ; in unskillful,

the most mischievous.

—

Pope.

He that knoweth not what he ought to know is a brute

among men ; he that knoweth no more than he hath need of,

is a man among brute beasts ; and he that knoweth all that he

may know, is as a god amongst men.

—

Pythagoras.

I consider a human soul without education like marble in the

quarry, which shows none of its inherent beauties until the

skill of the polisher fetches out the colors, makes the surface

shine and discovers every ornamental spot, cloud and vein that

runs through the body of it. Education, after the same

manner, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to view

every latent virtue and perfection, which without such help are

never able to make their appearance.

—

Addison.

A joyless and dreary season will old age prove if we arrive

at it with an unimproved or corrupted mind. For this period,

as for everything, certain preparation is necessary; and that

EXERCISES. 155

preparation consists in the acquisition of knowledge, friends

and virtue. Then is the time when a man would specially wish

to find himselfsurrounded by those who love and respect him

—

who will bear with his infirmities, relieve him of his labors and

cheer him with their society. Let him, therefore, now in the

summer of his days, while yet active and flourishing, by acts

of seasonable kindness and benevolence insure that love, and

by upright and honorable conduct lay the foundation for that

respect which in old age he would wish to enjoy. In the last

place let him consider a good conscience, peace with God and

the hope of heaven, as the most effectual consolations he can

possess when the evil days shall come.

—

Blair.

Hohenlinden.

On Linden when the sun was low,

All bloodless lay the untrodden snow,

And dark as winter was the flow

Of Iser, rolling rapidly.

But Linden saw another sight,

When the drum beat at dead of night

Commanding fires of death to light

The darkness of her scenery.

By torch and trumpet fast arrayed

Each horseman drew his battle blade,

And furious every charger neighed

To join the dreadful revelry.


Then shook the hills with thunder riven :

Then rushed the steed to battle driven;

And louder than the bolts of Heaven

Far flashed the red artillery.

But redder yet that light shall glow

On' Linden's hills of stained snow :

And bloodier yet the torrent flow

Of Iser, rolling rapidly.

Tis morn : but scarce yon level sun

Can pierce the war clouds, rolling dun,

Where furious Frank and fiery Hun

Shout in their sulphurous canopy.

The combat thickens. On, ye brave

Who rush to glory, or the grave ;

Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave,

And charge with all thy chivalry.

Few, few shall part where many meet

!

The snow shall be their winding sheet,

And every turf beneath their feet

Shall be a soldier's sepulchre.

— Campbell.

The Light of Other Days.

Oft in the stilly night

Ere slumber's chain has bound me,

Fond memory brings the light

Of other days around me,

EXERCISES. 157

The smiles, the tears

Of boyhood's years,

The words of love then spoken :

The eyes that shone

Now dimmed and gone,

The cheerful hearts now broken :

Thus in the stilly night


Sad memory brings the light

Of other days around me.

When I remember all

The friends so linked together

I've seen around me fall

Like leaves in wintry weather,

I feel like one

Who treads alone

Some banquet hall deserted,

Whose lights are fled,

Whose garlands dead,

And all but he departed !

Thus in the stilly night


Sad memory brings the light

Of other days around me. —Moore.

PUNCTUATION.

1. The subject of Punctuation (punctum, a point,

a pause) is so closely connected with Grammar that

it may with propriety be introduced at this place.

2. The laws of Punctuation are designed to show

the uses of the Punctuation Marks.

3. The Punctuation Marks are signs placed in

sentences, and they are contrived mainly to markthe points where pauses should be made in reading

or where certain rise and fall (cadence, inflection) of

the voice should occur. The general intention of

these points is to give such directions for reading

that sentences when read shall produce the same

impression as sentences properly spoken.

4. The present art of punctuation is a modern

one, and, with few exceptions, is the same in all

languages. Aldo Manuzio, a Venetian printer, first

called general attention to the value of a system of

punctuation about 1500, and the Dutch and English

printers have contributed largely to perfect the art.

5. Quite a number of the names now given to

punctuation marks belonged originally to the parts

of the sentence cut off by these marks. The names

were gradually and easily transferred to the marks

themselves.


CAPITAL LETTERS.

>. Capital Letters {caput, a head, a beginning)

^e some uses kin to those of punctuation marks,

capitals were employed in ancient languages for

centuries before the small letters came into exist-

ence. They retain, in English, the special uses

below.

1. The Title of books, newspapers, essays, etc.,

should be in capitals ; as, PARADISE LOST, THELONDON TIMES, ESSAY ON ETERNITY, etc.

2. Headings of pages, chapters, sections, etc.,

should be in capitals ; as, PUNCTUATION, THEPRONOUN, CHAPTER III., etc.

3. The first word of every piece of writing should

begin with a capital. Quite a common use is to set

the whole of the first word in capitals.

4. The first word in every sentence should begin

with a capital.

5. The first word in every verse (line) of poetry

should begin with a capital. In some writing having

the form of poetry, where the author intends to be

humorous, the humor is supposed to be heightened

by closing a verse with part of a word and using

the rest to begin the next verse ; as,

PUNCTUATION. 161

He had a can-

dle in his hand,

Which cast a fee-

ble gleam.

The law which requires each verse to begin with

a capital letter is not commonly observed in compo-

sition of this sort.

6. All the names for God ; as, Father, Creator,

Supreme Being, etc., should begin with a capital.

The pronouns referring to God are not generally

spelled with capitals when the noun is in the

sentence.

7. The words Heaven and Hell and Devil are

often spelled with capitals.

8. Names of the Bible and of its parts should

begin with capitals : as, the New Testament, the

Book of Psalms, etc.

