foundations: 8000 b.c.e.- 600 c.e. ap world history
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Foundations: 8000 B.C.E.- 600 C.E.
AP World History
The Bookends 8000 BCE – 600 BCE
8,000 BCE marks the development of Agriculture and its spread to the four “River Valley Civilizations” (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, Huang He valley)
600 BCE marks the end of the Complex Civilizations and the beginning of the Classical Empires
Themes
Interaction and Exchange
Urbanization
Nomadic Peoples
The Big Thematic picture
Technological and Environmental Transformations
Big Geography and Peopling of the EarthThe Neolithic Revolutions (Agricultural Transformation) and Early Agricultural SocietiesThe Development and Interactions of Early Agricultural, Pastoral, and Urban Societies
Big Geography and Peopling of the Earth
Archeological evidence indicates during the Paleolithic Era, hunting-foraging bands of humans gradually migrated from East Africa to other areas adapting their technology and cultures to new climates and regions.
Used Fire in new ways
Developed a wider range of tools
Economics focused on small kinship groups that could make what they needed but also exchanged people, ideas and goods.
Some Things to Remember
The discovery/use of agriculture and surpluses of food quickened the pace of life, and organized areas into sedentary civilizationsAs sedentary civilizations developed, social structures and gender roles cemented.Civilizations became more complex and structured as time moved on.
Neolithic Revolution
Early modern humans seemed to have developed farming over time, dropping seeds one year and then harvesting the “crops” the next. This led to settled, formal farmingDomestication and breeding of Animals was also an important inventionSome humans decided to settle in villages and soon were able to create a surplus of food. This lead to diversification of labor, the creation of governmental structures, and the payment of taxes! Other humans chose to become pastoral nomads and move with their animal herds
Rise of Agriculture
Spontaneous separate development – why, where and when?
Diffusion of specific plants and techniques
Birth of New Technologies
Fire
Bronze
Iron
Technology
Metallurgy- First copper, then bronze, then Iron. These increasingly harder metals aided agriculture tremendously. They also provided increasingly sophisticated weapons.Wheel- first used by the Sumerians proved helpful in agriculture, trade, and warfareHydrological technology- waterwheels, windmills, aqueducts proved instrumental in meeting the water needs of large populations as well as the irrigation required in drier areas.
Demography
World’s population increased rapidly with the advent of farming and domesticated animals. Waves of diseases “plagues” increase in frequency with increased population density
What is a Civilization?
Origins of term-
Standard criteria:
Use of term?
Civilizations?
Social and Gender Structures
Ownership of land signified power
Kings were usually divine and had absolute power
Religions emerge (Vedic, Hebrew, Zoroastrianism)
Gender roles emerged as farming expanded. Men worked in the fields while women stayed in the house.
Who’s Your Daddy phenomenon. Women lost power.
Religion cements and justifies social and gender structures
Cultural and Intellectual Expressions
Monumental architecture- Kings “show off” their power by building big buildings for either themselves or the state’s religion
Cultural and Intellectual Expressions
Writing -as record-keeping becomes paramount, writing develops
Cultural and Intellectual Expressions
Literature as an expression of culture and values.
Cultural and Intellectual Expressions
Art and Artisanship
Structure and Function of State
First- relatively small states. “City-states”Then- large Coercive tribute empires. Taxes paid by the farmers/ peasants for the enjoyment of the elite. Agricultural surplus allows for large armies.
Trade- Can’t live without it!
Trade, especially over land, is important.Begins as relatively informal networks.Expands from local, to regional, to transregional.Nomadic pastoralists instrumental in development of long-distance trade.
Movement of people
Bantu Migration across AfricaIron
Agriculture methods
Language
Polynesian migration across Pacific OceanTake seedlings and animals
Population
Demography-
What factors influence population growth and decline?
Role of Climate and Geography in Early Societies
Imagine how were early societies may have been affected.
How do you think early peoples responded?
What difference would geography make in the long term development of a society?
