Aircraft engineSumber : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_engine#In-line_engineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

ARolls-Royce Merlininstalled in a preservedAvro York

Part of a series onAircraft propulsion

Shaft engines:drivingpropellers,rotors,ducted fans, orpropfans

Internal combustion engines: Piston engine Wankel engine Turbines: Turboprop Turboshaft External combustion engines: Steam-powered

Reaction engines

Turbines: Turbojet Turbofan Propfan Rocket-powered Motorjet Pulsejet Ramjet Scramjet

Others

Human-powered Electric Nuclear Hydrogen

v t e

Anaircraft engineis the component of thepropulsionsystem for anaircraftthatgenerates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines orgas turbines.Contents[hide] 1Aircraft Engine Manufacturing Industry 2Timeline of aircraft engine development 3Shaft engines 3.1Reciprocating (piston) engines 3.1.1In-line engine 3.1.2V-type engine 3.1.3Horizontally opposed engine 3.1.4H configuration engine 3.1.5Radial engine 3.1.6Rotary engine 3.2Turbine-powered 3.2.1Turboprop 3.2.2Turboshaft 4Reaction engines 4.1Jets 4.1.1Turbojet 4.1.2Turbofan 4.2Pulse jets 4.3Rocket 5Newer engine types 5.1Wankel engine 5.2Diesel engine 5.3Precooled jet engines 5.4Electric 6Fuel 7See also 8Notes 9References 10External linksAircraft Engine Manufacturing Industry[edit]As of 2012, the size of the aircraft engine manufacturing market was almost $40 billion.[1]There are over 350 manufacturing companies in the United States employing over 70 thousand. For a list of all manufacturers in the world see theList of aircraft engines.Timeline of aircraft engine development[edit]

Wright vertical 4-cylinder engineSee also:Timeline of jet power 1848:John Stringfellowmade a steam engine capable of powering a model, albeit with negligible payload. 1903:Charlie Taylorbuilt aninlineaeroengine for theWright Flyer(12 horsepower). 1903:Manly-Balzer enginesets standards for laterradial engines.[2] 1906:Lon Levavasseurproduces a successful water-cooledV8 enginefor aircraft use. 1908:Ren Lorinpatents a design for theramjet engine. 1908:Gnome Omegadesigned the world's firstrotary engineto be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome poweredFarman IIIaircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the ReimsGrande Semaine d'Aviationsetting a world record for endurance of 180 kilometres (110mi). 1910:Coand-1910, an unsuccessfulducted fanaircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon, powered by a piston engine. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust.[3][4][5][6] 1914:Auguste Rateausuggests using exhaust-powered compressor aturbocharger to improve high-altitude performance;[2]not accepted after the tests[7] 1917-18 - TheIdflieg-numbered R.30/16 example of theImperial GermanLuftstreitkrfte'sZeppelin-Staaken R.VIheavy bomber becomes the earliest known supercharger-equipped aircraft to fly, with aMercedes D.IIstraight-six engine placed in the central fuselage to power a Brown-Boveri mechanical supercharger for the R.30/16's quartet ofMercedes D.IVapowerplants. 1918:Sanford Alexander Mosspicks Rateau's idea and creates the first successful turbocharger[2][8] 1926:Armstrong Siddeley JaguarIV (S), the first series-produced supercharged engine for aircraft use;[9][nb 1]two-row radial with a gear-drivencentrifugal supercharger. 1930:Frank Whittlesubmitted his first patent forturbojet engine. June 1939:Heinkel He 176is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a liquid-fueled rocket engine. August 1939:Heinkel HeS 3turbojet propels the pioneering GermanHeinkel He 178aircraft. 1940:Jendrassik Cs-1, the world's first run of theturbopropengine. It is not put into service. 1944:Messerschmitt Me 163BKomet, the world's first rocket propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945: First turboprop powered aircraft flies, aGloster Meteorwith twoRolls-Royce Trent 1947:Bell X-1rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948: 100 shp 782, the firstturboshaftengine to be applied to aircraft use; in 1950 used to develop the larger 280shp (210kW)Turbomeca Artouste. 1949:Leduc 010, the world's firstramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950:Rolls-Royce Conway, the world's first productionturbofan, enters service. 1960s:General Electric TF39high bypass turbofanenters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002:HyShotscramjetflew in dive. 2004:Hyper-X, the first scramjet to maintain altitude.Shaft engines[edit]

Ranger L-440 air-cooled, six-cylinder, inverted, in-line engine used inFairchild PT-19Reciprocating (piston) engines[edit]Main article:reciprocating engineIn-line engine[edit]Main article:Straight engineThis type of engine has cylinders lined up in one row. It typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five- cylinder engines. The greatest advantage of an inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to be designed with a low frontal area to minimise drag. If the engine crankshaft is located above the cylinders, it is called an inverted inline engine: this allows the propeller to be mounted high up to increase ground clearance, enabling shorter landing gear. The disadvantages of an inline engine include a poorpower-to-weight ratio, because the crankcase and crankshaft are long and thus heavy. An in-line engine may be either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but liquid-cooling is more common because it is difficult to get enough air-flow to cool the rear cylinders directly. Inline engines were common in early aircraft; one was used in theWright Flyer, the aircraft that made the first controlled powered flight. However, the inherent disadvantages of the design soon became apparent, and the inline design was abandoned, becoming a rarity in modern aviation.V-type engine[edit]

A Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 EngineMain article:V engineCylinders in this engine are arranged in two in-line banks, typically tilted 60-90 degrees apart from each other and driving a common crankshaft. The vast majority of V engines are water-cooled. The V design provides a higher power-to-weight ratio than an inline engine, while still providing a small frontal area. Perhaps the most famous example of this design is the legendaryRolls-Royce Merlinengine, a 27-litre (1649 in3) 60 V12 engine used in, among others, theSpitfiresthat played a major role in theBattle of Britain.Horizontally opposed engine[edit]Main article:Flat engine