9. Names of religious bodies and political parties

and organizations should begin with capitals ; as,

the Catholics, the Christian Association, the Demo-cratic Party.

10. All proper nouns should begin with a capital

South, North, East, West, when used as nouns

should begin with capitals; as, He lived in the

West.

11. Names of days of the week, holidays and

months should begin with capitals. Many writers

include names of the seasons also.


12. Proper adjectives should begin with capitals;

as, American, British, etc.

13. Names of offices and titles should begin with

capitals ; as, President of the United States, YourMajesty, etc.

14.' The first word after a formal phrase should

begin with a capital ; as, Be it resolved, That weshall, etc.

15. The first word of a quotation should begin

with a capital.

16. The pronoun I and the exclamation O ! are

capitals.

17. Any word to which special attention is to be

directed may begin with a capital. Such words are

usually spelled with a capital when they name things

of great general importance, or when they nameparts of a subject which are introduced for the first

time ; as, During the progress of the Thirty Years

War, etc. The Pronoun is a word, etc.

18. All nouns naming things referred to as if they

were persons (Personification) should begin with

capitals ; as, Brightest in dungeons, Liberty, art

thou !

In the following exercise state the reason for the

use of capitals :

PUNCTUATION. 163

1. Mr. Wilson bought a Shakespeare and a Milton in NewYork.

2. Our Father which art in Heaven.

3. I met the President of France at Calais.

4. William moved to the South last Christmas.

5. The soldier cried,'

'We are happy to buy victory with life.

"

6. The place of the Noun is often taken by the Pronoun.

7. O ! how I wish Thanksgiving would come.

8. Have you never read the Tempest ?

9. LADY OF THE LAKE.

10. All nature is but art unknown to thee;

All chance, direction which thou canst not see,

All discord, harmony not understood,

All partial evil, universal good.

11. On Friday, August, 10th., we started to the East.

12. Silence and Darkness! solemn sisters! twins

From ancient night.

13. He voted with the Republican Party.

14. The Comedy of Errors was played at the Globe in London.

15. Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,

Old Time is still a flying,

And this same flower that smiles to-day,

To-morrow may be dying.


7. There are six principal punctuation marks :

1. The Comma,

2. The Semicolon;

3. The Colon :

4. The Period

5. The Interrogation ?

6. The Exclamation !

Generally the period marks the longest pause,

the colon marks the next longest, the semicolon the

next and the comma the shortest. The pause value

of the interrogation and the exclamation is variable,

and sometimes longer and sometimes shorter. They

serve rather to warn the reader about the proper

inflection of voice than anything else.

8. In addition to the above, there are several

other marks :

7. The Apostrophe

8. The Quotation

9. The Dash —10. The Parenthesis

( )

11. The Bracket [ ]

PUNCTUATION. 165

12. The Caret

13. The Diaeresis

14. The Hyphen

15. The Continuation

The Cedilla

V

Several of the above have only a single use, but

that is one of some importance and will be stated

at the proper place.


THE COMMA.

9. The word komma means, in Greek, a part cut

off. It is applied, in punctuation, to the smallest

division of a sentence and so to the sign which

makes the smallest division—the comma.

10. The Comma has two great uses. (1) Tomark ellipsis (omission) and (2) to separate any

part of the sentence which is in any way detached

in meaning from the rest.

11. Ellipsis.—The comma is employed to mark

the omission of a word (generally a noun or pro-

noun or a verb, or both) ; as, In London we heardwe heard

fine music ; in Paris, better. Robert is the brighter

is

boy; John, the better student. The black cloth

cloth costs on the

costs a dollar ; the blue, two dollars. January, 10th.

In the following sentences supply the ellipsis :

1. To err is human ; to forgive, divine.

2. London, April, 10th., 1890.

3. Thomas caught nine fish; Henry, seven.

4. August is the hottest month; January, the coldest.

5. The valiant soldiers received praises: the cowardly, pun-

ishment.

6. My horse is lame; yours, sound.

7. In May we have flowers; in September, fruits.

PUNCTUATION. 167

Write ten sentences illustrating ellipsis marked by

the comma.

12. Parenthetical Forms.—The comma is em-

ployed to cut off words and phrases that are not

necessary to the structure of the sentence. These

are said to be used parenthetically, and they either

indicate some unexpressed idea that the writer has

in mind or they connect the sentence in which they

stand with something that has gone before ;as,

Above all things, we must speak the truth. Wil-

liam was warned ; but, in spite of this, he did not

study. When these parenthetical forms occur in the

midst of the sentence, they must be cut off by two

commas, as in the last example. Otherwise, they

have one comma, as in the first.

All these forms must be examined carefully to see

if they are really parenthetical or only seemingly so.

In the following exercise point out the paren-

thetical expressions and give rule for the commas :

1. Robert is, without doubt, the best boy I know.

2. You can tell, to a certainty, the day of our coming.

3. In fact, the king had not started at that time.

4. This is the road to town, you know.

5. As a matter of course, we shall do as you wish.

6. We wish you would come, to be sure.

7. He rode a fiery horse, consequently, he was thrown.

8. I tell you, then, I will not go.

9. He said, too, that you had deceived him.

10. Then I told him I would not come.

11. They said that they were too tired.


13. Intermediate and Relative Expressions,

not Restrictive.—The Comma is employed to cut

off expressions that come between some essential

words in the sentence, and to cut off relative clauses

when they are not restrictive. When these expres-

sions really restrict some essential word so as to

form one idea with it, they are restrictive and are

not cut off by commas. In the sentence, The manwho would rule others must rule himself, the rela-

tive clause, taken together with its antecedent man,

forms one idea and that whole idea is the subject of

the verb must. This clause is restrictive, and should

not be cut off. In the sentence, The Alps, which

are in Europe, are famous mountains, the relative

clause is not restrictive, and should be cut off by

commas. The sentence means, The Alps (and

they are in Europe) are famous mountains. If this

sentence were written without commas it would be,

The Alps which are in Europe are famous moun-

tains ; and it would indicate that there were some

other Alps, not in Europe and not famous. Care

should be taken to distinguish clearly between those

clauses which are restrictive and those which are

not. In some cases little difference in meaning is

involved, but in many instances the distinction is

very important.