Environmental Impact
Use of water resources
Clearing of land
Use of building materials
Roads
Use of fuel materials
Animals, disease
Mining
Early Societies
Mesopotamia
Egypt
Indus
Shang
Mesoamerica and Andean South America
River Valley CivilizationsMesopotamia
Tigris, Euphrates = Fertile Crescent
Sumer, Babylon, Persia
Unpredictable flooding
Sumer: The first
Successful agriculture, river managementWriting, cuneiformsUse of wheel12 month calendar, base 60, geometryPolytheisticZigguratsUr, Erech, Kish 3000 BCEOverthrown by Akkadians 1700 BCE
Sumer to Babylon to Nineveh to Babylon
Overthrew Akkadians 1700 BCE
Hammurabi, Code of Law
Fell to Kassites, then Hittites 1500 BCE
Hittites-iron, then fell to
Assyrians-organized, cruel, Nineveh, exiles, cultural diffusion
Conquered by Medes, Chaldeans, rebuilt Babylon
Persian Immersion
By 500 BCE Nile to Turkey/Greece to Afghanistan
Great Royal Road, 1600 miles
Transportation, Communication
Multi-cultural Empire, Tolerance
Smaller Civilizations co-existedLydians-coined money
Phoenicians-22-letter alphabet (adopted by Greeks), naval power
Hebrews-Judaism, monotheism - Codified
Walk Like an Egyptian
Rich soil, gentle flooding
•3 Kingdoms
•water management, pyramids, astronomy, hieroglyphs, calendar, gold, spices
•Polytheistic
•Women rulers, buy, sell property, inherit, will property, dissolve marriages, still subservient to men
• Hierarchy: pharaoh, priest, nobles, merchants, artisans, peasants, slaves
•Conquered by (1100 BCE) Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Islam, Ottomans, Euros
Comparison of Egypt and Mesopotamia
Egypt
Predictable flood
Mesopotamia
Irregular flooding
Hyksos
ChariotsCompound bows
Indus Valley: 2500-1500 BCE
Outside contact more limitedKyber Pass connection to outsideHarrappa, Mohenjo-Daro 100,000+ eachMaster-planned, water system, strong central gov’t, polytheistic, written languagePottery, cotton, clothCities abandoned, reason unknownAryans arrive 1500 BCE
Aryans
From Caucasus Mtns. Black/Caspian Sea
Nomads who settled
Vedas, Upanashads basis for Hinduism
Caste system
warriors, priests, peasants
later re-ordered: Brahmins (priests), warriors, landowners-merchants, peasants, untouchables (out castes)
China: Shang on the Hwang
Shang: 1600-1100 BCE
Stable agri-surplus, trade-centeredN. China, walled cities, strong army, chariots“The Middle Kingdom” World ViewTrade with MesopotamiaBronze, pottery, silk, decimal system, calendarPatriarchal, ancestors as advocates w/the gods
It’s Zhou Time
Replaced Shang around 1100 BCE
Ruled 900 years, kept customs, traditions
Mandate of Heaven
Feudal system, nobles gained, bureaucracies, war amongst feudal kingdoms, collapse 256 BCE
Exceptions to the Rule
Olmecs (Mexico), Chavin (Andes) developed similarly to others: urban, polytheistic, irrigation, writing, calendar, monumental building
The point: Similar pattern of development in different part of earth, no contact
The difference: Not River Valley Civs. No major river to use as transportation or generator of agri-production
Nomadic Peoples
Hunting-gathering lifestyle (!Kung people)
Labor/ leisure
Population growth
Gender relations
Early Societies
Mesopotamia
Egypt
Indus
Shang
Mesoamerica and Andean South America
Shared Features
Unique characteristics
Urbanization
Comparisons between urban, pastoral and nomadic life
The Bookends 600 BCE – 600 CE600 BCE marks the end of the Complex
Civilizations and the beginning of the Classical Empires
600 CE marks the end of the last of the Classical Empires
Themes
Axial Age
Empires
Spread of Religion
The Classics: India-China
4 key empires 300 BCE-500 CE
IndiaMaurya
Gupta
ChinaQ’in
Han
Empire Building
What does an empire require?
What do its subjects expect?
Symbols of legitimacy
Axial Age
time between approximately 900 - 200 BCE when “The spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously and independently and these are the foundations upon which humanity still subsists today.”
It was a pivotal time in early human history when human beings began to reflect for the first time about individual existence, and the meaning of life and death.
Increasing urban civilization initially brought about under the leadership of a priestly ruling class, encouraged trade and brought different societies closer together. But, as urban life accelerated and expanded, it disrupted the old sense of order. In addition, this new way of living generated unprecedented social and political conflict and an increase in violence and aggression.