AULPower UL260ihorizontally opposed air-cooled aero engineA horizontally opposed engine, also called a flat or boxer engine, has two banks of cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally located crankcase. The engine is either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but air-cooled versions predominate. Opposed engines are mounted with the crankshaft horizontal inairplanes, but may be mounted with the crankshaft vertical inhelicopters. Due to the cylinder layout, reciprocating forces tend to cancel, resulting in a smooth running engine.Opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder piston engines are by far the most common engines used in smallgeneral aviationaircraft requiring up to 400 horsepower (300kW) per engine. Aircraft that require more than 400 horsepower (300kW) per engine tend to be powered byturbine engines.H configuration engine[edit]Main article:H engineAn H configuration engine is essentially a pair of horizontally opposed engines placed together, with the two crankshafts geared together.Radial engine[edit]

APratt & Whitney R-2800engineMain article:Radial engineThis type of engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged around a centrally locatedcrankcase. Each row generally has an odd number of cylinders to produce smooth operation. A radial engine has only onecrank throwper row and a relatively small crankcase, resulting in a favorablepower-to-weight ratio. Because the cylinder arrangement exposes a large amount of the engine's heat-radiating surfaces to the air and tends to cancel reciprocating forces, radials tend to cool evenly and run smoothly. The lower cylinders, which are under the crankcase, may collect oil when the engine has been stopped for an extended period. If this oil is not cleared from the cylinders prior to starting the engine, serious damage due tohydrostatic lockmay occur.Most radial engines have the cylinders arranged evenly around the crankshaft, although some early engines, sometimes called semi-radials or fan configuration engines, had an uneven arrangement. The best known engine of this type is the Anzani engine, which was fitted to theBleriot XIused for the first flight across theEnglish Channelin 1909. This arrangement had the drawback of needing a heavy counterbalance for the crankshaft, but was used to avoid thespark plugsoiling up.In military aircraft designs, the large frontal area of the engine acted as an extra layer of armor for the pilot. Also air-cooled engines, without vulnerable radiators, are slightly less prone to battle damage, and on occasion would continue running even with one or more cylinders shot away. However, the large frontal area also resulted in an aircraft with anaerodynamically inefficientincreased frontal area.Rotary engine[edit]

Le Rhone 9C rotary aircraft engineMain article:Rotary engineRotary engines have the cylinders in a circle around the crankcase, as in a radial engine, (see above), but the crankshaft is fixed to the airframe and the propeller is fixed to the engine case, so that the crankcase and cylinders rotate. The advantage of this arrangement is that a satisfactory flow of cooling air is maintained even at low airspeeds, retaining the weight advantage and simplicity of a conventional air-cooled engine without one of their major drawbacks. The first practical rotary engine was theGnome Omegadesigned by the Seguin brothers and first flown in 1909. Its relative reliability and good power to weight ratio changed aviation dramatically.[10]Before thefirst World Warmost speed records were gained using Gnome-engined aircraft, and in the early years of the war rotary engines were dominant in aircraft types for which speed and agility were paramount. To increase power, engines with two rows of cylinders were built.However, thegyroscopic effectsof the heavy rotating engine produced handling problems in aircraft and the engines also consumed large amounts of oil since they used total loss lubrication, the oil being mixed with the fuel and ejected with the exhaust gases.Castor oilwas used for lubrication, since it is not soluble in petrol, and the resultant fumes were nauseating to the pilots. Engine designers had always been aware of the many limitations of the rotary engine so when the static style engines became more reliable and gave better specific weights and fuel consumption, the days of the rotary engine were numbered.Turbine-powered[edit]Turboprop[edit]

Cutaway view of aGarrett TPE-331turboprop engine showing the gearbox at the front of the engineMain article:TurbopropWhile military fighters require very high speeds, many civil airplanes do not. Yet, civil aircraft designers wanted to benefit from the high power and low maintenance that agas turbineengine offered. Thus was born the idea to mate a turbine engine to a traditional propeller. Because gas turbines optimally spin at high speed, a turboprop features agearboxto lower the speed of the shaft so that the propeller tips don't reach supersonic speeds. Often the turbines that drive the propeller are separate from the rest of the rotating components so that they can rotate at their own best speed (referred to as a free-turbine engine). A turboprop is very efficient when operated within the realm of cruise speeds it was designed for, which is typically 200 to 400mph (320 to 640km/h).Turboshaft[edit]

ARolls-Royce Model 250turboshaft engine common to many types of helicoptersMain article:TurboshaftTurboshaft engines are used primarily forhelicoptersandauxiliary power units. A turboshaft engine is similar in principle, but in a turboprop the propeller is supported by the engine and the engine is bolted to theairframe: in a turboshaft, the engine does not provide any direct physical support to the helicopter's rotors. The rotor is connected to a transmission which is bolted to the airframe, and the turboshaft engine drives the transmission. The distinction is seen by some as slim, as in some cases aircraft companies make both turboprop and turboshaft engines based on the same design.Reaction engines[edit]Main article:Jet engineReaction engines generate thethrustto propel an aircraft by ejecting the exhaust gases at high velocity from the engine, the resultantreaction of forcesdriving the aircraft forwards. The most common reaction propulsion engines flown are turbojets, turbofans and rockets. Other types such aspulsejets,ramjets,scramjetsandPulse Detonation Engineshave also flown. In jet engines theoxygennecessary for fuel combustion comes from the air, while rockets carry oxygen in some form as part of the fuel load, permitting their use in space.Jets[edit]Turbojet[edit]