In the following exercise point out the interme-

diate expressions and the relative clauses, and give

rule for the commas :

PUNCTUATION. 169

1. The general, with all his soldiers, rode into the town.

2. Kings, who are rulers of others, should rule themselves.

3. The book, for want of proper care, soon fell to pieces.

4. The bpy, who was standing on the bridge, witnessed the

whole incident.

5. Education, in its highest sense, includes many things.

6. The queen, accompanied by all her ladies in waiting,

was at the church.

7. The love of money, which is the root of all evil, was his

gravest fault.

8. Those horses which were in the pasture have been sold.

9. Robert, with many of his father's gifts, will never be his

equal.

Write ten sentences containing intermediate ex-

pressions cut off by commas.

Write ten sentences coutaining relative clauses

which are restrictive.

Write ten sentences containing relative clauses

which are not restrictive.

14. Dependent Clauses.—The cpmma is em-

ployed to cut off dependent clauses unless their

connection with the principal clause is extremely

close, as in short sentences.

In the following exercise point out the dependent

clauses, and give rule for the commas

:

1. Touch a snake, and he will bite you.

2. I could ride as well as you, if I had a bicycle.

3. When we had started to town, it began to rain.

4. Who can tell us where he is ?12


5. If you do not write your exercise carefully, it will be full

of errors.

6. Though the price was high, he decided to buy the house.

.7. I cannot hear what you say.

8. We shall not have any holiday this year, though we have

worked so hard.

9. I may go if I choose.

Write ten sentences containing dependent clauses

properly cut off by commas.

15. Several Co-ordinate Clauses.—The commais employed to separate clauses of the same rank

when, several of them occur in a sentence, unless

the clauses themselves contain co7nmas.

In the following exercise point out the co-ordinate

clauses and give rule for the commas :

1. Think justly, speak justly, act justly.

2. The leader was dispirited, the army was in confusion.

3. The lightning flashed, the thunder rolled, the rain poured

down.

4. We met the enemy, defeated them, and returned to

camp.

5. The citizens were reduced to misery, their food was

gone, their water was impure, their dwellings were in ruins.

6. We hurried to the city, saw the governor, got his consent,

and came home at once.

7. Edward caught the colt, bridled it, and leaped into the

saddle.

PUNCTUATION. 171

Write ten sentences containing co-ordinate clauses


16. Expressions and Words in a Series.—Thecomma is employed to separate expressions and

words when several come together, and have the

same use in the sentence ; as, Reading, spelling,

writing, are our first lessons. The darkening sky,

the sobbing wind, the gathering gloom, announced

the storm.

(a) If the expressions are all short and a con^

junction is used, the comma is omitted ; as, Health

and wealth are the rewards of industry. Early to

bed and early to rise, etc.

(b) Some of the conjunctions may be omitted and

the comma used instead ; as, The night was gloomy,

dark and cold.

(c) If the conjunction is used before the last ex-

pression, the comma is omitted after it ; as, Read-

ing, writing and spelling are our first lessons. Thedarkening sky, the sobbing wind, and the gathering

gloom announced the storm.

(d) In such forms as, The beautiful blue Danube,

the comma should be used between the adjectives or

not according as you mean that the Danube is

beautiful, and the Danube is blue ; or that the blue

Danube is beautiful. Ordinarily the comma is not

needed.


(e) If there is but one word in the sentence after

the series, the last word of the series does not take

a comma after it ; as, Henry rode a large, spirited,

vicious horse.

In the following exercise point out the words and

expressions forming a series and give rule for the

commas :

1. The attentive pupil, the careful teacher, the pleasant

room, contribute to the school's success.

2. To keep the heart pure, to keep the life clean, to store

the mind with knowledge, are high aims in life.

3. Splendid orators, wise philosophers, great generals and

gifted poets made Greece the most famous country in the

world.

4. The pale face, the quivering lip, and the tattered dress

all aroused our sympathy.

5. The horses were fleet, strong, full of fire.

6. The general was brave, honest and fortunate.

7. The day on which we started was cold, damp, cloudy

and disagreeable.

Write ten sentences containing expressions and

words, in series, properly cut off by commas.

17. Words and Phrases in Pairs.—The commais employed to separate words or phrases used in

pairs and to cut them off from the rest of the sen-

tence ; as, Want and idleness, competence and in-

dustry, go hand in hand. The sick and the well,

the strong and the weak, the rich and the poor, went

out to hear him.

PUNCTUATION. 173

In the following exercise point out the words and

phrases in pairs and give rule for the commas :

1. Vice and ignorance, poverty and extravagance, misery

and carelessness, belong together.

2. Powder and ball, horses and carts, food and clothing,

were lacking for the men.

3. His most distinct qualities were, honor and good breed-

ing, truth and consideration for others.

4. The brave and the cowardly, the reckless and the pru-

dent, the unhurt and the wounded, took shelter from the

storm of shells.

5. Women and children, men and horses, wagons and can-

non, were piled in hopeless disorder.