Old customs could no longer be taken for granted. People began to question their own beliefs once they came into contact with others whose beliefs were different. They were challenged to look at themselves in different ways and entertain new ideas or cling steadfastly to their old ones.
Plus the increase in population and the mixing of cultures exposed more people to the realities of life, such as, sickness, greed, suffering, inhumanity and social injustice. As a result of all this, people began to experience themselves as separate from others for the very first time.
The idea of the self brought with it the problem of what happens to the self after death. In answer to this, people began searching for more comprehensive religious and ethical concepts, and to formulate a more enlightened morality where each person was responsible for his own destiny. So, between approximately 900 and 200 BCE, a new mode of thinking developed almost simultaneously in four distinct areas of the world.
Axial Age Thinkers
Classical SocietiesAxial age-
Why then?
Results: ReligionPoliticsSocial StructureGender relations
The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions
Codification and development of existing religions and traditions provided a bond among people and a code to live by.Development of monotheism.Jewish Diaspora Core beliefs outlined in religious texts—
Vedics/Hinduism.
New Belief Systems and Cultural traditions emerged and spread often asserting universal
truthsEmergence of salvation religions
Christianity and BuddhismEmergence of Confucianism promotes social harmonyDaoism promotes balance between humans and
nature. Also influence Chinese culture—medicine, poetry, architecture.
Core ideas in Greco-Roman philosophy and science emphasize logic, nature of political power.
Other religions and cultural traditions continued parallel to the codified, written beliefs in core
civilizations
Shamanism and animism continue to shape lives outside the core civilizations.
Ancestor veneration persist in many regionsAfricaEast AsiaAndean Areas
Diffusion of Belief Systems
Belief Systems through 600 CE
PolytheismConfucianismDaoismLegalismHinduismBuddhismJudaismChristianity
Commonalities
Schisms-Divisions resulting in subgroups, sects
Consider social, political, cultural, military impacts as well as theological and philosophical
Where did it start? Where did he spread? How?
Origins of World Belief Systems
Polytheism
Polytheism
Majority of ancient civs
Through 600 CE all Med and Mesop Civs were poly. Exceptions were Hebrews and Christians
In the East, all were poly; Aryans, Hindus, traditional Chinese, Daoists, some Buddhists, Americas, Africa
The Deity Details
Multiple gods, may be good or bad
Deities impact daily life
Human attributes (Grk-Rom)
Egypt: Benevolent and kind
Sumer, Aztec: Feared, to be appeased
The Big Deal?
major impact on civ development
Art & architecture
Ritual based
Rise of priestly class
Rigid social structures
Gods for culture as whole, city-state as well: rise and fall seen as battle of gods as well as city-states
Origins of World Belief Systems
Hinduism
Hinduism
Aryans, and empires of Indian subcontinent
Brahma-supreme forceGods are manifestations of Brahma
• Vishnu-preserver
• Shiva-destroyer
ReincarnationDharma: rules and obligations
Karma: fate based on how dharma was met
Moshka: highest state of being, release of soul
The Big Deal?
Religion as well as social system
Caste system, accept lot in life, next one will be better (if dharma met)
Close relationship w/Indian culture, caste system have limited its spread
Treatment of animals
Hinduism spawns Buddhism
Origins of World Belief Systems
Judaism
JudaismThe HebrewsChosen by God, special statusPersonal relationship with GodAfterlife, tradition, doctrines, philosophy, personal salvationTo honor, serve God, promote prophets, maintain cultural identityA religion & cultureThe First Monotheistic Belief System:
ChristianityIslam
Compare: Confucianism, Hinduism, Judaism
Seem very differentConfucianism, not a religion
Hinduism, polytheistic
Judaism, monotheistic
All tied to the culture where the came from, not evangelical, converting others
Origins of World Belief Systems
Confucianism
Confucianism
Specifically Chinese (Kong Fu Tse) 400 BCE onward
Political-social philosophy, not religion
Moral, ethical, also practical
How to restore political-social order?
5 key relationships: political, parental, spousal, sibling, friends
ConfucianismRight relationships = right society
Put aside personal ambition for good of state
Ren-humanity, benevolence, kindness
Li-propriety, courtesy, respect, deference
Xiao-filial piety, family obligation, extended
Lead by good example
Women, 2nd status, honored by kids
The Big Deal?
