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ARMENIAAND THE ARMENIANS


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THE MACMILLAN COMPANYHXW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLASATU^NTA SAM FRANCISCOMACMILLAN & CO., LiMrxEOLONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTAMELBOURNS

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LmTOKONTO


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ARMENIAAND THE ARMENIANSFROM THE EARLIEST TIMESUNTIL THE GREAT WAR (1914)

BYKEVORK ASLAN

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCHBYPIERRE CRABITES

WITH A PREFACE ONTHE EVOLUTION OF THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONBTTHE TRANSLATOR

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY1920

AU riffhtt reserved


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COPTBIGHT, 1920Bt the macmillan company

Set up and electrotyped. Published January, xgaa


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TOBOGHOS PASHA NUBAR,

PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN NATIONAL DELEGATION,WHOSE TACTFUL LEADERSHIP AND UNREMITTING

DEVOTION TO THE CAUSE OF HIS RACE HASMADE EVERY LOVER OF FREEDOM

HIS DEBTOR, THIS WORK ISDEDICATED


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PREFATORY NOTEIn 1908 the author published at Paris, in the

French language, an octavo volume of some 500pages entitled " Etudes Historiques sur le PeupleArmenien," covering the history of Armenia fromthe earliest times to the eleventh century. Thisedition is now out of print. Subsequently there wasalso published in French a condensed edition of thesame work, carrying the story, however, from theearliest times down to the present day. The firstedition of this smaller volume having been exhausteda new and revised edition has been prepared forpublication in French and it has been thought appro-priate to issue contemporaneously therewith an Eng-lish translation.The author ventures to express the hope that the

English edition of his work will meet with the samefavor that has been accorded the original Frenchtext.

In issuing this English edition it has been deemednecessary, in quite a number of instances, to departfrom the French transliteration of Armenian, Per-sian and other foreign names. The phonetic valueof certain English letters differs somewhat from thesound which the French associate with the samecharacter and this difference has made it necessary tomodify the transliteration of the Oriental original.

In other cases it has been found that a well-estab-vil


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viii PREFATORY NOTElished English custom has consecrated, as it were, acertain spelling which, from a scientific point of view,is absolutely indefensible and clearly shows that aGreek corruption of the Armenian or Persian formhas found its way into English nomenclature. Insuch instances it has been considered better to fol-low established usages.Then again as Armenia and the other territoryreferred to in this volume have been overrun at vari-ous times by many different races it has come aboutthat many places are known under different names.Here it has been thought best to adopt what is feltto be more common designation and to add a foot-note indicating some of the other forms.

In order to accentuate the manifold difficulties in-herent in a work of the instant character it is nowpointed out that there are two ways of pronouncingseveral Armenian letters; one mode obtains amongthe Armenians of the Caucasus, that is to say, in theEast, and the other among occidental Armenians andprincipally among those inhabiting Constantinople.Example :

Oriental form Occidental formF. b Pt g c d tk c gm t d

It is considered that the standard accepted in theEast is the better form and it is therefore adopted asthe basis of the transliteration followed out in thisvolume. This deduction is founded upon tests pred-


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PREFATORY NOTE ixicated upon certain Armenian names which have beenhanded down in a transliterated Greek form.

Painstaking care has not been spared to fulfill withsuccess a difficult task. These explanations are notset forth for the purpose of escaping responsibilityfor such omission or errors as may obtain but ratherin order that an indulgent pubHc, in arriving at itsverdict, may not be unaware of the besetting diffi-culties which it has been sought to overcome.


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THE EVOLUTION OF THEARMENIAN QUESTIONHidden away in Western Asia, between the Cau-

casus, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, liesa high table-land of about the superficial area ofFrance. There is found, in the picturesque lan-guage of M. Paul Deschanel, the distinguished Pres-ident of the French Chamber of Deputies, the cradleof " an intelligent, laborious, cultivated people,which, joining Asiatic quickness of perception to thespirit, the soul of Europe, has ever been the sentinelof Greco-Latin civilization in the Orient."Long before the Christian Era, and until A. D. i,and then again for a further period of four centuries,within this territory, where the Euphrates and theTigris find their source, flourished the kingdom ofArmenia, a prosperous state containing, one author-ity states, as many as 30,000,000 inhabitants. To-day it no longer enjoys even the semblance of anautonomous existence. Part of it is comprisedwithin what was formerly the Russian Empire andwhile most of the remainder is incorporated in theOttoman Empire, there is also a small fraction nowincluded in Persia. Turkish Armenia is a vast,sparsely settled area, peopled by the remnants of anhardy race which, for hundreds of years, has suf-fered relentless persecutions on account of its staunchadherence to the Christian religion.

