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Teacher Education Quarterly, Winter 2008
Fostering Preservice Reflection through Response Journals
By Icy Lee
Introduction Researchonteachers’knowledge,beliefs,andthoughtshasshownthatteachercandidatesapproachteachingwithaplethoraofinitialbeliefsandideasaboutteach-ing.Theirknowledge,however,tendstobebasedonsimplisticviewsofteachingandlearningintheclassroom,andhencemaynotbe“welladaptedtoteaching”(Calderhead,1991,p.532).Itisonlywhentheyreflectupontheirknowledgecriticallythattheycantransferwhattheyhavelearnedininitialteacherpreparationprogramsasstudentstotherealclassroomsituationsasteachers.Reflectionenablesteachercandidatestoconstructknowledgethroughaskingquestions,critiquing,evaluat-ing,etc.,helpingthembridgethegapbetweenimaginedviewsandtherealitiesofteaching.Itisimportant,therefore,toprepareteachercandidatesforteachingbyfosteringprofessionallearningthatfocusesoncriticalthinkingandreflection,sothattheirknowledgeandbeliefsinteractwiththeteachereducationprogram,
Icy Lee is an assistant professor with the Faculty of Education of the University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
includingfieldexperiences,tofacilitatedevelopmentofmoresophisticatedconceptionsoftheteachingandlearningprocess. Anumberofapproacheshavebeenusedinteachereducationtopromotereflectivity,oneofwhichisjournalwriting.Journalscanactivateteachercandidates’think-ingandfacilitatemeaningmakingduringthelearningprocess(Cole,Raffier,Rogan,&Schleicher,1998),help
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themidentifyvariablesthatareimportanttothem,serveasameansofgeneratingquestionsandhypothesesaboutteachingandlearning(Richards&Ho,1998),andincreasetheirawarenessaboutthewayateacherteachesandthewayastudentlearns(Burton&Carroll,2001).Inwritingreflections,learnersactivelyconstructknowledge,whilepersonalizingthelearningprocess.Throughquestioningtheirownassumptions,teachercandidatesraisetheirawarenessofteachingissuesanddevelopasenseofownershipoftheirfuturework(Daloglu,2001).Journalscanalsoprovideopportunities for teachercandidates toanalyze theirown learningandseekstrategiestoimprovetheirlearning(Vickers&Morgan,2003).SummedupbyFarrisandFuhler(1996),journalsare“abirthplaceforcreativeandcriticalthinking”(p.26).Asteachercandidatesengageinjournalwriting,theyareabletodevelopahabitofreflection(Yost,Sentner,&Forlenza-Bailey,2000). Insecondlanguageteachereducation,journalwritinghasbeguntoreceivemoreattentioninrecentyears.However,muchoftheresearchhasfocusedontheuse of journals among practicing teachers and teacher candidates to reflect onclassroomteaching(seee.g.,Brinton,Holten,&Goodwin,1993;Daloglu,2001;Richards&Ho,1998;Todd,Mills,Palard,&Khamcharoen,2001;Tsang&Wong,1996;Woodfield&Lazarus,1998).Littlehasbeendonetofindouthowjournalscanbeexploitedaspartofthecourseworkofinitialteacherpreparationprogramstofosterreflectionamongteachercandidates.InHongKong,journalsareunder-usedininitialteacherpreparation(seeLee,2004).HongKonglearners,includingadvancedlearnersinteacherpreparationprograms,areusedtoapassivemodeoflearning.Inrecentyears,however,EnglishlanguageeducationreforminHongKonghasputahighpremiumonconstructivistlearning(CDC,2004). Journalwritingisakindofreflectivewritingthatrequiresprospectiveteacherstoconstructknowledgethroughquestioningtheirownassumptionsaboutteachingandlearning,andhenceinlinewiththegeneraldirectionofeducationreforminHongKong.ThisarticledescribesastudythatusesresponsejournalsasatoolforfosteringreflectioninaninitialteacherpreparationprograminHongKong.Thesubjectsare13prospectiveEnglishteacherswhoreceivedtrainingtoteachEnglish(asasecondlanguage)insecondaryschoolsinHongKong.TheresearcherseekstoinvestigatetheuseofjournalswiththeseprospectiveEnglishteacherstofindoutwhattheywriteabout,whethertheirjournalsdisplaysignsofreflectivity,andhowtheyreacttothejournalwritingexperience.
Types of Journals Fourkindsofjournalsarecommonlyusedininitialteacherpreparation:dialoguejournals,responsejournals,teachingjournals,andcollaborative/interactivegroupjournals.Dialogue journalsinvolveteachersandstudentswritingandexchangingtheirwritinginmutualresponse,andarefoundtocarrybenefitslikepromotingautonomouslearning,enhancingconfidence,andhelpingstudentsconnectcoursecontentandteaching(Porter,Goldstein,Leatherman,&Conrad,1990).Response
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journals involvestudentsinrecording“theirpersonalreactionsto,questionsabout,andreflectionsonwhattheyread,write,observe,listento,discuss,do,andthink”(Parsons,1994,p.12).Teaching journals serveasimilarpurposebuttheyarewrittenreflectionsbasedonteachingexperiencesthatteachercandidateskeepduringthepracticum(Richards&Lockhart,1996).Collaborative/Interactive group journals involveteachercandidatesinwritingandexchangingjournals(Coleetal.,1998). Comparedwithdialoguejournals,responseandteachingjournalsputagreateronusontheteachercandidatesthemselvesinthereflectiveprocess,astheyengageinaself-dialoguethatresultsinpromotionofself-understandingandreflectivity.Collaborative/Interactivegroupjournals,ontheotherhand,focusongroupdynamicsandsynergycreatedbytheteachercandidates,requiringthemtotakeresponsibil-ityforlearningbysharingideasanddevelopinginsightsamongthemselves,nottomentionconsideringavarietyofviewpointsamongcolleagues,askillthatwillbenefitthemthroughouttheircareers.
Benefits of Journal Writing Theresearchliteratureonjournalstudieshasindicatedthebenefitsofjournalsinpromotingreflectivityamongteacherlearners.DialoguejournalstudiesbyBeauandZulich (1989),Garmon (1998), andGarmon (2001) haveproducedpositivefindingstoshowthatbothteachereducatorsandteacherlearnersfavortheuseofdialoguejournalsasatoolfordevelopingreflectivity.ResponsejournalstudiesbyParsons(1994),FarrisandFuhler(1996),andGoodandWhang(2002),aswellasteachingjournalstudiesbyHoandRichards(1993),TsangandWong(1996),andWoodfieldandLazarus(1998)have,similarly,indicatedthebenefitsofjournalingasapedagogicaltoolforencouragingreflection.Interactivejournalstudieshaveshownthatteachercandidates’ideasmaycontributetotheteachingandlearningprocess.Interactivegroupjournalsexchangedamongteachercandidates,inparticular,canstimulateinterest,enhancemotivation,andbuildtheconfidenceofteachercandidates,aswellasenrichtheirconceptionsofalearningcommunity(Coleetal.,1998).