As a ethical, social, political belief system it was compatible with other religions, could practice Buddhism and Confucianism simultaneouslyFlexibleEmbraced by leaders as well, ordered society, tight familiesExclusively Chinese, only in context of Chinese culture
Origins of World Belief Systems
Daoism
Daoism-Taoism
China 500 BCE onward“The Way” (of nature/cosmos)Lao-tzu, philosopherEternal principles, passive, yielding
Like water, yet strong, shapingOpening of a pot, nothing, yet not a pot without it
Wu wei- non-doing, harmony with nature
The Big Deal?
Self-sufficient communitiesCounter to Confucian activismEmphasis on harmony w/ nature leads gains: astronomy, botany, chemistryCo-existed w/Confucianism, Buddhism, LegalismAdded to complexity of Chinese culture
Contrast: Confucianism-DaoismShared belief in spirits of the deadConfucianism
creating orderly societyactive relationships, active gov’tTo guide relationships
Daoismharmony with nature, internal peaceSimple, passive lifeLittle gov’t interferenceTo guide individual in meditation
Legalsim
The Q’in Dynasty
Peace & order through centralized, tightly controlled state
Mistrust of human nature; reliance on tough laws
Focus on things the practical and sustainers of society
2 most worthy jobs: farmer, soldier
The Big Deal?
Accomplished swift reunification of China
Completion of projects like the Great Wall
Caused widespread resentment among common people, led to wider acceptance of Confucianism-Daoism
Contrast: Confucianism-Legalism
Social belief systems, not religions
Intended to create orderly society
Confucianism-fundamental goodnessresponsibilities
Legalism-fundamental evilpunishments
Origins of World Belief Systems
Buddhism
Buddhism
India, China, SE Asia
Hindu prince, Siddartha Gautama
Nepal 563-483 BCE
Search for meaning of human suffering
Buddha = enlightened one
No supreme being
Buddhism: 4 Noble Truths
Four noble truthsAll Life is suffering
Suffering caused by desire
One can be freed of desire
Freed by following Eightfold path
Buddhism: Eightfold PathEightfold Path
Right viewsRight aspirationsRight speechRight conductRight livelihoodRight endeavorRight mindfulnessRight meditation
Following the pathLeads to nirvanaState of perfect peace & harmonyMay take several lifetimes
2 formsTheraveda: meditation, harmony, Buddha not a god (Lesser Vehicle)Mahayana: more complex, greater ritual, reliance on priests. Buddha a diety, bodhisattvas, nirvana “helpers”
The Big Deal?
Did not recognize castes
Appealed to lower classes (duh!)
Not attached to social structure, spread rapidly to other cultures
Ashoka adopted, thrived
Eventually reabsorbed into Hinduism
Thrived in China, Japan, SE Asia
Force of cultural diffusion via trade, missionaries
Origins of World Belief Systems
Christianity
ChristianitySplinter group of Jews, quickly spread throughout Roman EmpireJesus, son of God, Messiah of Jewish prophecyDevotion to God, love of fellow manJesus sent to redeem man from sinSalvation by faith in divinity, death, and resurrection of Jesus.Crucified by Jewish leaders and Roman gov’t 30 CE
The Big Deal
Emphasis on compassion, grace through faith, salvation, eternal life after death appealed to lower classes, women
By 300 CE, most influential in Med. Region
Spread north and west throughout Europe
Combo of religion & empire = huge impact on political, social development of Europe
Origins of World Belief Systems
Islam
Mauryan Empire 321-180 BCE
Mauryan Empire
Founded by Chandragupta MauryaUnified smaller Aryan kingdoms
Greatest extent under Ashoka Big time traders: silk, cotton, elephants (much more) to the westStrong military, Ashoka converts to Buddhism: non-violence, moderationRock & Pillar edicts, Buddhism spread
Gupta Dynasty 320-467 CE
Rise of GuptaAshoka dies 232 BCE, Mauryan’s rapidly decline; econ problems, attacks from NE375-415 CE, revival under Chandra GuptaSmaller, more decentralized: Golden Age, peace, Arts & Sciences; pi, zero, 0-9, skilled iron workersHinduism resurgentWomen lost rights; own property, study religion, child marriages common
(6-7 years-old)Collapsed 550 CE (White Huns)
Q’in Empire
Q’in Ups in China 221-209 BCESame same: strong agri-econ, strong army, iron, expansion…only lasted 10 years. Significance?GREAT WALL…so what?