6. Lawyer and client, doctor and patient, teacher and pupil,

are all interested in this affair.

Write five sentences containing words or phrases

in pairs, properly cut off by commas.

18. Inverted Clauses, etc.—The comma is em-

ployed to separate a clause or a phrase or an in-

finitive which has been moved from its natural posi-

tion to the beginning of the sentence ; as, Alarmed

by the noise, he rushed to the house. So in making

lists of names, when the last name is put first, it is

cut off by a comma ; as, Smith, John William.

In the following exercise point out the inverted

forms and give rule for the commas :

1. Springing to his feet, the soldier seized his spear.

2. Having called his comrades to his side, he ran out of the

tent.


3. To tell the truth, we never supposed you would come.

4. Looking carefully upward, the guide saw a small, tough

root.

5. To obtain an education, one should submit to manyhardships.

6. Determined to succeed, the merchant rebuilt his store.

7. Driving his new horses to the sleigh, William made the

journey quickly.

8. To confess our real belief, we do not consider him honest.

9. Disappointed in this scheme, the king turned his atten-

tion to another.

10. Jones, Thomas S., Judson, William C, King, Robert E.,

Long, James A.

11. Having gained the summit of the hill, we saw a glorious

scene.

Write ten sentences containing inverted forms


19. Brief Quotations.—The comma is some-

times employed before a quotation, especially if the

quotation is a very short one or if it is interrupted

by the words of the writer; as, " Well !" said the

old man, " I cannot understand this."

20. Apposition.—The comma is employed to

cut off a noun or pronoun in apposition ; as, Samuel

Johnson, one of the greatest of Englishmen, lived

long in obscurity.

If the apposition noun or pronoun is very simple

in form it makes, practically, a compound with the

PUNCTUATION. 175

leading noun and no comma is needed ; as, Jamesthe blacksmith shod my horse.

A title used with a name should be separated by

a comma ; as, John Smith, Esquire.

In the following exercise point out the appositions

and give rule for the commas :

1. William Shakespeare, the greatest writer in the world,

was an Englishman.

2. Smith, the old carpenter, was put into prison.

3. Hugh saw His Grace, the Archbishop of York.

4. Robert the coachman upset the carriage.

5. This is Captain Wilkes, commander of the troop.

6. The voters elected Thomas judge.

7. Turner, the great landscape painter, has left many ex-

amples of his skill.

Write ten sentences containing appositions prop-

erly cut off by commas.

21. Nominative Independent and Absolute.

The comma is employed to cut off independent

nominatives and absolute constructions from the

rest of the sentence ; as, John, come here. Whenwe reached the fence, the gate being locked, weclimbed over.

In the following exercise point out the independent

and absolute constructions and give rule for the

commas

:


1. We had to come back, the bridge having fallen.

2. William, close the door, if you please.

3. Being delayed by the storm, we did not reach home in

time.

4. Boys, hurry through with your tasks.

5. The train having left, the stranger started afoot.

6. The storm having delayed us, we did not reach home in

time.

Write five sentences containing independent nomi-

natives and five containing absolute constructions,


22. In Letters.—The comma is the simplest and

best mark to use after the "salutation," although

several others are employed ; as, Dear sister, Dear

sir, etc. The plural of sir is sirs and not " gentie-

men."

"^5

PUNCTUATION. 177

THE SEMICOLON,23. The word semicolon means the half of a

colon. The sign suggests a pause midway in length

between that of the comma and that of the colon,

and marks a division of the sentence larger and

more complex than that marked by the comma, and

shorter and more simple than that marked by the

colon.

24. Compound Sentences.—The semicolon is

employed to separate the members of compound

sentences if any or all of these members contain

commas ; as, We came home ; but, however, we did

not find our friend.

Sometimes, when the members are long and

involved, a colon is used between them. Whenthey are short and closely related, a comma may be

employed.

In the following exercise point out the members

separated, and give rule for the semicolon :

1. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; logic and rheto-

ric, able to contend.

2. Let us not wait for dinner; go, serve it quickly.

3. Death, as the Psalmist saith, is certain to all; all must die.

4. Yesterday, as I was going home, I saw a knife in the

path ; I picked it up and found that it was mine.

5. Dangers, by being despised, grow great ; so they do by

absurd provision against them.

Write ten compound sentences having their prin

cipal divisions made by the semicolon.


25. Particular Forms Dependent on a Gen-eral Form.—The semicolon is employed to sepa-

rate clauses and expressions having a commonrelation to the same form. The particulars are cut

off from that on which they depend by a colon.

When the particulars are very simple, they may be

separated by commas and cut off from that on which

they depend by a semicolon.

In the following exercise point out the particulars

and the clause, etc., to which they are all related,

and give rule for the semicolon :

1. There are three things for you to attend to: get the

books ; have the horse shod;post the letters.

2. We were especially struck with these points about the

hotel : the attention to our comfort; the excellence of the fare;

the politeness of the servants.

3. In his speech for the new college he told us : that weshould be liberal in our gifts; that we should be hearty in our

support; and that we should be satisfied with small results at

first.

4. There are four genders in English Grammar, masculine,

feminine, neuter and common.

5. We objected to about everything we experienced in that

city; the cold, the dampness, the dirt.

Write five sentences containing particulars sepa-

rated by semicolons and cut off from the general

form by colons.

Write five sentences containing particulars sepa-

rated by commas and cut off from the general form

by semicolons.

PUNCTUATION. 179

26. Clauses Having a Connection in SenseAlone.—The semicolon is employed to separate

clauses when several of them have a connection in

sense which, however, is not formally expressed.