Content and Quality of Reflection Inadditiontothebenefitsofjournalwriting,previousresearchhasfocusedonthetopicsthatteachercandidatesreflecton,aswellasthereflectivetraitsexhibitedinjournals.Thetopicsofreflectionappeartobewide-ranging,includingtheoriesofteachingandlearning,approachesandmethodsinteaching,evaluationofteaching,perceptionsofteachercandidatesofthemselvesasteachers,questionsaboutteaching,questionsaboutstudents,tonameafew(e.g.,seeRichards&Lockhart,1996;Tsang&Wong,1996).Gaugingthequalityofreflectionbasedonthetopicsinjournals,however,isnotentirelystraightforward.Foronething,theteachereducationresearchliteratureaboundswithdefinitionsof“reflection,”makingithardtopindownitsexactmeaning.Recentframeworksofreflection,basedonDewey(1933)andSchon(1983),capturesomecommonelementsabouttheprocessofreflection.Thereare,
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inparticular,attemptstodescribethedevelopmentalorhierarchicalqualitiesofreflection,distinguishinglowerfromhigherlevelsofreflection. InLee’s(2005)analyticframework,forinstance,reflectionisexaminedintermsofthedepthofthethinkingprocessinvolved.Threelevelsofdepthareidentified.Thefirstlevelisthe“recall”level,whereonedescribes,recallsandinterpretsanissue/situ-ation/experiencebasedonone’sownperceptionofexperience,withoutlookingforalternativeexplanations,andattemptstoimitatethewaysonehasobservedorbeentaught.Thesecondlevelisthe“rationalization”level,whereonesearchesforrelation-shipsbetweendifferentbitsofexperiences,interpretingthesituationwithreasons,andgeneralizingexperiencesorcomingupwithguidingprinciples.Thethirdlevelisthe“reflectivity”level,whereoneapproachesone’sownexperienceswithaviewtochanging/improvinginthefuture,analyzinganissue/situation/experiencefromvariousperspectives,andbeingawareoftheinfluencesofthesediverseperspectivesonone’senhancedunderstandingoftheissueorsituation. InLee’sdefinitionofreflectivethinking,thelowestlevelofreflectionisdistin-guishedfromahigherlevelofreflectionbyadeeperthinkingprocessthatinvolvesactiveinterpretationofanissue/situationandtheabilitytoaskthewhyquestion,whereoneexploresdifferentreasons/alternativestoanissue.Thehighestlevelofreflectivethinkingischaracterizedbytheabilitytoasknotonlythe“why”butalsothe“sowhat”question,withaviewtobringingchangeorimprovementtoone’spractice,aswellasaheightenedawarenessoftheinfluencesofvariousperspectivesonone’swayofthinking. Inasimilarvein,HattonandSmith(1995)identifyfourlevelsofreflectivityin teacher candidates’ journal writing.The lowest level, descriptive writing, isnotreflectiveatall,butinvolvesapuredescriptionofanevent,asituationoranissue.Descriptivereflectionprovidesreasonsfortheevents,situationsorissuesdescribed, based on personal judgment, experience, and/or teacher candidates’interpretationsofclassroominputorreadings.Higheruptheplaneofreflectivityisdialogicreflection,whichischaracterizedbyanexplorationandconsiderationofdifferingreasons.Finally,criticalreflectionincludesnotonlypossiblereasonsbutalsoconsiderationofthebroaderhistorical,socialandpoliticalcontextsofthereasoning.HattonandSmith’sapproachissimilartothatofLee,inwhichthedepthofreflectioniscaptured.Althoughdifferenttermsareusedintheirframeworks,similarattemptsaremadetocapturedifferentdegreesofreflectivityonthebasisofone’sabilitytoputthingsintoperspective. VanManen’s(1977)viewofreflectionisalsobasedonstagesofreflection.Thefirststageinvolvesreflectionatthetechnicallevel,i.e.,applicationofskillsandknowledgeintheclassroom.Thesecondstageentailsreflectionabouttheassump-tionsofthetechnicalitiesofteachingandtheconsequencesonstudentlearning.Thethirdstageinvolvesacriticalanalysisorquestioningofthemoralandethicaldimensionsofthetechnicalitiesofteaching.ThesestagesofreflectionparallelthedepthofreflectivityputforwardbyHattonandSmith(1995)andLee(2005),in
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whichthelowestlevelofreflectioninvolvesdescriptivereflection,interpretation,orapplicationwithoutquestioning,whereasthehighestlevelofreflectionentailsreasoningbasedondiverseperspectivesplacedinabroadercontext.
Research Questions Giventhatjournalwritingisunder-exploredininitialteacherpreparationinHongKong,itwouldbeinterestingtofindoutwhatteachercandidateswriteaboutintheirjournalswhenthecourseworkrequiresthemtoengageinjournalwriting,whethertheirjournalentriesdemonstratetraitsofreflectivity,andhowtheyreacttothejournalwritingexperience.Researchquestionsthatgovernedthestudyare:
1.Whatdidtheteachercandidateswriteaboutintheirresponsejournals?Didtheirjournalentriesshowsignsofdevelopingreflectivity?
2. What were the teacher candidates’ reactions to the journal writingexperience?
The Study
Method Teacher candidates in this study are 13 female Cantonese-speaking EnglishmajorundergraduatesatHongKongBaptistUniversity,aged20-21.TheyalltooktheA-LevelUseofEnglishexaminationbeforeentryintotheuniversity,andtheirgradesrangedfromCtoE(Ebeingequivalenttoascoreof515onTOEFL).TheywereenrolledinaDiplomainEducationprogramattheUniversity.TheDiplomainEducationprogramisbasedonanewmodelofteachereducationpioneeredbytheUniversity(knownasthe2+2model),whichprovidesundergraduateswithteachertrainingattheendoftheirsecondyearofundergraduatestudyalongsidetheirEng-lishmajorstudy.WhileaBAinEnglishnormallytakes3yearstocomplete,the2+2studentswouldtake4yearstocompleteaBAinEnglishplusaDiplomainEducation(majoringinEnglish),graduatingwithtwoqualificationsthatenablethemtopracticeEnglishlanguageteaching(ELT)asaprofessionallyqualifiedEnglishteacherinsec-ondaryschoolsinHongKong.1All13studentsaspiredtobecomeEnglishlanguageteachers,andthuscouldbeconsideredreasonablymotivatedteacherlearners. Theresponsejournalstheseteachercandidateswereaskedtodowerepartofthecourseworkofthe“SubjectInstruction”courseintheDiplomainEducationprogram,whichisacompulsorycourseaimedtoequipteachercandidateswithknowledgeandskillsofEnglishlanguageteaching.Althoughthepromotionofreflectionisoneofthestatedaimsoftheteachereducationprogram,norequiredsubjectintheprogramaddressesthetopicofreflectionspecifically.Theresearcher,beingtheinstructorofthe“SubjectInstruction”course,deemeditaperfectoppor-tunitytointroducetheteachercandidatestotheideaofreflectionthroughjournalwriting.Asaqualitativeresearcher,thepastexperienceoftheteacher-researcher