xi ^


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xii THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONThe Armenian massacres are known of all men

who have taken even a passing interest in currentevents and it is deemed to be a work of supereroga-tion to rehearse a sad story which is far too wellknown. Nevertheless certain value may be at-tached to an ofiicial communication addressed to Vis-count Bryce on August 7, 19 16, by an ex-Presidentof the American Bar Association who had beencharged with the examination of " the volume whichcontains the statements regarding the treatment ofthe Armenians by the Turks during the year 19 15-19 1 6 in order to determine the value of these state-ments as evidence." " In my opinion," reads thereport, " the evidence which you print is as reliableas that upon which rests our belief in many of theuniversally admitted facts of history, and I think itestablishes beyond any reasonable doubt the delib-erate purpose of the Turkish authorities practicallyto exterminate the Armenians, and their responsibil-ity for the hideous atrocities which have been perpe-trated upon that unhappy people." ^With this postulate clearly defined and estab-lished, no attempt will be made in these introductorylines to rely upon ancient history for cumulativeproof of the truth of the findings just set forth, butthe Armenian question will be dealt with in this pre-liminary sketch as a modern, live issue. While ref-erence will be made to regulations going back someseventy-five years it will be because such a retrospectis necessary to give the proper background to thepicture. No statement will be made which cannotbe supported by indisputable evidence and in many^Blue Book Miscellaneous No. 31 (1916). The treatment of

the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire.


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xiiiinstances official records will be the authorities in-voked.

After the massacre by the Turks of the Greeks atConstantinople, in 1821, and in the island of Chios,in 1822, Europe exacted of Sultan Mahmoud II asolemn promise that reforms would be introducedinto Turkey. In order to avoid an European inter-vention, Abdul Medjid, son of Mahmoud, upon hisaccession to the throne in 1839, issued a decree guar-anteeing that reforms ( Tanzimat) would be put intoeffect. When, notwithstanding these assurances,the Christians of the Lebanon were slaughtered in1845, Europe again made its voice heard and, in duecourse, the Sultan promulgated, in 1856, anotherukase confirming and amplifying the original orderof 1839. On the very morrow of these promisesoccurred new massacres at Djeddah, as well as inSyria, and shortly thereafter opened the bloodychapter of Zeitoun.

Things went from bad to worse and in time theTurco-Russian war of 1 877-1 878 broke out. TheRussian Armenians did their full duty. When, toprevent the victorious troops of the Czar from en-tering Constantinople, the Sultan signed the Treatyof San Stefano, article sixteen enacted that " as theevacuation by the Russian troops of territory bythem occupied in Armenia and which is to be resti-tuted to Turkey may give rise to conflicts and createcomplications prejudicial to the maintenance of goodrelations between the two countries, the SublimePorte binds itself to put into effect, without furtherdelay, in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians,such reforms and improvements, as may be necessi-tated by local needs, and to guarantee the security


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xiv THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONof the Armenians from attacks by the Kurds andthe Circassians."When the intervention of the Powers threw theTreaty of San Stefano into the melting pot andbrought about the Berlin Conference (June 13-July13, 1878), the Armenian ecclesiastical authoritiesthere appeared and set forth the aspirations and de-sires of their people. However, before the Con-gress had convened England and Turkey had, onJune 4, 1878, entered into an understanding knownas the convention of Cyprus, which contained but onesingle article, which has fallen into such oblivion thatit may be cited in full. Here are its terms :" Should Russia keep possession of Batoum, Arda-han and Kars, or of any one of them, or should anyattempt be made by Russia at any epoch whatsoever,to seize any other part of the Asiatic territory ofH. I. M. the Sultan, as said territory may be definedby the definitive treaty of peace, then and in thatevent England binds herself to take up arms for thedefense of the territory in question. On the otherhand H. I. M. the Sultan promises England to intro-duce such reforms (to be defined at a subsequentdate between the Powers) as may be necessaryfor an orderly administration and the protection ofthe Christian and other subjects of the SublimePorte ; and in order that England may be in a posi-tion to assure the necessary means for the execu-tion of her engagement, H. I. M. the Sultan consentsto assign unto her the island of Cyprus, to be byher occupied and administered."When the delegates to the Berlin Conference as-sembled around the green table, speaking of articlesixteen of the Treaty of San Stefano, Lord Salisbury


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xvpointed out that he was prepared to accept the draftin respect to " reforms and improvements " pro-vided the first lines were eliminated, which seemed tomake the withdrawal of the Russian troops contin-gent upon the grant of the reforms. In due coursethe article, as amended, became Article Sixty-one ofthe Treaty of Berlin. It carried, however, a riderto the effect that " Turkey shall, from time to time,advise the Powers of the nature of the measureswhich have been taken, it being also understood thatthe Powers shall have the right to superintend theapplication of the measures."