The colon is often used in the same way.

In the following exercise point out the clauses

which are related, and give rule for the semicolons :

1. Henry sprang upon his horse ; he dashed the spur into

its flank; he rushed madly down the pathway.

2. He clinched his teeth; he closed his eyes; the dreadful

leap was taken.

Write five sentences having a connection in sense

alone between the clauses. Separate clauses by

semicolons.

27. Before As.—The semicolon is employed

before as, when it introduces an example ; the

comma follows as. A noun is a name ; as, John, etc.

"*S&r> y&jJB*'^fW "fljltfe


THE COLON.

28. The word Kolojt means a member (an impor-

tant member of the body ; as, an arm). It is used

in punctuation to denote the largest division of the

sentence made by any mark and, so, the mark itself.

29. The Added Clause.—The colon is employed

to cut off a clause added to a sentence already com-

plete ; as, Be honest : it will pay you.

When a connecting word is used with the added

clause, the semicolon is used to cut it off; as, Behonest

; for it will pay you.

In the following exercise point out the added

clauses, and give rule for the colons, etc. :

1. James could not climb the tree;yet he continued to try.

2. Come at night : I can give you more time then.

3. Do not keep that ; for it is not yours.

4. Write him at once : he will answer your letter.

Write five sentences containing added clauses cut

off by colons and five containing added clauses cut

off by semicolons.

30. Formal Phrases.—The colon is employed

to cut off such phrases as, To be brief, To continue,

To conclude, etc., when they begin a paragraph and

refer to all of it.

PUNCTUATION. 181

31. Compound Sentences.—The colon is em-

ployed to separate the members of a compoundsentence if any or all of their members contain

semicolons (see Article 24) ; as, He contracted

debts, without the means of payment ; he madepromises, having no prospect of fulfilling them

:

thus, he accumulated a burden which he could never

shake off.

Write five compound sentences containing colons

properly used.

32. Quotation.—The colon is employed before a

direct quotation and before a list of particulars in-

troduced by such words as, thus, asfollows, etc. ; as,

Heywood said :" Rome was not built in one day."

The ordinary divisions of time are these : first, the

year ; second, the month ; third, the week, etc.

If the quotation is a very long one it is usual to

add a dash to the colon, thus, :—

.

If the quotation is short a comma is often em-

ployed before it.

Write five sentences containing quotations prop-

erly cut off by colons.

Write five sentences containing lists of particulars

properly cut off by colons.

33. The Responsives.—The colon is employed

after yes and no when a continuation follows ; as,

Yes : we will come. No : you cannot go. If a


nominative independent follows the responsive, the

colon comes after the nominative and the responsive

is followed by a comma; as, Yes, madam : I can

go. No, sir : we did not do it.

Write ten sentences containing the responsives

properly cut off by colons or by commas.

«V

PUNCTUATION. 18a

THE PERIOD.

34. In Greek it was common for a sentence to

begin with the subject and to close with the predi-

cate. By this means the two were brought together

in the reader's mind and a sort of circuit was made.

Periodos, a circular track, represented this idea ; and

the term was used for a set of words that madecomplete, rounded, sense. It was then transferred

to the mark that cuts off the complete sentence.

The word continues to be used in rhetoric in its old

sense. The period was the earliest of the punctua-

tion marks, and it is easy to fancy that the forms of

many of the others were based upon that of the

period.

The uses of the period are not numerous, and are

so simple that they need only to be stated.

35. Complete Sentence.—The period is em-

ployed after complete sentences. Sometimes writers

might differ as to the point at which the sentence is

to be considered complete, but whenever it is com-

plete the period must cut it off.

36. Abbreviations, etc.—The period is em-

ployed after abbreviations and titles of books, etc.;

as, Eng. for England, Va. for Virginia.

In its use with shortened forms the period does

no more than mark the fact of abbreviation. Other


punctuation must be employed as if the period were

not used.

If an abbreviation close the sentence, the period

is not repeated.

In some words which are greatly used in their

abbreviated forms the period is not employed.

The title pages of this or of any other book will

sufficiently illustrate the use of the period in titles

of books, etc.

Write ten sentences containing periods properly

used with abbreviations.

PUNCTUATION. 185

THE INTERROGATION.

37. The interrogation or question mark (interrogo%

to ask, questio, a. question) is employed after direct

questions ; as, Can we do this ? The portion of the

sentence cut off by the interrogation mark is gener-

ally the same as that cut off by the period, and hence

a capital is commonly employed after it. This mark

is sometimes employed after a single word when it

is used ironically ; as, William is a good (?) fellow.

In the part of the sentence cut off by it, the

interrogation mark is sometimes equal to a colon or

to a semicolon or to a comma.

When but one question stands in the construction,

the interrogation mark has the force of a period, and

closes the sentence.

When several questions follow each other in the

same construction, the interrogation mark has a

force less than that of the period, and the sentence

continues through all the questions ; as, Must wesubmit to robbery ? to extortion ? to violence ?

In cases of difficulty the question may be decided

by recasting the interrogative sentence and making

it declarative. Then it may be seen whether the

interrogation marks take the place of periods or of

colons, etc.

38. Some sentences, declarative in form, are in-

tended as questions, and should be followed by the13


interrogation mark ; as, You are well ? You cannot

come with us ?

Some questions—rhetorical—are questions in

form only. In meaning they are exclamatory, and

may have either the interrogation or the exclamation

mark.