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hadadirectimpactontheapproachtothestudy.Havinguseddialoguejournalswith teacher candidates fromanother teacher educationcourseand found that,indialoguejournalwriting,theteacherscandidateshadatendencytorelyontheteachereducator’sfeedbackasamainincentiveforreflection(seeLee,2004),itwasdecidedthatresponsejournalsthatfocusmoreonself-reflectionwouldbeused,sothattheteachercandidates’relianceontheteachereducatorcouldbereduced.Interactivegroupjournals,itwasfelt,couldbeusedatalaterstagewhentheteachercandidateshadbecomemoreaccustomedtotheideaofjournalwriting. On thefirstdayof thecourse, teachercandidateswere told that theywereexpectedtowriteresponsejournalsthroughoutthecourse.AsjournalwritingisseldomusedinsecondaryschoolsinHongKong,aguidingsheetwasprovidedtomakesurethatexpectationsandrequirementswerecommunicatedclearly(seeAppendix).Specifically,teachercandidatesweretoldtowritetheirresponsestosalientissuesraisedinclass,whichwasheldonceaweekfor10weeksinthefirstand second semesters respectively.2Teacher candidates were told to keep theirjournalentriesinaportfolioandturnintheentriesonspecificdates(threetimesinthefirstsemesterandtwotimesinthesecondsemester)thatwereassignedatthebeginningofeachsemester.Eachtimethejournalsweresubmitted,theinstructorreadthroughthemcarefully.Insteadofawardinggrades,theinstructorprovidedgeneralresponsestostudents’entries,answeredquestions,askedfurtherquestionstostimulatethinking,andprovidedfurtherinsightsonissuesraised.Theteachercandidateswereawarethattheirjournalswouldnotbeassessed.Topreventunduerelianceoninstructorfeedback,delayedresponsesweremadetotheteachercandi-dates’journals,unlikeindialoguejournalwritingwheretheteachereducatorandteachercandidatesexchangejournalsonaregularbasis.Attheendofthesecondsemester,studentsstartedtheir6-weekteachingpracticuminsecondaryschools,wheretheytookupteachingofEnglishindependentlywiththesupportofateachermentor.Theywereencouragedtocontinuewiththehabitofjournalwriting,thoughthiswasnolongerarequirementofthecourse. Toenhancethevalidityofthestudy,triangulationisusedinthequalitativedatacollectionandanalysisprocedures.First,datatriangulationinvolvesdatasourcesfrom (1) the teacher candidates’ response journals gathered from two teachingsemesters, and (2) individual interviewswith all the 13 teacher candidates.Tomoderate the potential biases inherent in teacher-research, the interviews wereconducted(inCantonese)byaresearchassistant(withatranslationmajorandaPostgraduateDiplomainEducationmajoringinEnglish)—afterthegradeswerepostedsoastoencouragefreeexpressionofopinionsfromtheteachercandidates.Theinterviews,whichweresemi-structured,werebasedonaninterviewguidethatfocusedonfourareaspertainingtothesecondresearchquestion:(1)howjournalwritingwasreceivedbytheteachercandidates;(2)perceivedbenefitsanddifficul-ties,ifany;(3)roleoftheinstructors’feedback;and(4)impactofjournalwritingondevelopmentofreflectivity.
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Data Analysis Toanswerthefirstresearchquestion(i.e.,whattheteachercandidateswroteaboutandsignsofdevelopingreflectivity),boththecontentanddepthofreflectionasexhibitedintheresponsejournalswereanalyzed.ThecontentanalysisisadaptedfromLee(2004),whoinvestigatesthethemesofdialoguejournalswrittenby18teachercandidates.Aftermyfirstreadingoftheresponsejournaldata,itwasfoundthatwhilemostofthe10themesinLee(2004)arerelevanttothestudy,someofthethemescouldhavebeencombinedtoyieldasmallernumberofcategories—henceahigherlevelofabstraction—andtofacilitatecommunicationofthefindingsaswell(Merriam,1998).Sincethejournaldatawouldbefurtheranalyzedforthelevelofreflectivity,withreferencetothethemes,asmallernumberofthemeswouldfacilitatedatainterpretationandhencesuitthepurposeoftheresearchbetter.Fivethemesweredevelopedforthestudy,whichwasaresultofcombinationofsomeofthethemesinLee(2004)andrephrasingafterwards.Forexample,thethemesthatinvolveinteractionwiththeinstructor(e.g.,“relationship-building”and“seekingadvice”)arecombinedandphrasedas“interactingwithinstructor.”Thethemesthatrelatetoself-development(i.e.,“drawinguponpersonalhistory,”“expressingpreserviceteacherthoughtsandconcerns,”and“commentingoncognitivechanges”)arecombinedandreferredtoas“extrapolating/expressingpersonalvoice.”Thethemesrelatingtoevaluation(i.e. ,“commentsonthecourse”and“self-evalua-tion”)arebroadenedandrephrasedas“evaluating.”Theotherthemesthatpertaintolowerandhigherlevelsofthinking(i.e.,“sharingideasaboutEnglishlanguageresources,”“askingquestions/seekingclarification,”and“discussingprofessionalissues”)arerephrasedas“describingandrecalling”and“interpreting,analyzingandinquiring”respectively.Thefivethemesaredefinedasfollows:
1.Describing and recalling:Describingandrecallingteaching/learningissuespresentedinclass;sharinglanguagelearningexperiences.
2. Interpreting, analyzing and inquiring: Discussing issues related totopicscoveredinclass/otherprofessionalissues;askingquestionsaboutELT/professionalissues.
3. Evaluating: Evaluating oneself, peers or different aspects of thecourse.
4.Extrapolating/Expressing personal voice:Extrapolatingwhathasbeenlearned—makingresolutions;personalizingandsharinginsights;express-ingfeelingsandconcerns;assertingbeliefs.
5.Interacting with instructor:Seekingadviceregardingpersonal/profes-sionaldevelopment;respondingtoinstructor’sfeedback.
Afterthepreliminaryanalyticframeworkwassetup,theresearcherandresearchassistantcategorizedabout20%ofthejournaldataindependentlyandcomparedtheir
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analysestofindoutthelevelofagreement,whichturnedouttobeashighas95%.Therestofthejournalentrieswerethenreadandcategorizedbytheresearchassistant. Asregardsthenatureofreflection,sincethepurposeofthestudyistoexplorethetraitsofreflectivityintheteachercandidates’journals,ananalyticalframeworkthatdescribes thedevelopmentalqualitiesof reflection isdeemedsuitable.TheframeworksproposedbyLee(2005)andHattonandSmith(1995),whichcharacterizereflectionintermsofthedepthofreflectivethinking,arecombinedasfollows:
Level 1: Non-reflection / pure description level, which involves mererecall/description.
Level2:Descriptivereflection/recalllevel,whichisthelowestlevelofreflection,involvingdescription/recallaswellasanattemptatsimpleexplanation.
Level3:Dialogicreflection/rationalizationlevel,whichisahigherlevelofreflection,involvingexplorationofalternativeexplanationsfromdif-ferentperspectives.
Level4:Criticalreflection/reflectivitylevel,whichisthehighestlevelofreflection,involvingacriticalanalysisthatsituatesreasoningwithinabroaderhistorical,social,culturalorpoliticalcontext,withaviewtochangingorimprovinginthefuture.
Allthejournalsegmentsthatfallunderthefivethemesaretabulatedandreadbytheresearcherandresearchassistanttogethertodiscussanddecideonthelevelofreflection.Analysisoftheentriesshowsthatthefirsttheme“Describingandre-calling”exclusivelyillustratesLevel1ofreflection.Itisoftenfollowedbytheotherthemesthatexhibithigherlevelsofreflection,suchas“Interpreting,analyzingandinquiring,”“Evaluating”and“Extrapolating/Expressingpersonalvoice.”Thelasttheme“Interactingwithinstructor”doesnotfallunderanylevelofreflection.Instead,theteachercandidates’attemptstointeractwiththeinstructorareseentoemanatefromtheirdescription,discussionorreflectionthatbelongstooneofthefourlevelsofreflection.Table1belowsummarizesthethemesandtheirlevelsofreflection. Asfortheinterviewdata,theyweretranslatedandtranscribedbytheresearchassistant.Theinterviewtranscriptsweresubjectedtomemberchecking(Brown&Rodgers,2002)—i.e.,havingtheteachercandidatesreadandverifytheirtruthful-ness.Theinterviewdatawerethencodedandsummarizedaccordingtothefourareasoffocus—i.e.,howjournalwritingwasreceivedbytheteachercandidates,perceivedbenefitsanddifficulties,roleoftheinstructor’sfeedback,anddevelop-mentofreflectivity.