Strong centralized, brutal gov’tQin Shihuangdi emperorUnified kingdom, standardized weights, measures, laws, written lang., zero dissent policy, patriarchal societyLegalismPeasant rebellion brings down 209 BCE
Terra Cotta Army
A big hand for the Han!
Han Dynasty 200 BCE-200 CE
Resisted the Huns
Expanded into Central Asia
Silk Road to the Mediterranean
Buddhism spread, culture spread
Civil Service system, bureaucracies, resulting in stable gov’t.
paper money, sundials, calendars, metallurgy
Classical Civs in the Med
Greece and Rome: Roots of Western Civilization
Simply: they put it all together
Representative gov’t
Art
Architecture
Literature
Science
Philosophy
It’s Greek to me!Impact of geography
Trade, not agri.
Est. colonies, strong military
Communications
Transportation
Governance
The Polis
City-states
Common identity, culture in each
AthensPolitical, commercial, cultural center
SpartaAgricultural, militaristic, equality w/o individuality
Hierarchy
Citizens-adult males, business-commerce
Free people w/ no political rights
Non-citizens (included slaves 1/3 of the Athenian pop!)
All citizens expected to participate in public life
Monarchy to aristocracy to democracy
Solon/Draco: aristocrats who worked to ensure fair, =, open participation
Religion
Polytheistic
Had human failings: got drunk, cheated on spouses, jealous, angry, took sides, etc.
Greek mythology remains a large part of Western heritage and language
War with Persia
Persia invades Greece twice. Despite great odds, Greece survives. Key battles: Marathon 490 BCE (land), Salamis 480 BCE (sea)
Greece controls Aegean
Period of peace and prosperity
Golden Age of Pericles
Athenian culture excelsDemocracy for all adult males (citizens)Delian League-city-state allianceSocrates, Plato, Aristotle
Truth through rational thought and observation
Math, Science, Architecture, Literature
Super-power, super mistake
Athens dominated the Delian League
Peloponnesian War with Sparta (431 BCE)
Weakened, Macedonian conquest
Philip encouraged Greek culture
Followed by son, Alexander, unified Greece, invaded Persia
Alexander the Great?
Live fast, die young…
Alexander conquered Persia
Pushed to Egypt
Stopped at India
Empire divided into three: Antigonid (Greece/Macedonia)
Ptolemaic (Egypt),
Seleucid (Bactria/Anatolia)
Hellenistic Era
Greek Culture and ideas flourished and spread
Alexandria (Egypt) became wealthy, center for learning
After death (323 BCE), empire crumbled
Macedonian focus on the east and Egypt left the door open for…
The Romans: 509 BCE-476 CE
Rome
Good Geographic positionProtected by mtns in north
Peninsula
Cross-roads in the Mediterranean
Polytheistic, borrowed many Greek gods, mythology still evident in West
Social-Political StructurePatricians
Senate, AssemblyPlebians
AssemblyConsulsRepresentative (as opposed to Direct in Greece)12 Tables (innocent until proven guilty)Patriarchal/PaterfamiliasWomen influential in family, own property, still considered inferiorSlaves (up to 1/3) city better than country
Military Domination
All Directions, all the timePunic Wars 264-146 BCEGained control of W. MedDefeated MacedoniansGaulSpainRoad net, navy, aqueductsCultural diffusion
Republic, no-Imperialism, yes
Increased slavery, displaced plebians, inflation= social unrest
Senate weakened, Triumvirate, Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Civil War
Caesar assassinated 44 BCE
2nd Triumvirate, civil war
Imperial Rome
Pax Romana
Pax Romana
Peace and Prosperity
Rome, capital of western worldMilitary expansionRule of law, common coinage. Civil service, secure travel for merchants200 years of stabilityUniform laws, but traditional cultures in territories survived ie Egyptians, HebrewsGrowth of arts and sciences
A New Religion
Christianity competes with paganism
Christians persecuted
Conversion of Constantine ended persecution 312 CE
Edict of Milan-Christianity official religion of Rome
COMPARE
Golden Ages of Rome, Greece, Gupta, Others
Expansion of Territory, flourishing of art and science
Wealth flows in due to military expansion, confidence
Symbols of Legitimacy
Artistic Expressions including literature and drama, architecture and sculpture, show
distinctive cultural development
Technology
Achievements
Greek science and philosophy
Roman law and architecture
Political organization in Han China
Spiritual and artistic developments in Gupta India
Details- Cultural and Intellectual Expressions
Emergence of religions- The emergence of the “Classical age” or “Axial Age” (Emergence of core belief or philosophical structures of a society. )Mathematics- number systems develop. India creates the “Arabic numbers and algebra.”Engineering
Development of States and EmpireNumber and size of states and empires grows dramatically by
Structure and Function of State
large Coercive tribute empires. Centralized governments Use of military to control conquered areas Elaborate Legal systems and Bureaucracies
Pax Romana Empires follow Conrad-Demarest model-
grow large and wealthy, then too large, corrupted and fragment. Often from outside pressure—Huns in Rome.