AGeneral Electric J85-GE-17A turbojet engine. This cutaway clearly shows the 8 stages ofaxial compressorat the front (left side of the picture), thecombustion chambersin the middle, and the two stages ofturbinesat the rear of the engine.Main article:TurbojetA turbojet is a type ofgas turbineengine that was originally developed for militaryfightersduringWorld War II. A turbojet is the simplest of all aircraft gas turbines. It consists of a compressor to draw air in and compress it, a combustion section where fuel is added and ignited, one or more turbines that extract power from the expanding exhaust gases to drive the compressor, and an exhaust nozzle that accelerates the exhaust gases out the back of the engine to create thrust. When turbojets were introduced, the top speed of fighter aircraft equipped with them was at least 100 miles per hour faster than competing piston-driven aircraft. In the years after the war, the drawbacks of the turbojet gradually became apparent. Below about Mach 2, turbojets are very fuel inefficient and create tremendous amounts of noise. Early designs also respond very slowly to power changes, a fact that killed many experienced pilots when they attempted the transition to jets. These drawbacks eventually led to the downfall of the pure turbojet, and only a handful of types are still in production. The last airliner that used turbojets was theConcorde, whose Mach 2 airspeed permitted the engine to be highly efficient.Turbofan[edit]

A cutaway of aCFM56-3turbofan engineMain article:TurbofanA turbofan engine is much the same as a turbojet, but with an enlarged fan at the front that provides thrust in much the same way as a ductedpropeller, resulting in improved fuel-efficiency. Though the fan creates thrust like a propeller, the surrounding duct frees it from many of the restrictions that limit propeller performance. This operation is a more efficient way to provide thrust than simply using thejet nozzlealone and turbofans are more efficient than propellers in the trans-sonic range of aircraft speeds, and can operate in thesupersonicrealm. A turbofan typically has extra turbine stages to turn the fan. Turbofans were among the first engines to use multiplespoolsconcentric shafts that are free to rotate at their own speedto let the engine react more quickly to changing power requirements. Turbofans are coarsely split into low-bypass and high-bypass categories. Bypass air flows through the fan, but around the jet core, not mixing with fuel and burning. The ratio of this air to the amount of air flowing through the engine core is the bypass ratio. Low-bypass engines are preferred for military applications such as fighters due to high thrust-to-weight ratio, while high-bypass engines are preferred for civil use for good fuel efficiency and low noise. High-bypass turbofans are usually most efficient when the aircraft is traveling at 500 to 550 miles per hour (800 to 885km/h), the cruise speed of most large airliners. Low-bypass turbofans can reach supersonic speeds, though normally only when fitted withafterburners.Pulse jets[edit]Main article:Pulse jet enginePulse jets are mechanically simple devices thatin a repeating cycledraw air through a no-return valve at the front of the engine into a combustion chamber and ignited it. The combustion forces the exhaust gases out the back of the engine. It produces power as a series of pulses rather than as a steady output, hence the name. The only application of this type of engine was the German unmannedV1 flying bombofWorld War II. Though the same engines were also used experimentally for ersatz fighter aircraft, the extremely loud noise generated by the engines caused mechanical damage to the airframe that was sufficient to make the idea unworkable.Rocket[edit]

AnXLR99Main article:Rocket engineA few aircraft have used rocket engines for main thrust or attitude control, notably theBell X-1andNorth American X-15. Rocket engines are not used for most aircraft as the energy and propellant efficiency is very poor except at high speeds, but have been employed for short bursts of speed and takeoff. Rocket engines are very efficient only at very high speeds, although they are useful because they produce very large amounts of thrust and weigh very little.Newer engine types[edit]Wankel engine[edit]Main article:Wankel engine