Journal Data Thissectionaddressesthefirstresearchquestion—i.e.,What did the teacher
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candidates write about in their response journals? Did their journal entries show signs of reflectivity?Inthefollowing,selectedsegmentsfromtheteachercandidates’responsejournalsareusedtodemonstratethefivethemesdelineatedintheanalyticframeworkinTable1,eachwithreferencetothelevel(s)ofreflectivityevidentinthejournaldata.Thejournalsegmentsarepresentedverbatim,andpseudonymsareusedthroughout.
Describing and Recalling: Level 1 of Reflection Thefirsttheme,describing and recalling,canbeconsideredtobetheprecursortoreflectivity,formingthebasisonwhichfurtherreflectionsaremade.Whiletheteachercandidatesaredescribingand/orrecallinganissueorexperience,theystayatLevel1ofreflection,i.e.,non-reflection/puredescriptionlevel.InoneofKitty’sjournalentries,shesummarizedwhathadbeencoveredinclassbydescribing a teaching/learning issue:
OnWednesday,duringthelecturetime,wetalkedaboutlanguagecompetence,namely linguisticscompetence,pragmaticcompetence,discoursecompetence,andstrategiccompetence…
InLucy’ssegment,sheshared the experienceofateacherfriend,tryingtoshowhowdisrespectfulstudentscanbe:
Thatday, she taught students touseChinesedictionary.Her studentswere socuriousthattheytriedtoturntosomeotherpagesfilledwithpictures.Andsud-denly,oneofherstudentsaskedhersomethingaboutapictureshowinganancientcontainer.Sheactuallydidn’tprepareherselfforthiskindofquestionandshejustrepliedfranklybysaying,“Sorry,Idon’tknoweither.Wouldyouliketofindussomethingaboutitlater?”However,herstudentresponded,“You,asourteacher,don’tknoweither;thenhowcouldIknowit?”inaplayfultone.
Bothsegmentsdemonstrateanon-reflectivetrait,astheyinvolvemeredescriptionand/orrecall.
Table 1. Themes of Journal Entries and Levels of Reflection.
Theme LevelofReflection
1. Describingandrecalling Level1
2. Interpreting,analyzingandinquiring Level2/3/4
3. Evaluating Level2/3/4
4. Extrapolating/Expressingpersonalvoice Level2/3/4
5. Interactingwithinstructor Notapplicable
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Interpreting, Analyzing and Inquiring: Level 2/3/4 of Reflection Inthejournals,descriptionandrecallwereoftenfollowedbydiscussionand/orquestioning,wheretheteachercandidatesengagedin interpreting, analyzing and in-quiring,whichisthesecondthemethatemergedfromthedata.Thisthemeillustrateshigherlevelsofreflection,includingLevels2,3and4.Whenengagedinthediscussion of teaching and learning issues raised in class,NatalieattemptedtoexplainwhymostteachersinHongKongfocusondevelopingstudents’linguisticcompetence:
Whatarethedifficultiesinteachinglanguagecompetence?...afterthetask-basedapproachin1999Englishlanguagesyllabushasbeenproposed,notmanyteacherspayeffortevenlytoteachgrammaticalitem,andlanguageneededfordifferentsituationsandcommunication.Ithinkthemainproblemistheschoolteachersareboundbythetextbook.Theywilljustteachwhatthetextbookhasandteachallthechaptersinarushinordertolettheirstudentstohavealookofallthechapterswhichareinthescopeofexamination....Astheseexamina-tionsaremainlyfocusonlinguisticcompetence,teachersmayjustconcentrateonteachingmoreaboutlinguisticknowledgeinordertolettheirstudenthaveagoodmarkinthepublicexam.
The above segment demonstrates Level 2 of reflection (i.e., descriptive reflec-tion/recalllevel),wheretheteachercandidateattemptedtoexplainwhyEnglishteachersinHongKongdonotadopttask-basedlanguageteachingbutinsteadrelyheavilyonthetextbooktohelpstudentspassexaminations. Asking questions about ELT/professional issuesalsoprovidedopportunitiesfor teacher candidates to engage in ahigher levelof reflection. Inher journal,Kittybeganbyaskingaseriesofquestionsaboutlanguagecompetenceandthenbroadenedherdiscussiontoincludeotheraspectsofcompetence,highlightingtheimportanceofcriticalthinkinginthelanguageclassroom:
So, thequestion leftnow ishowmuchshouldwe teach inelementaryeduca-tion?Howcanwebalancethebasiclinguisticknowledgeandtheotheressentialcompetenceinlanguageteaching?...Criticalthinkingissomuchemphasizednowadays,butIusedtodoubtthathowcanthisbetaughtinallsubjects?...NowIbelieveteachersinallsubjectscandoitasyouhaveprovedthisinyourteaching.Iguessteacherscantrainstudents’criticalthinkingskillsbyaskingthemmoreopenquestionsoraskingthemtocommentorjudgment.Teachersshouldalsotellstudentsnottoaccepteverythingblindlywithoutreallythinkingaboutthem.
TheabovesegmentillustratesLevel3ofreflection(i.e.,dialogicreflection/ratio-nalizationlevel),showingevidenceoftheteachercandidate’sattempttosearchforrelationshipsbetweendifferentpiecesofexperienceandtodevelopsomegeneralprinciplesforteachingcriticalthinking. Inanotherexample,Sandra’sattempttodiscuss professional issues (i.e.,in-novation)providedherwithanopportunitytoengageincriticalreflection:
Veryoften,peopletendtosupport‘new’ideasblindly.Theythinkthateverything
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‘new’is‘creative,’‘up-to-date,’and‘better.’However,thisisabsolutelynottrue.Istronglybelievethattheexistinglanguageteachingmethodologycouldbeim-proved.Butthisdoesnotmeanthatanychangeoranynewmethodologywouldhelp....Wehavetothinkcarefullyifthenewmethodologyisbetterthantheexistingoneornot....Thenit’stheideaofsuitability.Whenthisideaisfromthewest,itmaynotsuittheculturalbackgroundofHongKongstudents.Andweshouldnotoverlookthisculturalthing.LearningEnglishisnotjustlearningalanguagebutlearningadifferentculture.AndwhydosomanystudentsdislikelearningEnglish?It’sbecausetheydon’tlikethefeelingofbeingimposedwithadifferentthing.Therefore,weshouldalsoconsiderthefeelingortheattitudeofstudents.Asafterall,thischangeisnotonlyfortheEnglishlanguageteachers,butalsothestudents.
Inthissegment,Level4ofreflection(i.e.,criticalreflection/reflectivitylevel)isevident,whereSandraexaminedthequestionof“innovation”inrelationtoELTmethodology.Inreflectingontheissue,sheconsideredthewidercontextincludingtheculturalandtheaffectivefactorsinlanguageteachingandlearning.