Large empires cause environmental problemsSilted rivers, Deforestation, Desertification, soil
erosion.
Urbanization and Gender
How might gender roles be affected as peoples settled?
Social and Gender Structures
Class/Caste structures divide societies.
Use of slave/coercive labor
Extremely Patriarchal societies
Enforced through religion/philosophies
Women's rights become less pronouncedChild marriage
Role in Confucian society
Role as Mother (in warrior cultures)
Emergence of Trans-regional Networks of Communication and Exchange
Ideas, diseases, religions, goods travelSilk Roads, Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean, Trans-Saharan Caravan RoutesSilk, Spices,Cotton travel east to westGlassware, Wool and Linen, Olive Oil travel west to eastDomesticated Pack Animals to transport longer distances• Horses, Oxen, Llamas, Camel (saddle)
Collapse of Empires
Why do Empires fall?
Conrad-Demarest Model
“What goes up…”
Empires fall
Late Classical Period 200-600 CE
Steppe People on the move, dominoes fall
Han, Gupta, Roman Empires fall
Collapse of the Han
Wang Mang 9-23 CE, “Socialist Emperor”
EconomicMilitary drained budget
Confiscate land, raise taxes
Actions discouraged manufacture and trade
Collapse of the Han
SocialRising tensions between rich and poor
Poorly conceived land reform program
Famine
Revolt, murder of Wang Mang
Han Dynasty briefly restored, full recovery impossible, collapse in 220 CE
400 years of regional kingdoms
Collapse of the Gupta
Huns 24/7
Gupta able to hold off for a while, at great cost
Hun kingdoms emerged in western & northern India
Culture survived, Hinduism, caste system, Gupta Empire did not
“Western Rome, you are the weakest link, good-bye”
284 CE, Diocletian splits W-E Empire
Why?
Attempt to re-gain control ofMilitary under imperial control
Co-emperors
Economy• Gov’t budget
• Price caps to control inflation
• Strengthen currency
Collapse
No singular reasonRome sacked 410 CE, 476 CEInternal decay
Weak or bad leadersExpense of empireEpidemics
External pressuresHuns, VisigothsSheer size
CONTRAST: Fall of Han, Gupta, Rome
Two major causes threaten all empires
Internal: economic depression, natural catastrophes, social unrest
External: Invading Armies
Internal: Han
External: Gupta
Combo Meal: Rome
Movement of people
Bantu continue movement to Southern Africa
Swahili
Farming
Iron Working
Autroneasian across the Pacific
Movement along trade routes
Early Migrations
Interregional Networks of People by 600 C.E.
Silk Roads
Mediterranean trade
Indian Ocean trade
Meso and Andean American trading
Silk Routes
Mediterranean Trade Routes
Indian Ocean Trade
Cultural Diffusion via the Silk Road
Ideas, Culture, InventionTrade routes brought various peoples in contactPastoralists provided protection, services, suppliesDisease and armies also traveled the routes, plague, small pox, MongolsReligion-Buddhism to China, SE AsiaChristianity through Med, Europe, BritainPeoples: Anglo-Saxons to Britain, Huns to India, Germanic Tribes to Italy
Conclusions
How do we know what we know?
How does change happen?
What results stem from interaction through migration, trade or pilgrimage?
Why do world historians need to pose questions differently than regional specialists?
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