39. The tone in which a question is asked indi-

cates much about the nature of the question and

about the answer expected. Commonly, questions

which contain negative predicates expect the answer,

Yes ; as, Did you not do this ? Strong accent on

the subject indicates that the answer, No, is ex-

pected ; as, Did Henry do this ? etc. The interro-

gation mark would be more serviceable if it had

been placed at the beginning of the sentence

instead of at the end.

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the

interrogation mark.

PUNCTUATION. 187

THE EXCLAMATION.

40. The exclamation mark (exclamo, to cry out)

must be employed at the end of expressions in-

tended to indicate strong emotion ; as, Help ! the

house is falling ! In some cases two points are

used together. The exclamation is sometimes em-

ployed after a word to show that its use is ironical;

as, The gentleman (!) who could so hurt a child,

etc. (See 37.)

When several interjections occur together they

may take the mark after each one ; as, Fie ! fie ! fie !

you should not do that ; or,

They may take a comma between them and the

exclamation mark at the end of the sentence ; as,

Fie, fie, fie, you should not do that ! or,

They may take a comma between them and the

exclamation mark after the last one ; as, Fie, fie, fie !

you should not do that.

The proper position of the exclamation mane maybe decided by settling how much of the sentence is

exclamatory and placing the mark after that part.

The interjection O should not have an exclama-

tion mark after it. It should be used only with the

nominative independent to call the attention of the

person addressed.


exclamation mark.


THE APOSTROPHE.

42. The apostrophe is, in form, a comma, but it

is placed above the word with which it belongs. It

is employed, somewhat as the comma is, to mark

omission (see Article 11) ; as, e er for ever, etc.

The most common use of the apostrophe is with

the possessive case. (See Article 9 in the Gram-

mar.) It is also employed in forming the plural

of letters and figures ; as, A's, c's, 2's, 3's, etc.


apostrophe.

THE QUOTATION MARK.

43. Quotation is the use by one writer of the

exact words of another, and it is marked by enclos-

ing the borrowed expression within quotation marks.

These signs are sometimes called guillemets, from

the name of their French inventor.

44. When the connection is close between the

quotation and the words which introduce it, the

quotation does not begin with a capital ; as, I wrote

me that, " it was raining all day Sunday and no one

could go out."

When a quotation is formal, or when a stanza of

poetry is quoted, it is common to begin it with a

capital.

PUNCTUATION. 189

45. When a quotation is inside another quotation,

it is cut off by semi-quotation marks ; as, William

wrote, "I saw a man, 'black as Erebus,' creep

down the stairs."

There is no end to the complication which might

arise from placing one quotation within another and

that within another, etc. No rule can be stated for

all these cases.

46. In quoting the substance of a statement

without desire to reproduce its exact form, the

quotation is frequently enclosed in semi-quotation

marks. When several quotations are made con-

secutively, the mark is placed at the beginning of

each, but at the end of the last one only.

47. The quotation mark is often employed to

show the ironical use of a word. (See 37.)

48. When the latter part of the quotation markcomes at the same place with some other punctua-

tion mark, that mark is included in the quotation

mark if it punctuates the words of the quotation;

but, if it punctuates the entire quotation with refer-

ence to the rest of the sentence, the mark includes

the quotation mark.


quotation mark.


THE DASH.

49. The dash is of comparatively recent origin,

but it is employed to such extent by careless

writers, to save the thought necessary for exact

punctuation, that it has assumed some of the func-

tions of the other marks. The dash has certain

valuable uses of its own, and it would be well to

confine it strictly to those uses.

50. Omission of Words.—The dash is employed

to mark omission of words, etc. ; as, In the town

of . In the year 18—

.

51. Repetition.—The dash is employed before a

repetition made for rhetorical effect ; as, Hear the

fate of Carthage—of Carthage, once the mistress

of a continent—of Carthage, once the rival of proud

Rome. This rhetorical repetition is called the Echo.

52. Change of Construction.—The dash is em-

ployed to mark sudden change of construction ; as,

The traitor, the murderer, the thief—the same dark

doom awaits them all.

53. Sudden Change of Thought.—The dash is

employed to mark sudden change of thought, or to

mark interruption or hesitation even when there is

no break in the construction ; as, Brimful of wrath

—

and cabbage. The general was energetic, accom-

plished, far-sighted—but a coward. I wish I could

aid you,—but—but—I cannot,

PUNCTUATION. 191

54. Expressions Leading to a Conclusion.—Thedash is employed before a concluding clause when

a number of expressions, all tending towards it,

come before ; as, His uncommon learning, his rare

gentleness, his unexampled courage—all these have

made him what he is.

55. Parenthesis.—-The dash is often employed to

cut off parenthetical forms ; as, The day—never

long at this season—closed before we finished. Its

use denotes that the included words have less con-

nection with the construction than forms cut off by

commas and more connection than forms cut off by

the parenthesis mark. It is, of course, difficult in

some cases to choose among the three methods of

marking parenthesis.

In cases in which the parenthesis may be left out

without the sentence's requiring any punctuation at

that place, no mark except the dash is needed. In

cases where the omission of the parenthesis would

necessitate punctuation, the proper mark must be

employed in addition to the dash.

56. Question and Answer.—The dash is employed

to separate question and answer when they are

placed on same line ; as, Where is Paris ?—In

France, etc.

57. Following Other Marks.—The dash is em-

ployed after the other marks to lengthen the pause


which they indicate. This use may be seen in sev-

eral of the articles above.


'ash.

THE PARENTHESIS.

58. The word parenthesis in Greek means some-

thing inserted, and it is applied to matter placed, by

way of explanation or comment, in the midst of a

sentence with which it has no grammatical connec-

tion ; as, Milton's Poems (London Publishing Com-pany). John (that is my boy's name) is a good

student, etc. From the thing itself the name has

been transferred to the marks which indicate this

insertion.