Evaluating: Level 2/3/4 of Reflection Inthethirdtheme,evaluation,higherlevelsofreflectionarealsoevident.Inthejournals,theteachercandidatesgavetheirevaluations of different aspects of the course,includingtheinstructor’steachingstyle.Catherinecommented:
...whenIamhavingyourlesson,Ifeelgoodthatyoualwaysaskusquestions.Thiscanraiseourinterestandatthesametime,payingmoreattentiontowhatyouteach.Ithinkinthesupervisedteachingpractice,Iwillaskmoregenuinequestionstoelicitmystudentstospeakup.Actually,Ithinkduringalesson,ifstudentscanparticipateandgetinvolved,thefeelingisquitegood.
ThissegmentdemonstratesLevel2ofreflection,wheretheteachercandidateana-lyzedtheteachereducator’steachingstyleandstatedherintentiontoimitatesuchastyleinherownteachingpractice. Inanotherexample,Level3ofreflectionisevidentasBeatriceevaluatedoneofherpeers’microteachingperformance:
TodayIwasimpressedbyIvy’smicroteachingonlistening.WhatIappreciatewasthatsheexposedstudentstodifferentmaterials.Forexample,theEnglishversionoftheMulanpoemandthethemesongofthemovie....Ithinkagoodteachershouldnotonlyexposestudentstoacademicknowledgebutalsothingsaroundusandaroundtheworld.Besides,ifIcandesignlessonsasinterestingasthatone,studentswouldbeeagertoattendlessonsbecauseeachtimetheyknowthattheycanlearnsomeinterestingthingsfromthelesson.
Atthislevelofreflection,Beatriceattemptedtointerpretthepeer’sperformance,explainedwhyshelikedit,andgeneralizedittootherteachingsituations. InoneofNatalie’sjournalentries,criticalreflectionisdemonstratedassheevalu-ated her own performanceinmicroteachingintheteachereducationprogram:
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Irememberthatmyteachersdidn’tteachanylisteningskillsatall.TheywouldsimplyusethetapewhichisprovidedbyLongmanorOxford,etc.whatIusu-allyheardwasnotEnglishbutthesoundof‘beep.’MyclassmatesandIwereallrushingtochoosethecorrectanswersafterthebeepsound.Ifeltnotgoodanddidn’tenjoyit.AndImadeabigmistake inmymicroteaching.I’veputtoomany things in the listening comprehension exercise. I am sure thatmystudentsfeltpressuretoo!Thoughtheydidenjoythevideo,Ithinktheyalsofeltbadabouttheexercise.IstarttoknowwhyIhavepressureallthetime.ItisbecauseIseeeverythingas‘homework’andIfocustoomuchonthefinalproduct.Asaresult,Ineglecttheneedsofmystudents.Ishouldhaveabroaderperspective—that is,my job is not only toprovide interestingmaterials anddetailedworksheets,butalsotoletmystudentsenjoytheirclassandtolearnwithoutfeelingthreatened.
Reflectingonherownlanguagelearningandmicroteachingexperience,Natalierealizedtheimportanceofde-emphasizingtheproductoflearningbutemphasizinglearningforenjoymentinanon-threateninglearningenvironment.Shewasabletoexamineteachinginabroadercontextthattakesintoaccounttheteacherrole,thestudentrole,teacher-studentrelationship,andtheuseofpedagogicalmaterials.Thisjournalsegmentisagoodexampletoshowhowtheteachercandidatemovedfromalowertoahigherlevelofreflection,andintheendshewasabletoengageinLevel4ofreflection(i.e.,criticalreflection).
Extrapolating/Expressing Personal Voice: Level 2/3/4 of Reflection Inthefourththeme,teachercandidateswereseenextrapolatingfromwhattheyhadlearnt,atthesametimeexpressing a personal voice.Insodoing,theyengagedinhigher levelsof reflection.Some teacher candidatesmade resolutions in theirresponsejournals,assertingwhattheyplannedtodointheirfutureteaching,whileotherspersonalized learning and shared their insights.For instance, through thejournalwritingexperience,Kittyhaddevelopedagreatinterestinusingthistoolasaspringboardforreflection.Shedecidedtoverbalizeandrecordherthoughtsaftereachofherteachingpracticumlessons:
Iplantobringalongamp3playerwithmesothatIcanrecordmyfeelings,mycommentsandmyreflectionsoonaftertheclass.Iamsurethatthiswouldbeveryusefulformygrowthasateacher.
Sophia,afterwatchingherpeers’microteachingongrammarteaching,recalledherownexperienceasastudentandsharedherinsightabouthowgrammarcouldbestbetaughtincontext:
WhenIwasinprimaryandsecondaryschool,myteacherstaughtmegrammar,theylikedtoseparatethecontextandthetargetlanguage;therefore,wemaynothaveaclearideabouthowtousethetargetgrammar.It’saverycommonwayofteachersteachinggrammar.Studentshavetodotheexercises(separatesentences)whichcanreinforcetheformofthetargetlanguagebutnotthefunctionofthe
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language.It’sthethingthatIhavetopayattentiontowhenIamteaching....it’sagoodstarttoteachtherelationbetweenformandfunction!
BothjournalsegmentsillustrateLevel2ofreflection,wheredescriptionisaccom-paniedbysimpleexplanation. InBeatrice’sjournalsegmentbelow,shemovedfromLevel2to3andthen4ofreflection.Shefirstexpressed her feelings and concernsafteralessonthatintroducedstudentstolanguagegames.Asshedescribedherlearningexperienceandexplainedherfeelings,sheengagedinLevel2ofreflection:
Todaywelearntsometeachingskillsintheclass.Iwasimpressedbythoseteachingskills.Ididn’tthinkofteachingcanbethatmuchfun.IfIwerestillasecondarystudent,IthoughtIwouldlovethiskindofteaching.However,asaperspectiveteacher,IfeltalittlebitstressfulasIknewthatIwouldbetheonewhodesignthosefunnygamesandplaywithmystudents.Iwasafraidthatitwouldspendmesomuchtimepreparingforthosegames.
Fromthere,Beatricewentontoassert her beliefs:
AsIhavehadmorethoughtsonit,Ithoughtit’sworthwhiletospendthatmuchtimepreparingformystudentsbecausethiscanhelpcultivatetheir interest inEnglish,IfulfillmyroleasateacherbecauseEnglishisabigfieldthatonecanevenspendone’swholelifetolearnit.Inthissense,howmuchIteachthemisnotenough,buttheniftheyhavetheinterestinEnglishthemselves,theycantaketheinitiativetolearnEnglish,andIthinkit’stheonlywayforthemtoacquiregoodEnglish.
Beatrice’sfurtherthoughtsmovedheruptohigherreflectiveplanes,i.e.,Levels3and4.DespitetheworryBeatricehadabouthavingtospendamassiveamountoftimepreparingforgoodEnglishlessons,sheconsidereddifferentperspectives(Level3)andsheassertedthatitwouldbeworththewhile,sincewhatmattersmostinlanguageteachingistheabilitytoarouseinterestinthelearners.Indeed,sheexaminedtheissueoflanguagegamesfromdifferentperspectivesandapproachedherownexperiencewithaviewtobringingimprovementtoherteachinginthefuture(Level4).
Interacting with Instructor Finally,inthelasttheme,theteachercandidatesengagedininteracting with the instructor.Lauraattemptedtoseek the instructor’s adviceontheissueofmediumofinstruction:
ButifthestudentscouldnotunderstandmyEnglishevenIspokeslowlyandusedsimpleEnglish,whatcouldIdo?