Powerplant from aSchleicher ASH 26eself-launchingmotor glider, removed from the glider and mounted on a test stand for maintenance at theAlexander Schleicher GmbH & CoinPoppenhausen,Germany. Counter-clockwise from top left: propeller hub, mast with belt guide, radiator, Wankel engine, muffler shroud.Another promising design for aircraft use was theWankelrotary engine. TheWankel engineis about one half the weight and size of a traditionalfour-stroke cyclepiston engineof equal power output, and much lower in complexity. In an aircraft application, the power-to-weight ratio is very important, making the Wankel engine a good choice. Because the engine is typically constructed with an aluminium housing and a steel rotor, and aluminium expands more than steel when heated, a Wankel engine does not seize when overheated, unlike a piston engine. This is an important safety factor for aeronautical use. Considerable development of these designs started afterWorld War II, but at the time the aircraft industry favored the use ofturbineengines. It was believed thatturbojetorturbopropengines could power all aircraft, from the largest to smallest designs. The Wankel engine did not find many applications in aircraft, but was used byMazdain a popular line ofsports cars. Recently, the Wankel engine has been developed for use inmotor gliderswhere the small size, light weight, and low vibration are especially important.[11]Wankel engines are becoming increasingly popular in homebuiltexperimental aircraft, due to a number of factors. Most are Mazda 12A and 13B engines, removed from automobiles and converted to aviation use. This is a very cost-effective alternative to certified aircraft engines, providing engines ranging from 100 to 300 horsepower (220kW) at a fraction of the cost of traditional engines. These conversions first took place in the early 1970s, and with hundreds or even thousands of these engines mounted on aircraft, as of 10 December 2006 theNational Transportation Safety Boardhas only seven reports of incidents involving aircraft with Mazda engines, and none of these is of a failure due to design or manufacturing flaws. During the same time frame, they have reports of several thousand reports of broken crankshafts and connecting rods, failed pistons and incidents caused by other components not found in the Wankel engines. Rotary engine enthusiasts refer to piston aircraft engines as "Reciprosaurs," and point out that their designs are essentially unchanged since the 1930s, with only minor differences in manufacturing processes and variation in engine displacement.Diesel engine[edit]Main article:Aircraft Diesel engineMost aircraft engines use spark ignition, generally using gasoline as a fuel. Starting in the 1930s attempts were made to produce a compression ignitionDiesel enginefor aviation use. In general, Diesel engines are more reliable and much better suited to running for long periods of time at medium power settings, which is why they are widely used in, for example, trucks and ships. The lightweight alloys of the 1930s were not up to the task of handling the much highercompression ratiosof diesel engines, so they generally had poor power-to-weight ratios and were uncommon for that reason, although the Clerget 14F Diesel radial engine (1939) has the same power to weight ratio as a gasoline radial. Improvements in Diesel technology in automobiles (leading to much better power-weight ratios), the Diesel's much better fuel efficiency and the high relative taxation of AVGAS compared to Jet A1 in Europe have all seen a revival of interest in the use of diesels for aircraft.ThielertAircraft Engines converted Mercedes Diesel automotive engines, certified them for aircraft use, and became an OEM provider to Diamond Aviation for their light twin. Financial problems have plagued Thielert, so Diamond's affiliate Austro Engine developed the newAE300 turbodiesel, also based on a Mercedes engine.[12]Competing new Diesel engines may bring fuel efficiency and lead-free emissions to small aircraft, representing the biggest change in light aircraft engines in decades. Wilksch Airmotive build 2-stroke Diesel engine (same power to weight as a gasoline engine) for experimental aircraft: WAM 100 (100hp), WAM 120 (120hp) and WAM 160 (160hp)Diesel engines may also be carving out a niche among low- and medium-altitudeunmanned aircraft. The U.S. Army'sMQ-1C Grey Eagleemploys a heavy-fuel diesel engine which has the advantages of extended range, more time on station, and fuel commonality among the vehicle fleet, as compared to gasoline-powered piston engines or turbine engines. A smaller but similar UAV also using a heavy-fuel diesel engine isUnmammed Aerial Systems Inc.'s Nightwind IVB.Precooled jet engines[edit]Main article:Precooled jet engineFor very high supersonic/low hypersonic flight speeds inserting a cooling system into the air duct of a hydrogen jet engine permits greater fuel injection at high speed and obviates the need for the duct to be made of refractory or actively cooled materials. This greatly improves the thrust/weight ratio of the engine at high speed.It is thought that this design of engine could permit sufficient performance forantipodal flight at Mach 5, or even permit asingle stage to orbit vehicleto be practical.Electric[edit]About 60 electrically powered aircraft, such as theQinetiQ Zephyr, have been designed since the 1960s.