Commas and dashes also denote a sort of paren-

thesis, but the parenthesis mark is to be employed

when the matter inserted is most disconnected from

the construction in which it stands.

59. The words enclosed in parenthesis marks

should be those of the writer, and, in this respect,

the use of these marks differs from that of the

bracket. This distinction is, however, not strictly

observed. We frequently see, in reports of speeches,

the use of the parenthesis for remarks made by the

audience, and we often see the use of brackets to

enclose the writer's own words. The distinction is

shown in the following sentence, supposed to be

taken from the report of a speech : Mr. President,

PUNCTUATION. 193

the time has come (here a voice interrupted the

speaker) when we shall no longer be in bondage

[Hear ! Hear !] to those errors which have ruled

our past. [Good ! Good !] The time has come

(cheers), etc.

60. Parenthesis marks do not take the place of

punctuation. All the other marks which would be

needful if the parenthesis were omitted must be

used with it. Illustrations are given below of the

position of other points with regard to the paren-

thesis mark.

(a) William (he was always careless of his com-

pany) soon got into trouble in London. Here the

omission of the parenthesis would leave a sentence

which would demand no punctuation. There is,

consequently, none used with the parenthesis.

(b) If you are ill, William, (I judge from your

face that you are) you can go home. Here the

omission of the parenthesis would leave a sentence

containing an independent nominative which should

be cut off by commas. It is so cut off.

(c) If ever you see John again (and who knows

but you may do so ?), tell him, etc. Here the omis-

sion of the parenthesis would leave a dependent

clause which would have to be cut off by a comma;

as the parenthesis is connected with the dependent

sentence, the comma is placed after the parenthesis.


parenthesis mark,


THE BRACKET.

61. The bracket is employed to enclose the

words of some person other than the writer. These

words can have no grammatical connection with the

sentence. Its principal use is to enclose correc-

tions or additions made by one writer to the words

of another. The bracket is frequently used by

editors to indicate that the words enclosed are

probably not the words of the author.

62. In dictionaries the bracket is employed to cut

off certain parts of the statement made about a

word.

In printing plays, the bracket is employed to cut

off the stage directions.

In lines of poetry which are too long for the

space, the extra words are put at the end of the

line, above or below, and cut off by a bracket.

63. The statement of the use of other punctua-

tion marks with the parenthesis will apply to their

use with the bracket.


bracket.

64. THE CARET.—The caret (Latin caret, it

is lacking) is employed to call attention to the fact

that a word has been omitted. The word is inserted

PUNCTUATION. 195

to

above the line; as, He is coming town soon.

The same mark has a valuable use in prosody.

65. THE DIURESIS.—The diaeresis is em-

ployed over either of two vowels to show that it

does not make one syllable with the vowel by its

side ; as, coordinate.

66. THE HYPHEN.—The hyphen is em-

ployed to make compound words ;as, work-horse,

etc. There is some tendency to omit the hyphen

and to form single words of the compounds, but

this can probably never take place with such words

as forget-me-not, etc. The cardinal numbers show-

ing tens and units ; as, twenty-one, ninety-nine, are

commonly written with the hyphen. The mark

would have disappeared from them long ago if it

had not been saved by the fact that few of the hasty

writers, who do so much to destroy the niceties of

words, take time to write out numerals at all, but

commonly express them by figures.

67. The hyphen is employed when part of a wordends one line and the rest has to be carried to the

line below. In this case the word should be divided

so as not to part a syllable.

68. The hyphen has no little value, as a diacritical

mark, to determine the sense of words with which

it is used. Compare the phrases, much-valued

china and much valued china, many-tinted clouds

and many tinted clouds.


69. THE CONTINUATION.—A line of

periods placed after an incompleted sentence marks

the break in it and is suggestive of what should

follow; as, Drowsily the little lips murmured, " OurFather which art " and the baby fell asleep.

70. THE CEDILLA.—The cedilla is employed

to give to the letter c, when it occurs before a, o, u,

the sound of s. The sign is written under the letter

and is employed in only a few words ; as, garcon,

etc.

71. Besides the above there are numerous other

marks found in printed matter. These, however,

have no use in punctuation, as is really the case

with some of those already mentioned. (See cedilla,

caret, etc.)

Following is a list of these additional marks :

The tilde (~) written over n gives the Spanish

sound ny as in canon.

The breve (u) and macron (-) mark syllables as

short or long.

The accents ; acute ('), grave ('), circumflex (^)

direct pronunciation or inflection of the voice.

The index (b^~) points out something important.

The brace ({) unites several things to be consid-

ered together.

PUNCTUATION. 197

The paragraph (If) is found in old books to mark

the beginning of a paragraph.

The double comma (,,) is used to continue a word

immediately above it.

The reference marks : star (*), dagger (•}•), double

dagger(J),

section (§), parallel line (||), are used to

mark notes for reference. Where notes are numer-

ous, figures are commonly employed.

INDEX.

Sec.

A, An . 47

Absolute Nominative . . 31

Abstract Noun 1,6

Active Voice . . . ... 12, 94

Adjective, 45, 48, 60, 62,

96, 101-102

Adverb, 31, 63-64, 66-73,

89, 100, 102

Adverbial Objective ... 31

Alms 6

Analysis . 34,etc

Antecedent 40, 41, 95

Anticipative Pronoun . . 39

Any 50

Apposition ....... 31

Article 47, 97

Artificial Gender .... 2

Attributive Adjective . . 45

Auxiliary Verb 25

Barring 78

Be 25, 27, 30

But 40

By 94

Can 25, 27

Cardinal 48

Case 4, 7, 42

Clause 43-44, 111

Cognate Object. 31

Collective Noun 1, 103

Common Gender .... 2

Common Noun 1

Comparison of Adj ective,

1, 54-57

Comparison of Adverb . 1, 67

Sec.