Somestudentsprovided responses to the instructor’s feedback on their journals.Forinstance,Carlyrespondedbydirectlyaddressingtheinstructor:
Thanksalotforyourresponse.ActuallyItotallyagreewithyouthateducationisahelpingprofession.
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Attemptstoseekadviceoraskquestionsarenotclassifiableintodifferentlevelsofreflection,buttheygenerallycontinuefromtheteachercandidate’sdiscussionorreflection,suchasLaura’squestionabove,whichsprangfromherreflectionontheuseofL1(i.e.,Cantonese)inthesecondlanguageclassroom. Toanswerthefirstresearchquestionposedearlier(What did the teacher can-didates write about in their response journals? Did their journal entries show signs of reflectivity?), thesamplesabovedemonstratethattheteachercandidates’thinkingdidnotsimplystayatLevel1,i.e.,thelowestlevelofreflection.Instead,journalwritingprovidedthemwithopportunitiestoengageinhigherlevelsofreflectionatdifferenttimesandasdifferentissuesweredescribedordiscussed.Theyinterpreted,analyzedandinquiredaboutteaching/learningorotherprofessionalissues,result-inginanincreaseinknowledgeandself-understanding,anddevelopingacriticalstanceregardingteaching/learningandprofessionalissuesatthesametime.Throughevaluatingthemselves,theirpeersanddifferentaspectsofthecourse,theywereabletogaininsightsabouthowtheyshouldgoaboutteaching. Theyalsoextrapolatedfromtheinputobtainedfromlessons,bothfromtheinstructorandtheirpeers,personalizedlearningbymakingconnectionsbetweenwhatwasobservedandtheorizedinclassandtheirownpersonalexperience,andasaresultdevelopedabetterunderstandingofEnglishlanguageteachingandteachingingeneral.Allinall,responsejournalsenabledthemtodeveloptheirprofessionalidentitiesbysharingtheirprivatevoices,shapingtheirunderstandingofpertinentissuesandpreparingthemfortherealitiesintheclassroom(Farris&Fuhler,1996;Good&Whang,2002).
Interview Data This section attempts to answer the second research question—i.e., What were the teacher candidates’ reactions to the journal writing experience? Relevantinterviewdataareextracted(andcitedverbatim)toillustratethefourmajoras-pects,including(1)howjournalwritingwasreceived;(2)perceivedbenefitsanddifficulties;(3)roleoftheinstructor’sfeedback;and(4)developmentofreflectivethinking.Againpseudonymsareusedthroughout.
How Journal Writing Was Received by Teacher Candidates Outofthe13teachercandidates,11saidtheyenjoyedwritingresponsejournals.Someenjoyeditthroughouttheperiod,whilesomefoundgreaterenjoymentinthesecondsemester.Thiscouldbedemonstratedbythefactthatsixteachercandidatescontinuedwithjournalwritingduringtheteachingpracticumeventhoughitwasno longer a requirementof thecourse,whereasoneof them (Kitty referred toearlier)didoraljournalsbyaudio-recordingherafter-lessonthoughtsduringthepracticum.Teachercandidates’reasonsforenjoyingjournalwritingareextractedbelow,citingthestudentsverbatim:
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Inthefirstsemester,Idon’treallyunderstandhowtoteachandIfacedmanydif-ficultiesanddoubts,andIcangetmanyadvicefrommylecturer.(Lily)
BecauseIcanwriteaboutmyfeelingsanddifficulties.Yes,anditisquiteusefulformetoreflectandtobereflective.(Lucy)
Enjoymentwasfoundtolinkwithstudents’perceptionofthenatureandpurposeofjournalwriting.Afewstudentsconsideredjournalwritingtobeakindofhomeworkinthefirstsemester,butgraduallywhenthepurposebecameclearer,theyfoundjournalwritingeasiertomanageandhencemoreenjoyable.Kittysaid:
InthefirstsemesterIthinkit’skindofhomework,andIdon’twanttodoit.It’snotpracticalforIjustwrotesomethingtosharemyfeelings....Buttheninthesecondsemester,IfinditgoodbecauseIreallyknowthepurposeandIbelievethisisagoodwaytoachievethatpurpose,andit’salsogoodformyselfandalsomyteacher.
Anotherreasonwhysomestudentsenjoyedjournalwritinglessinthefirstsemesteristhelackofideas.Catherinesaid:
WritingjournalsinthefirstsemesterismoredifficultbecauseIdidn’thaveanyideawhatkindofwritingshouldIwritebecausewejustrefertothelessonlikethe concept or the theory during the lesson, so I can say I don’t really enjoyjournalwriting.
Mostteachercandidatesfeltthatjournalwritingbecameeasierinthesecondse-mester,andhencemoreenjoyable.Kathysaid:
Forthefirstsemester,it’sapressure.Inthesecondsemester,it’sapleasurewrit-ingtotheteacher.
Forthisteachercandidate,onceshestartedtoputpentopaper,thejoyofjournal-ingkeptgrowing. Onlyonestudentmaintainedshedidnotenjoyjournalwritingatanytime,andthestatedreasonwasherlaziness:
I’mtoolazytodothat.Inormallydoitrightbeforewehavetosubmitit.
Perceived Benefits and Difficulties All13studentsconfirmedjournalwritingasabeneficialexperience,includingthetwowhodidnotenjoyit.Theonlyproblemsraisedpertainstotimemanage-mentandlackofideasinitially.Theteachercandidatesvaluedtheopportunitytocommunicatewiththeinstructor,evidencedfromthequotebelow:
...shewilltrytoanswermeandthengivemesomeresponse.It’smorelikeacommunicativewaysoIlearnfromher.(Lily)
Astudentpointedoutthattheresimplywasnotenoughtimeinclassforthekindofsharinganddiscussionmadepossiblethroughjournalwriting:
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It’sagoodwaytodiscusssomethingwiththeprofessorbecauseduringclasstimeyouwon’thavemuchtimetoshare.(Carly)
Lucypointedouttheadvantageofwrittenjournalsoverface-to-facemeetings:
Ithinkit’sdifficulttoknockonherdoorandtalktoher.Well,it’sstrange.Icangotohereveryday...butIdon’tknowwhethertheyarebusyornotsoIcannotreallytalkdirectlyorgotothem.SoIthinkwritingjournals,yes,theycanreadthejournalswhentheyhavetime.(Lucy)
Studentsalsofoundthatjournalwritingprovidedgoodopportunitiesforthemtopracticeanddevelopreflectivethinking.Sandrasaid:
Igettimetoreally,youknow,torethinkwhatI’velearnedinclass.
Withoutwritingresponsejournalsafterclass,teachercandidatesmighthavead-optedalearn-but-forgetattitudetolearning.Havingtoreflectonwhattheyhadlearnedinclass,however,mayhavepromptedteachercandidatestorethinktheissuescoveredinclass,expresstheirviews,andaskquestions.Learningbecamemorerealandmorepersonal. Severalstudentsalsocommentedonthevaluableoutcomeofself-developmentthroughpracticingreflectivethinking.Writingresponsejournalshelpedthemmakedecisionsthroughintrospection.Thejournalwritinghelpedtoclarifytheirconfusion,promoteself-evaluationandsuggestwaystheymightimprovethemselves:
Throughjournalwriting,ithelpsmetomakeupmyideas.Ithelpsmetomakeupmymind.Everythingissosimpleafterwritingjournals.(Sandra)
EverytimeIlookatmyjournals,Icanthinkof...howtoimprove(Helen)
Indeed,thejournalsprovideawindowintoteachercandidates’innermostfeelingsandthoughtsandareanexpedient toolforachievingpersonalandprofessionaldevelopment:
Ilookbackmyfirstfewjournals,IfoundlikemaybeiffoundI’vealreadygrownup.WhenIlookbackmyfirstfewjournalsandcompareitwiththelatterone,Ifindthedifferencebetween...likeitisn’tmyself.(Kitty)
Anotherbeneficialaspectofjournalwriting,asindicatedbyNatalie,isthedevel-opmentofwritingfluency:
ItcanimprovemyEnglishwritingbecausejournalissomethingtoexpressourselves.