[13][14]Some are used as militarydrones.[15]InFrancein late 2007, a conventional light aircraft powered by an 18kW electric motor using lithium polymer batteries was flown, covering more than 50 kilometers (31mi), the first electric airplane to receive acertificate of airworthiness.[13]Limited experiments withsolar electricpropulsion have been performed, notably the mannedSolar ChallengerandSolar Impulseand the unmannedNASA Pathfinderaircraft.Fuel[edit]This sectiondoes notciteanyreferences or sources.Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. 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All aviation fuel is produced to stringent quality standards to avoid fuel-related engine failures. Aviation standards are much more strict than those for road vehicle fuel because an aircraft engine must meet a strictly defined level of performance under known conditions. These high standards mean that aviation fuel costs much more than fuel used for road vehicles.Aircraft reciprocating (piston) engines are typically designed to run onaviation gasoline. Avgas has a higher octane rating than automotivegasolineto allow highercompression ratios, power output and efficiency at higher altitudes. Currently the most common Avgas is 100LL that refers to theoctane rating(100 octane) and the lead content (LL = low lead).Refineries blend Avgas withtetraethyllead(TEL) to achieve these high octane ratings, a practice that governments no longer permit for road vehicle gasoline. The shrinking supply of TEL and the possibility of environmental legislation banning its use has made a search for replacement fuels forgeneral aviationaircraft a priority for pilot's organizations.[16]Turbine engines andaircraft Diesel enginesburn various grades ofjet fuel. Jet fuel is a relatively heavy and less volatilepetroleumderivative based onkerosene, but certified to strict aviation standards, with additional additives.See also[edit] Air safety Aircraft engine position number Engine configuration Hyper engine List of aircraft engines Model engine United States military aero engine designationsNotes[edit]1. Jump up^The world's first series-produced cars with superchargers came earlier than aircraft. These wereMercedes6/25/40hp and Mercedes 10/40/65hp, both models introduced in 1921 and used Roots superchargers.G.N. Georgano, ed. (1982).The new encyclopedia of motorcars 1885 to the present(3rd ed.). New York: Dutton. p.415.ISBN0-525-93254-2.References[edit]1. Jump up^"Pell Research Aircraft Engine Manufacturing Industry Report". Pellresearch.com. Retrieved 7 April 2013.2. ^Jump up to:abcIan McNeil, ed. (1990).Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. pp.31521.ISBN0-203-19211-7.3. Jump up^Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1970).Aviation: an historical survey from its origins to the end of World War II. London:Her Majesty's Stationery Office.4. Jump up^Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard(1960).The Aeroplane: An Historical Survey of Its Origins and Development. London:Her Majesty's Stationery Office.5. Jump up^Winter, Frank H. (December 1980)."Ducted Fan or the World's First Jet Plane? The Coanda claim re-examined".The Aeronautical Journal(Royal Aeronautical Society)84.6. Jump up^Antoniu, Dan; Cico, Geroge; Buiu, Ioan-Vasile; Bartoc, Alexandru; utic, Robert.Henri Coand and his technical work during 19061918(in Romanian). Bucharest: Editura Anima.ISBN978-973-7729-61-3.7. Jump up^Guttman, Jon (2009).SPAD XIII vs. Fokker D VII: Western Front 1918(1st ed.). Oxford: Osprey. pp.2425.ISBN1-84603-432-9.8. Jump up^Powell, Hickman (Jun 1941)."He Harnessed a Tornado...".Popular Science.9. Jump up^Anderson, John D (2002).The airplane: A history of its technology.. Reston, VA, USA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. pp.25253.ISBN1-56347-525-1.10. Jump up^Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2003).Aviation. London: NMSO. p.175.ISBN1 9007 4752 9.11. Jump up^"ASH 26 E Information". DE: Alexander Schleicher. Archived fromthe originalon 2006-10-08. Retrieved 2006-11-24.12. Jump up^"Diamond Twins Reborn". Flying Mag. Retrieved 2010-06-14.13. ^Jump up to:abWorldwide premire: first aircraft flight with electrical engine,Association pour la Promotion des Aronefs Motorisation lectrique, December 23, 2007.14. Jump up^Superconducting Turbojet,Physorg.com.15. Jump up^Voyeur, Litemachines.16. Jump up^"EAA'S Earl Lawrence Elected Secretary of International Aviation Fuel Committee"(Press release).[dead link]External links[edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related toAircraft engines.