Comparative Degree, 54,

62, 72, 98

Complement 62

Complex Sentence (p. 15) 114

Compound Noun ... 6, 50, 60

Compound Pronoun ... 40

Compound Sentence (p. 15) 114

Concerning 78

Conjugation . . . . 1, 24, 27-29

Conjunction 1, 85-89

Conjunctive Adverb . . 66

Coordinating Conjunc-

tion 85

Context 6

Correlative 87

Declension 1, 7, 10

Defective Verb 25

Definite Article 47

Degrees of Comparison . 54-57

Demonstrative Adjective 48

Demonstrative Pronoun, 38

Dependent Clause (p. 15) 111

Direct Object 31, 94

Direct Narration .... 113

Distributives 48

Do 25, 27, 30

Dozen 51

During . . . 78

Each other 49

Eaves 6

Ellipsis 91

Else 50

Emphatic Conjugation . 30

Etymology 32

INDEX. 199

£'EC.

Excepting 78

Exclamations 1, 82-84

Feminine Gender .... 2

Finite Verb .. . 13

Future Perfect Tense . .16-17

Future Tense 15, 17

Gender 2

Gerund 103

Grammatical Gender . . 2

Grammatical Predicate . 108

Grammatical Subject . . 107

Have 25, 27

Idiom •. 91

Imperative ...... 13, 30, 32

Impersonal Verb .... 26

Indefinite Adjective . . 48, 96

Indefinite Article .... 47

Independent Nominative 31

Indicative , 13, 30

Indirect Object 31, 94

Indirect Narration . . . 113

Infinitive 13, 92

Inflection 1

Pronoun 36

Interjection 1, 82-84

Interrogative Adjective . 48

Interrogative Adverb . . 66

Interrogative Conjugation 30

Interrogative Pronoun . 37

Intransitive Verb .... 19, 31

Irregular Comparison . . 55, 68

Irregular Construction . 91

Irregular Verb 22, 27

It 39

Its 36

Limiting Adjective . . . 45-46

Logical Predicate .... 108

Logical Subject 107

Masculine Gender ... 2

Sec.

Material Noun 1

May 25, 27

Mood 11, 13

Must 25, 27

Natural Gender 2

Need 103

Negative 30

Neuter Gender 2

No, None ......... 50

Nominative Absolute . 31

Nominative Case 7, 8, 10, etc

Nominative Independent 31

Notwithstanding .... 78

Noun 1, 31, 90

Number 4, 6, 11, 18

Numeral 48, 51

Object 31, 94

Objective Adverbial . . 31

Objective Case . 7, 8, 10, 80, 94

Of . . 94

One, Another 49

Ordinal 48

Own 59

Pair 51

Paradigm 7

Parsing 33-34, etc

Participle 30, 103

Particle 1

Parts of Speech .... 1

Passive Voice 12, etc

Past Participle 103

Past Perfect Tense . . . 16-17

Past Tense 15, 17, 30

Person ' Nouns) 4-5

Person (Pronouns) .... 5

Person (Verbs) ... 11, 18, 28

Personal Pronoun . . . . 36, 95

Personification 2

Phrase 61, 69

200 PRIMARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Sec.

Plural Number 6, 10

Positive Degree 54

Possessive Case . 7, 9, 10, 31. 93

Potential Mood 13, 30

Predicate . . 11, 32, 106

Predicate Adjective . 45, 62, 96

Predicate Noun 31, 92

Preposition . . . . 1, 9, 31, etc

Present Participle . 30, 92, 103

Present Perfect Tense . .16-17

Present Tense .... 15, 17, 30

Principal Clause . ... (p. 15)

Principal Parts of Verb . 23

Principal Verb 25

Progressive Conjugation 30

Pronominal Adjective . 48-50

Pronoun, Anticipative . 39

Pronoun, Demonstrative 38, 48

Pronoun, Indefinite ... 48

Pronoun, Intensive ... 36

Pronoun, Interrogative . 37, 48

Pronoun, Personal . . .36, 95

Pronoun, Reflexive ... 36

Pronoun, Relative . . 40-41, 95

Proper Noun ..... 1,6

Proposition 11, 32

Qualifying Adjective . . 45, 52

Rather 68

Redundant Verb .... 25

Reflexive Pronoun ... 36

Regarding .... . . 78

Regular Comparison . 54-56, 67

Regular Construction . . 91

Regular Verb 22, 28

Review 10, 34, etc

Sec.

Relative Adverb .... 66

Respecting 78

Relative Pronoun .... 40

Responsives 65

Riches 6

Save 78

Sentence (p. 15) 32, 41

Shall 25, 27

Simple Adverb 66

Simple Sentence .... (p. 15)

SingularNum er .... 6, 10

Subject . 11, 31-32, 92, 103, etc

Subjunctive Mood . 13, 86, 104

Subordinating Conjunc-

tion 85

Superlative Degree,54, 62, 73, 99

Strong Words 6

Syntax 31-32, 91, etc

Tense 11, 14-15

That 40

The 47

There 39

To 95

Touching 78

Transitive Verb 19

Unipersonal Verb .... 26

Variables 88-90

Verb 11, 19, 89, 103

Voice H-12Weak Words 6

What 40

Which 40

Who 40

Will 25, 27

Yes, No 65

DEC 19 1899

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