When students lookedbackon thewhole experienceof journalwriting,4studentspointedout that theycouldappreciate thebenefitsonlyafter theyhadgotusedtowritingjournalsandwhentheybecamemorereflectiveinthesecondsemester.Nataliesaid:
InthefirstsemesterIcan’tfindanythingtoreflect...Ijustsitinthelesson.Idon’t’thinkIhavesomethingtoimprove.
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Thisshowsthatreflectivethinking,whenfirstintroducedtoteachercandidates,maybeatotallyalienideaandmaynotbeparticularlywell-received.Withmorepractice,however,teachercandidatescandevelopalikingaswellasadispositionforreflectivethinking.
The Instructor’s Feedback Allthe13teachercandidatesfoundtheinstructor’sfeedbackuseful,encourag-ingandvaluable:
The most important thing, I think, is to get the feedback from the lecturer.(Kathy)
Theinstructor’scommentsmakesmesocomfortable.(Sandra)
Ialwayswrotesomethingaboutmyanxiety,andyouknow,readingherwordscouldcomfortme.(Kathy)
Ithinkthatsheisveryexperiencedandsheinspiredmealot.(Ida)
Twelveof13studentsvaluedtheteacher’swrittenfeedbackontheirjournals,andstatedthatwithoutthefeedbacktheywouldhavelikedjournalingless.Fromtheircomments,itcanbeconcludedthattheteachercandidatesexpectedtheinstructortoanswertheirqueries,stimulatetheirthinking,pointoutareasforimprovement,etc.:
Ireallyliketohavetheteacher’sfeedback.Youknow,aslongastheteacherispresent,itmakesthehomeworkmeaningful.(Kitty)
Iwillbe lessmotivated towriteanythingbecauseI thinkmaybeIneedsomeguidance.(Lucy)
Onestudentheldadifferentviewaboutinstructorfeedbacktothejournalwriting:
Ithinkit’sokevenwithoutfeedbackbecauseIreallyenjoyreadingmyownjour-nal...Iexploremoreduring...exploremoreonmyselfduringtheprocessofwriting.Itreallyhelps,butnotonlyproduct,butalsotheprocessofwritingthejournal.(Lily)
Thequotesuggeststhatthestudentwasintrinsicallymotivated,enjoyedwriting,andhencewaslessreliantontheteacherforcommentsandsuggestions.Overall,theteachercandidates’viewsindicatethattheteachereducatorhasasignificantroletoplayinthejournalingprocess.
Development of Reflective Thinking Alloftheteachercandidatesreportedthattheyhadbecomemorereflectivethroughjournalwriting.Verbalizingthoughtsinwritingincreasestheirunderstand-ingoftheissuesdiscussedinclassanddevelopstheirprofessionalidentitiesasprospectiveteachers.Throughpracticingreflectivethinking,theteachercandidatesgainedadeeperunderstandingofwhatreflectivityentails:
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EverytimeIwriteIfirstjotdowndetailsofwhathappenedthatdayandwhenIwilllookatitlikeathirdperson,likeself-evaluatemyselfasifI’mthethirdperson.(Sandra)
WhenIfirstwrotesomething,maybeIshareaprobleminthejournal.Iusuallythoughtofeverythinglike,thereasonofsuchaproblemandwhatIshoulddonexttime.UsuallyIwillmakeaconclusionlikethis.Iwon’tjustdescribe.Iwon’tjustdescribetheprobleminthejournals.(Lucy)
The teacher candidates appeared to appreciate the importance of thinking thattranscendspurerecallordescriptionandfelttheywereabletodevelopastancethatincorporatedobjectiveanalysis(likeathirdperson),evaluation,problematiz-ingandproblem-solving.What’smore, tracing theirowndevelopment throughreadingandre-readingtheirpersonalrecordswouldprovideapreciousopportunityforfurtherreflection:
IthinkwritingdownintowordscanhelpandonethingwhichisgoodisthatIcanreaditagainlater.Ithinkthisprocessisanotherkindofreflection.(Kitty)
Byrelatingwhatwastaughtinclasstotheirpersonalexperience,byquestioningpre-conceivedideasaboutteaching,andbyprojectingthesethoughtsintotheirownfutureaspracticingteachersintheirresponsejournals,theteachercandidateswerebecomingreflectivepractitioners:
Istartedtorelatemypastexperiencetomyownteachingandonmyfuturecareer...asformypastexperience,Iknowwhatmyteacherhadputefforton.Itrytoassesstheirownskillsorteachingandfromthatassessment,IknowwhatIhavetodointhefuture.(Natalie)
Toanswerthesecondresearchquestion(the teacher candidates’ reactions to the journal writing experience),datashowthattheteachercandidateswelcomedtheuseofresponsejournalsasaninstructionaltoolfordevelopingareflectivestancetowardsteachingandlearning.Althoughsomedidnotreacttoitpositivelywhenthetoolwasfirstintroduced,allteachercandidatesweregraduallyabletoseethebenefitsandappreciatetheimportanceofdevelopingareflectivedispositionwhiletheywerelearningtoteach.Inparticular,theytreasuredtheopportunitiestocommunicatewithandlearnfromtheinstructoroutsidetheclassroom,andtheyvaluedtheinstructor’sfeedbackandconsidereditausefulimpetusfordeeperreflections.
Implications and Recommendations Thestudysuggeststhatresponsejournalsareausefulinstructionaltoolthaten-ablesteachercandidatestoexpressandasserttheirpersonalvoice,tobemoreintouchwiththeirfeelingsandthoughts,andtodeveloptheirprofessionalidentities.Throughwritingresponsejournals,teachercandidatesenhancetheirself-understandinganddeveloptheprofessionalcharacteristicstheywillneedwhentheybecomepracticingteachers—e.g.,abilitytoquestiontheirownpractice,toexploreintoalternatives,
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toproblematize,andtoself-evaluate.AsindicatedbyCochran-SmithandLytle(2001),“aninquirystance”iscrucialtoteachers’professionaldevelopment,anditisimportantforteachercandidatestolearnto“poseproblems,identifydiscrepan-ciesbetweentheoriesandpractices,challengecommonroutines,”etc.(p.53).
Provision of Prompts Basedonthefindingsofthestudy,severalrecommendationsmaybemadetoenhancetheeffectivenessofresponsejournalsasatoolfordevelopingreflectivity.First,sinceteachercandidatesmaytendtoresistjournalingintheinitialstage,per-hapsduetoinexperienceandunfamiliaritywiththispedagogicaltool,theteachereducatorcaninitiallyprovidepromptstoguidestudents’journalwriting(seee.g.,Good&Whang,2002),especiallywithmoredependentlearnersandinthebegin-ningstage.Toprovideforgreaterflexibilityandtocatertoindividualdifferences,studentscanoptforeitherrespondingtothepromptsorwritingtheirownideas.Withatopiconcommunicativelanguageteaching,forinstance,thepromptscouldincludethefollowing:In your opinion, which English language teaching method(s) would suit Hong Kong learners most? Which method would you be most comfortable using? Theteachereducatorcanmonitorstudents’progressandassesstheneedforprovidingprompts,anddecideaccordinglytoeithercontinuewiththepracticeorphasethisoutgradually.