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Aircraft Engines and Aircraft Engine Theory (includes links to diagrams) The Aircraft Engine Historical Society Jet Engine Specification Database Aircraft Engine Efficiency: Comparison of Counter-rotating and Axial Aircraft LP Turbines The History of Aircraft Power Plants Briefly Reviewed: From the " 7 lb. per h.p" Days to the " 1 lb. per h.p" of To-day "The Quest for Power"a 1954Flightarticle byBill Gunston

Aircraft engine position numberFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaAircraft engine position numbering

Thrust levers in aBoeing 727with the engine number on each lever

On multi-engined aircraft,aircraft engine positions are numberedfrom left to right from the view of the pilot looking forward.[1]Contents[hide] 1Wing and rear-mounted engines 1.1Twin-engined aircraft 1.2Three-engined aircraft 1.3Four-engined aircraft 1.4Six-engined aircraft 2Other configurations 2.1Centerline 3ReferencesWing and rear-mounted engines[edit]Twin-engined aircraft[edit] #1 -port- on the left #2 -starboard- on the rightThree-engined aircraft[edit] #1 - port - on the left #2 - centre - on the centerline #3 - starboard - on the rightFour-engined aircraft[edit] #1 - port outer - on the left furthest from the fuselage #2 - port inner - on the left nearest to the fuselage #3 - starboard inner - on the right nearest to the fuselage #4 - starboard outer - on the right furthest from the fuselageSix-engined aircraft[edit] #1 - port outer - on the left furthest from the fuselage #2 - port middle - on the left between #1 and #3 #3 - port inner - on the left nearest to the fuselage #4 - starboard inner - on the right nearest to the fuselage #5 - starboard middle - on the right between #4 and #6 #6 - starboard outer - on the right furthest from the fuselageOther configurations[edit]Centerline[edit]TheEnglish Electric Lightninghas two jet engines on the centerline one above the other.[2] #1 - below and to the front of #2 #2 - above and to the rear of #1References[edit]1. Jump up^National Business Aircraft Association (1952).Skyways for business. Henry Publications. p.52.2. Jump up^Power Plants

Engine configurationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis articledoes notciteanyreferences or sources.Please helpimprove this articlebyadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved.(September 2007)

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Engine configurationis anengineeringterm for the layout of the major components of areciprocating pistoninternal combustion engine. These components are thecylindersandcrankshaftsin particular but also, sometimes, thecamshaft(s).Many apparently 'standard' names for configurations are historic, arbitrary, or overlapping. For example, the180 V engineis so named because thecrankshaftis related to a V engine more closely than it is related to otheropposed-piston enginessuch as the boxer. Others would consider it aflat enginebecause of its shape.The namesW engineandrotary enginehave each been used for several unconnected designs. TheH-4andH-6engines produced bySubaruare notH enginesat all, butboxer engines. The Subaru H-4 and H-6 designs are so named because they are horizontally opposed pistons.Contents[hide] 1Categorisation by piston motion 2Other categorizations 2.1By valve placement 2.2By camshaft placement 3ReferencesCategorisation by piston motion[edit]See also:Multi-cylinder engineEngine types include: Single-cylinder engines Inline enginedesigns: Straight engine, with all of the cylinders placed in a single row U engine, two separate straight engines with crankshafts linked by a central gear. Thesquare fouris a U engine where the two straight engines have two cylinders each. V engine, with two banks of cylinders at an angle, most commonly 60 or 90 degrees. Flat engine, two banks of cylinders directly opposite each other on either side of the crankshaft. H engine, two crankshafts. W engine. Combination of V and straight, giving 3 banks, or two V's intertwined giving 4 banks. Opposed piston engine, with multiple crankshafts, an example being: Delta engines, with three banks of cylinders and three crankshafts X engine. Radialdesigns, including most: Rotary enginedesigns. Mostly seen on pre-|WWII aircraft. Pistonless rotary engines, notably: Wankel engine.The standard names for some configurations are historic, arbitrary, or both, with some overlap. For example, the cylinder banks of a180 V enginedo not in any way form a V, but it is regarded as a V engine because of itscrankshaftandbig endconfiguration, which result in performance characteristics similar to a V engine. But it is also considered aflat enginebecause of its shape. On the other hand, some engines which have none of the typical V engine crankshaft design features and consequent performance characteristics are also regarded as V engines, purely because of their shape. Similarly, theVolkswagen GroupVR6 engineis a hybrid of theV engineand thestraight engine, and can not be definitively labeled as either.Other categorizations[edit]By valve placement[edit]The majority of four stroke engines havepoppet valves, although some aircraft engines havesleeve valves. Valves may be located in the cylinder block (side valves), or in the cylinder head (overhead valves). Modern engines are invariably of the latter design. There may be two, three, four or five valves per cylinder, with the intake valves outnumbering the exhaust valves in case of an odd number.By camshaft placement[edit]Poppet valves are opened by means of acamshaftwhich revolves at half the crankshaft speed. This can be either chain, gear or toothed belt driven from the crankshaft, and can be located in the crankcase (where it may serve one or more banks of cylinders) or in the cylinder head.If the camshaft is located in the crankcase, a valve train ofpushrodsandrocker armswill be required to operate overhead valves. Mechanically simpler areside valves, where the valve stems rested directly on the camshaft. However, this gives poor gas flows within the cylinder head as well as heat problems and fell out of favor for automobile use, seeflathead engine.The majority of modern automobile engines place the camshaft on the cylinder head in anoverhead camshaft(OHC) design. There may be one or two camshafts in the cylinder head; a single camshaft design is calledsingle overhead camshaft(SOHC). A design with two camshafts per cylinder head is calleddouble overhead camshaft(DOHC). Note that the camshafts are counted per cylinder head, so a V engine with one camshaft in each of its two cylinder heads is still an SOHC design, and a V engine with two camshafts per cylinder head is DOHC, or informally a "quad cam" engine.With overhead camshafts, thevalvetrainwill be shorter and lighter, as no pushrods are required. Some overhead camshaft designs still haverocker arms; this facilitates adjustment of mechanical clearances.If there are two camshafts in the cylinder head, the cams can sometimes bear directly on cam followers on the valve stems (tappets). This is the usual arrangement for afour-valves-per-cylinderdesign. This latter arrangement is the most inertia free, allows the most unimpeded gas flows in the engine and is the usual arrangement for high performance automobile engines. It also permits the spark plug to be located in the center of the cylinder head, which promotes better combustion characteristics. Beyond a certain number of valves, the effective area covereddecreases, so four is the common-most number. Odd numbers of valves necessarily means the intake or exhaust side must have one valve more. In practice this is invariably the intake valves - even in even-numbered head designs, inlet valves are often larger in size than exhaust.Very large engines (e.g.marine engines) can have either extra camshafts or extra lobes on the camshaft to enable the engine to run in either direction. Furthermore other manipulations of valves can be used for e.g. engine braking, such as in aJake brake.A disadvantage of overhead cams is that a much longer chain (or belt) is needed to drive the cams than with a camshaft located in the cylinder block, usually a tensioner is also needed. A break in the belt may destroy the engine if pistons touch open valves attop dead center.References[edit][hide] v t eReciprocating enginesandconfigurations