Journal Keeping during the Practicum Journalwritingshouldbeencouragedduringtheteachingpracticumforteachercandidates.Thestudyshowsthatevenwithoutmakingjournalwritingacompulsoryrequirementoftheinitialteacherpreparationprogramduringthepracticum,abouthalfofthestudentstookituponthemselvestokeepjournals,andtheyallreportedfeelingenthusiasticaboutit.Onceteachercandidatesareadequatelypreparedtowritereflectivejournals,theyshouldbeencouragedtocarryonwiththereflectivedispositionduringtheirteachingpracticum,andmoreimportantly,besupportedduringtheprocess.Forexample,theteachingpracticumjournalscanbecollectedandreadbytheinstructor,whocanthengivefeedbackperiodicallyorattheendofthepracticum.Also,thejournalscanbekeptinaportfolioelectronicallytogetherwithstudents’ lessonplansandteachingmaterialsandcontribute to theoverallassessmentoftheteachereducationcourse.
The Teacher Educator’s Role Theroleplayedbytheteachereducatorinprovidingfeedbackonteachercandi-dates’responsejournalsshouldnotbeunder-estimated.Thesedatahavesuggestedthatteachercandidatesvaluedtheinstructor’sfeedbackasapowerfulincentivetoencouragethemtoengageinreflectionthroughjournaling.Withholdingfeedbackaltogether,especiallyatthebeginning,mayhaveanegativeimpactontheteachercandidate’smotivationtowriteinresponsejournals.Itwouldhelp,however,ifthe
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teachereducator’spresencecouldbegraduallymaderedundant,sothattheteachercandidatesdevelopahabitandwillingnesstoreflectevenwithouthavinganaudi-encetoreadtheirjournals.Lee’s(2004)dialoguejournalstudyhasfoundthatsometeachercandidatesmayactuallybemoreinterestedinusingjournaling“asameansofgettingadvicefromtheteachereducator”thaninusingitasa“toolfordevelopingindividualreflection”(Lee,2004,p.86).Toenableteachercandidatestoengageinreflectionautonomouslyduringthelearning-to-teachprocess,theteachereducatorhastobecarefulindecidingwhentogivefeedbacktostimulatethinkingandtoprovideincentiveandwhentoreducetheamountorevenwithholdfeedback.Forinstance,the teachereducatorcanstartwithexchangingdialogue journalwith the teachercandidates,andaftertheyhavegainedfamiliaritywithreflectivewritingtheycanbeaskedtoexchangejournalswithinasmallgrouporwithajournalpartner/buddy(seeGood&Whang,2002;Grisham,1997),wherebytheyexchangejournalsregu-larly,respondtotheirpeers’journals,supportingeachotherintheirdevelopmentofreflectivethinking.Theinstructor’srolecouldthenbegraduallyreduced,sincetheteachercandidateswouldbetakinggreaterresponsibilitytousejournalsasatoolforstimulatingthoughtsandfordevelopingandsustainingreflectivethinking.
The Teacher Candidate’s Role Finally, theroleplayedby the teachercandidates indevelopingreflectivityandbringingabouttheirownprofessionalgrowthcanbefurtherutilized.Asidefromaskingthemtokeeptheirjournalsinaportfolioandsubmitittotheinstruc-torfromtimetotime,theteachercandidatescanbeaskedtorevisittheirjournalsatdifferentpointsoftime(e.g.,attheendofeachsemester,andattheendoftheteachingpracticum)andtowriteaboutthechanges,ifany,observedintheirowndevelopment.Infact,thedatainthisstudyindicatethatwithoutbeingaskedto,fourstudentsdevelopedthehabitofre-readingtheirownjournalstolookforareasof improvementaswellas toponderonissuesrelatedto theirpersonalgrowthandprofessionaldevelopment.Thissuggests thatwrittenjournalscannaturallyprovidepersonalrecordsforstudentstotracetheirevolvingthoughtsandchang-ingperspectivesonspecificissues,makingsenseofthecomplexitiesinherentinteachingandlearning.Theengagementinactivelearning,whereteacherlearnerstracktheirownknowledgedevelopment,underliestheconstructivistapproachtoteacherdevelopment(Cochran-Smith&Lytle,2001).
Conclusion The study suggests that journal writing is a potentially powerful tool forfosteringreflectioninteachercandidates,preparingteacherswho“recognizethecomplexityofteaching,arethoughtfulabouttheirteachingpractices,questiontheirownassumptionsandconsidermultipleperspectivesinordertomakeinformeddecisionsaboutthelearningneedsoftheirstudents”(Schulz&Mandzuk,2005,
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p.315).Reflectionasahabit, ifsuccessfullyinstilledinteachercandidates,canpreparethemtocopewiththedailyissuesthatarisefromtheirfutureteachingwithacreativeandcriticalstance.Reflectioncouldthenbecomeamajorpartoftheirteachingrepertoiretoenablethemtoengageinreflectionwithahighcomfortlevel.Giventhepotentialbenefitsofjournalsininitialteacherpreparationprograms,howtomakejournalingmorewriter-friendly,manageable,andusefulforteachercandidateswouldprovideavenuesforfurtherresearch.
Notes 1TheHongKongGovernment’snewrequirementsforaprofessionallyqualifiedEnglishteacherare:(1)Englishsubjectknowledge,(2)anELTteachingqualification,and(3)aprofi-ciencylevelthatmeetsthelanguagebenchmarkstipulatedbytheGovernment.Thegraduatesofthe2+2teachereducationprogramwouldmeetthefirsttworequirements,whichwouldautomaticallyexemptthemfromthethird,i.e.thelanguagebenchmarkrequirement. 2Thetopicscoveredinthe20-weekcourseinclude:Englishlanguageteachingmeth-odology,communicativelanguageteachingandtask-basedlearning,curriculum,syllabusandtechniques,teachingofpronunciation,speaking,listening,reading,writing,vocabularyandgrammar,reflectiveteachingandclassroominquiry,assessment,lessonplanningandevaluation,individualdifferencesandlearningstrategies.Itwasemphasizedthatthejournalswouldnotbemarkedforwrittenaccuracy,andthatthefocuswasonthequalityofreflectivethinkingratherthanwritingcompetence.
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Appendix
Response Journals Thepurposeofresponsejournalsistoprovideopportunitiesforyoutoreflectonyourlearningexperiences,toexpressopinions,toclarifyideas,andtopersonalizelearning.Youaretowriteresponsejournals,onaweeklybasis,toreflect criticallyonsalientissuesraisedinclass. Tohelpyouunderstandwhat‘criticalreflection’means,itisa3-wayprocessfocusingon:
1.Theeventitself—e.g.,ateaching/learningepisode,alesson.
2. Recollection of the event —a factual account of what actually hap-pened.
3.Reviewandresponsetotheevent—reviewandquestiontheeventwithaviewtoprocessingitatadeeperlevel.
Ilookforwardtoreadingyourresponsejournals.
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