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V / Vee V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V8 V10 V12 V14 V16 V18 V20 V24

W W8 W12 W16 W18

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ComponentsValves Cylinder head porting Corliss Intake Exhaust Multi Overhead Piston Poppet Side Sleeve Slide Rotary valve Variable valve timing Camless Desmodromic

Fuel supplies Carburetor Gasoline direct injection Common rail

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Hyper engineFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaLiberty L-12 engine

Liberty L-12 engine, from which Hyper Engine No.1 was derived

TypeOne cylinder converted into "Hyper Engine No. 1"

National originUnited States

ManufacturerContinental Motors

Designed bySam Heron

First run1932

Major applicationsExperimental Engine

Number built1

Thehyper enginewas a 1930s study project by theUnited States Army Air Corps(USAAC) to develop a high-performance aircraft engine that would be equal to or better than the aircraft and engines then under development in Europe. The project goal was to produce an engine that was capable of delivering 1hp/in3(46kW/L) of engine displacement for a weight of less than 1lb/hp delivered. The ultimate design goal was an increasedpower-to-weight ratiosuitable for long-range airliners and bombers.At the time, no production engine could come close to the requirements, although this milestone had been met by special modified or purpose-built racing engines such as theNapier LionandRolls-Royce R. A typical large engine of the era, thePratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Waspradial developed about 1,200hp (895kW) from 1,830in3(30L) so an advance of at least 50% would be needed. Simply scaling up an existing design would not solve the problem. While it would have increased the total available power, it would not have any significant effect on the power-to-weight ratio; for that, more radical changes were needed.[1]Several engines were built as part of the hyper program, but for a variety of reasons none of these saw production use. Air-cooled engines from a variety of US companies were delivering similar power ratings by the early 1940s, and the licensed production of theRolls-Royce Merlinas thePackard V-1650provided hyper-like performance from an inline while theAllison V-1710did the same from a US design, one produced as a private effort outside the hyper program.Contents[hide] 1Design and development 1.1Hyper No.1 1.2Hyper No.2 1.3Continental O/V/IV/XIV-1430 2Request for data R40-C 2.1FY 1940 2.2FY 1941 3Program end 4See also 5References 5.1Notes 5.2Bibliography 5.3Further readingDesign and development[edit]Improvements in construction and lighter materials had already delivered some benefits on the way to higherpower-to-weight ratios.Aluminumwas being introduced in place of steel as the quality and strength of aluminum alloys improved during the 1930s; this lowered engine weight noticeably, but not enough to achieve a 50% overall improvement. To reach that goal, the power of the engine would also need to be increased.Poweris a combination of energy and the rate it is delivered, so to improve the power-to-weight ratio, one would need to increase the operating pressures of the engine, the operating speed, or a combination of both. Further gains could be made by eliminating losses like friction, combustion inefficiencies and scavenging losses, delivering more of the theoretical power to thepropeller.[2]The USAAC engineers determined that it would study all three improvements. Before long, they concluded that increasing the combustion temperature and scavenging efficiency promised the greatest increases of all of the possibilities. To meet that goal, increasing engine speed seemed to be the most attractive solution. However, there were a number of practical problems that were impeding progress in these areas.Increasing thecompression ratiois an easy change that improves themean effective pressure(MEP), but leads toengine knockingfrom inconsistent detonation. Uncontrolled, knock can damage the engine and was a major block on the way to improved power settings. This change would also increase the operating temperatures, which presented a problem with the valves. Valves were already reaching temperatures that would cause pre-ignition of the fuel as it flowed past them.Increasing operational speed is also, theoretically, a simple change to the engine design. However, at high operating speeds the valves do not completely close before the cam opens them again, a problem called "valve float". Valve float allows gases in the cylinder to escape through the partially open valve, reducing the engine efficiency. Increasing valve spring pressure to close the valves faster led to rapid cam wear and increased friction, reducing overall performance by more than any horsepower gained.[3]As valves were a key issue in both approaches to improved performance, they had been a major area of research in the 1920s and 30s. In the UK,Harry Ricardohad written an influential paper on thesleeve valvesystem for exactly these reasons, claiming it was the only way forward. He had some success in selling this idea, most notably toBristol Aeroplane CompanyEngines, whereRoy Feddenbecame "a believer". Ricardo's friendly competitor,Frank Halford, designed his own sleeve valve engine withNapier & Son, another prominent British engine maker.[4]The USAAC was not so convinced that the sleeve valve was the only solution. Ironically it was one of Ricardo's papers on the sleeve valve design that led to the USAAC's hyper engine efforts. In one late 1920s paper he claimed that the 1hp/in goal was impossible to achieve with poppet valve type engines. The USAAC engineering team at Wright Field decided to test this claim by beating it. They proposed an engine of about 1200 cubic inches (20 L), hoping the engine's smaller size would lead to reduceddragand hence improvedrange.Hyper No.1[edit]Sam Heron, head of development atWright Fieldand a former colleague of Ricardo while Heron had been working at theRoyal Aircraft Factory, Farnborough, started working on the problem with a single-cylinder test engine that he converted to liquid cooling, using aLiberty L-12engine cylinder. He pushed the power to 480psiBrake Mean Effective Pressure, and the coolant temperature to 300F (149C) before reaching the magic numbers. By 1932, the USAAC's encouraging efforts led the Army to sign a development contract withContinental Motors Companyfor the continued development of the engine design. The contract limited Continental's role to construction and testing, leaving the actual engineering development to the Army.[5]Starting with the L-12-cylinder, they decreased thestrokefrom 7in to 5in in order to allow higher engine speeds, and then decreased theborefrom 5in to 4.62in, creating the 84in cylinder. This would be used in a V-12 engine of 1008indisplacement.[6]They used the L-12'soverhead camshaftto operate multiple valves of smaller size, which would improve charging andscavengingefficiency. Continental's first test engine, the single-cylinder Hyper No.1, first ran in 1933.They eventually determined that exhaust valves could run cooler when a hollow core filled withsodiumis used - the sodium liquefies and considerably increases the heat transfer from the valve's head to its stem and then to the relatively cooler cylinder head where the liquid coolant picks it up.[6]Liquidcooling systemsat that time used plain water, which limited operating temperatures to about 180F (82C). The engineers proposed usingethylene glycol, which would allow temperatures up to 280F. At first they proposed using 100% glycol, but there was little improvement due to the lowerspecific heatof the glycol (about 2/3 that of water). They eventually determined that a 50/50 mixture (by volume) of water and glycol provided optimal heat removal.[6]Hyper No.2[edit]A second cylinder was added to Hyper No. 1 to make a horizontal opposed engine for evaluation of an opposed-piston 12-cylinder engine. After running the modified engine with different combinations of cylinder bore and stroke, it was found that the high coolant temperatures required to maintain the required output was impractical. A third high-performance single-cylinder engine was then constructed with lower operating parameters. This engine was designated "Hyper No. 2", and became the test bed for developing the cylinders that would become the O-1430-1.[6]Continental O/V/IV/XIV-1430[edit]Main article:Continental I-1430

IV-1430-9 in theNational Museum of the United States Air ForceThe Army apparently became concerned about the development of a suitable supercharger for high-altitude use, and for further development in 1934 they asked for a newer cylinder with slightly less performance and an increased volume of 118.8in3from its 5.5in (140mm) bore and 5.0in (130mm) stroke. This size cylinder would then be used in a 1,425in312-cylinder engine, delivering the same 1,000hp, with a performance of 0.7hp/in3. This placed its performance on a par with newer experimental engines from Europe like theRolls-Royce PV-12, at least when running on the higher-octane fuels the Army planned to use.[7]Another change was to the engine layout. The Army, convinced that future aircraft designs would use engines buried in the wings for additional streamlining, asked Continental to design a full-sized flat-opposed-piston enginefor installation inside a wing. The resulting engine was the Continental O-1430, which would require a ten year development period which changed the layout to first an uprightV-12 engineand later, an inverted V-12 engine before becoming reliable enough to consider for full production as the Continental IV-1430 in 1943. By then other engines had already passed its 1,600hp (1,200kW) rating, and although the IV-1430 had a better power-to-weight ratio, there was little else to suggest setting up production in the middle of the war was worthwhile.[7]The project was eventually guided by the requirements in the "Request for data R40-C", which was included as a part of the Financial Year 1940 aircraft procurement program.Request for data R40-C[edit]As 1938 came to an end, the war in Europe heated to its boiling point. At this point, European aircraft had greatly surpassed US designs.[8]The two top USAAC fighters, theSeversky P-35and theCurtiss P-36A, were just able to hit 300mph (480km/h). Against the 340+ mphMesserschmitt Bf 109they would be completely outclassed. The twin-enginedLockheed XP-38was entering an extended test program.Although the XP-38 was able to fly at speeds in excess of 413mph, it was big and heavy, and was therefore not as maneuverable as its stablemates.[9]The XP-38 also had a newly introduced liquid-cooled engine, theAllison V-1710. The Allison's in-line vee cylinder arrangement allowed for a narrow aerodynamic shape that had much less drag than the air-cooled radial engine fighters that predominated America at the time.[10]The fighter aircraft procurement program for FY 1940 was contained in a document that was approved by Assistant Secretary of War Louis K. Johnson on 9 June 1939. That document was the "Request for Data R40-C", and unlike previous aircraft procurement requests, it was sent to only a limited number of aircraft manufacturers. The original document was to be sent to:[11] Bell Aircraft Corporation Consolidated Aircraft Corporation Curtiss-Wright CorporationCurtiss Airplane Division Curtiss-Wright Corporation, St. Louis Airplane Division Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation Lockheed Aircraft Corporation Republic Aviation Corporation Vought-Sikorsky Aircraft Division, United Aircraft Corporation Vultee Aircraft Division, Aviation Manufacturing CorporationAfter final review and approval as Air Corps Type Specification XC-622, a further four manufacturers were added to the distribution: Hughes Aircraft Corporation McDonnell Aircraft Company Boeing Aircraft Company Northrop Aircraft, IncorporatedThese companies had only ten days to agree to the terms of the document, and only 30 days to submit their designs.FY 1940[edit]A total of 26 designs, with a mix of 16 engine models from six engine companies, were submitted by seven of the selected companies. These engines became known as the "Hyper Engines", a contraction ofHigh-performance engines. The submitted designs were graded using a "Figure of merit" (FOM) rating system, and then, using the FOM results (which ranged from 444.12 for the Allison V-1710-E8 to 817.90 for the Pratt and Whitney X-1800-A4G), they were separated into one of three groups. Those placed in the first group were little more than modifications to existing designs. They were not considered to be sufficiently advanced. Those placed in the third group proposed using an engine that was unlikely to be developed into flying condition by the time the airframe was ready to fly. They were not considered to be viable in the time frame allowed. The remaining ten designs were placed in the second group: those that were an advancement in aeronautical engineering, with an engine that would be ready to fly, when needed.Only three of these ten designs were approved, and contracts were made for a limited prototype run of three aircraft for each.[12]The three aircraft/engine combinations that were selected:[13]1. Vultee Aircraft's Model 70 Alternate 2, (FOM score: 817.9), which became theVultee XP-54, powered by thePratt & Whitney X-1800-A4Gengine2. Curtiss-Wright St Louis' Model P248C, (FOM score: 770.6), which became theCurtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender, powered by theContinental IV-1430-3engine3. Northrop's Model N2-B (FOM score: 725.8), which became theNorthrop XP-56 Black Bullet, powered by thePratt & Whitney X-1800-A3GengineThe high-performance engines of FY 1940[13]

Engine ModelConfigurationDisplacementHorsepowerSpecifichorsepowerWeightPower toweight ratio

Continental IV-1430-3inverted V-121,430in1,600hp at 3,200rpm1.12hp/in1,615lb.99hp/lb

Pratt & Whitney X-1800-A3G24 cylinder H-block2,600in2,200hp.85hp/in3,250lb.68hp/lb

Pratt & Whitney X-1800-A4G24-cylinder H-block2,600in2,200hp.85hp/in3,250lb.68hp/lb

FY 1941[edit]Three additional high-performance engines were considered for the USAAC's FY 1942 "Hyper" engine procurement program. They were:[13] Wright R-2160"Tornado" Pratt & Whitney H-3130 Allison V-3420Not to be left out, the US Navy selected theLycoming XH-2470for funding in FY 1942 as well.[13]The high-performance engines of FY 1941[13]

Engine ModelConfigurationDisplacementHorsepowerSpecifichorsepowerWeightPower toweight ratio

Allison V-342024-cylinderW engine3,421.2in2,100hp.61hp/in2,600lb (1,200kg).81hp/lb

Lycoming XH-247024-cylinder horizontal opposed2,470in2,300hp.93hp/in2,430lb (1,100kg).96hp/lb

Pratt & Whitney XH-313024-cylinder H-block3,130in2,650hp.84hp/in3,250lb (1,470kg).82hp/lb

Wright R-216042-cylinder 6-row2,160in2,350hp1.09hp/in2,400lb (1,100kg).98hp/lb

Program end[edit]In the end, all of these programs were canceled, and the surviving engines became museum pieces. One survivor, a Continental IV-1430, is privately owned, and is displayed publicly from time to time.Ironically, engines that were not considered under the program; theAllison V-1710,Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp,Wright R-3350 Duplex-CycloneandPratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major, all surpassed the USAAC requirements, and continue flying into the 21st century, primarily flying restoredwarbirdaircraft.See also[edit] Bomber B, the GermanLuftwaffe's advanced medium bomber program that used similar high-output aviation powerplants.References[edit]Notes[edit]1. Jump up^White p2112. Jump up^Biermann pp16, 173. Jump up^Taylor p 644. Jump up^Bingham pg 495. Jump up^White p 3756. ^Jump up to:abcdBalzer p.287. ^Jump up to:abWhite p3768. Jump up^Balzer p 79. Jump up^Balzer pp 9, 1010. Jump up^Schlaifer p 25311. Jump up^Balzer p 1312. Jump up^Balzer p 1513. ^Jump up to:abcdeBalzer p.24Bibliography[edit] Balzer, Gerald H. (2008).American Secret Pusher Fighters of World War II. Specialty Press.ISBN978-1-58007-125-3. Biermann, Arnold E, Corrington, Lester C. and Harries, Myron L. (1942).Effects of Additions of Aromatics on Knocking Characteristics of Several 100-octane Fuels at Two Engine Speeds. Cleveland, Ohio, May,: Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory. Bingham, Victor.Major Piston Aero Engines of World War II. Airlife Publishing.ISBN1-84037-012-2. Schlaifer, Robert and Herron S.D.Development of Aircraft Engines and Development of Aviation Fuels. Harvard University. Taylor, C. Fayette (1971).Aircraft Propulsion, Smithsonian Press, GPO. White, Graham (1995).Allied Piston Engines of World War II. SAE International.ISBN1-56091-855-9Check|isbn=value (help).