Prolific in promises, but sterile in execution, Tur-key abstained from living up to her guarantees, andon June ii, 1880, the several Powers simultaneouslyaddressed an identical note to the Sultan settingforth that, notwithstanding the specific undertakinggiven by the Sublime Porte, nothing had been doneto carry the reforms into execution and adding that" all of the reports emanating from the Agents ofthe Powers prove that the condition of the Arme-nian provinces is most deplorable."Such epistolary zeal accomplished nothing andfurther letter writing ensued in which, on September7, 1880, the Ottoman Government was advised that" a careful study of its reply had shown that thepropositions submitted by it answered neither to theletter nor to the spirit of Article Sixty-one of theTreaty of Berlin."Constantinople, in answering, took the positionthat it would handle the situation as the case re-quired, and from and after this there appears tohave followed a period of silence.

But the reforms were not executed and from


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xvi THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONAugust 21 to September 4, 1894, the massacres ofSassoun were carried out. Europe awoke from itslethargy on May ii, 1895, and compelled the Sultanto agree to a new program of reform applicable towhat is known as the six Armenian Vilayets. AbdulHamid promulgated the necessary decree and his-tory reports that he simultaneously ordered the mas-sacres of 1895 ^^^ 1896.

In due course the Young Turks came uponthe scene and even greater and more systematicslaughter ensued, principally in little Armenia orCilicia.As the new Ottoman regime had been swept intopower upon a platform having liberalism as its key-

note and as its leaders denied that they were respon-sible for the outrages and insisted that the blood-shed was but a recrudescence of the old governmentalpolicy, reprobated by them, Europe abstained fromactive interference and the death of numberlessChristians was the price of such credulity. How-ever, when the Balkan war broke out the entire NearEast was alive to the new issues thereby created andthe Armenian ecclesiastical authorities, acting forthe whole people, brought about the creation of anofficial Armenian delegation which devoted itsefforts to systematic insistence upon an observanceof the conditions of the Treaty of Berlin.

Turkey, true to precedent, agreed to introduce*' reforms and improvements," and, on February5, 19 14, a firman issued providing that delegatesshould be chosen from among certain of the neutralnations charged with the execution of the new reg-ulations. The Dutch and Norwegian delegates hadbarely reached their posts when the great war broke


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xviiout. The official report before cited gives the latestchapter of the tragedy.From the date of the Treaty of Berlin until theentry of Turkey into the war, as an Ally of theCentral Powers, the Armenian question was lookedupon by European diplomatists and public opinionas forming part and parcel of the internal polity ofthe Ottoman Empire. While no one, in the Occi-dent, sought to question that grievous injustice hadbeen done the Armenians and that reforms wereimperative in " the provinces inhabited by the Ar-menians " the word Armenia was not even uttered the whole discussion was predicated upon recogni-tion of Turkish hegemony. If the term " auton-omy " appeared in the original draft submitted byRussia to Turkey during the preliminaries leadingto the peace of San Stefano, such language wascarefully expurgated from the article as enacted.

So absolutely was the maintenance of the integrityof the Turkish Empire the corner stone of Euro-pean diplomacy, that when war broke out the En-tente Powers agreed that, should Turkey remainneutral, " to give her a collective guarantee in writ-ing that they would respect the independence and in-tegrity of the Ottoman Empire and would bindthemselves that, at the close of the war, no clausewould be inserted into the Treaty of Peace in anywise adversely affecting the said independence andintegrity." ^

Turkey's suicidal policy at once readjusted the en-tire focus of European politics and, as a corollary,caused the Armenian question to enter a new phase.

2 Blue Book (1914), No. 28. Events leading to the rupture ofrelations with Turkey.


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xviii THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONIt was now no longer a matter of Turkish re-

forms ; nor was autonomy under Ottoman suzeraintygiven even a passing thought.On the contrary negotiations were entered into byFrance, England and Russia which were predicatedupon a dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.The best available evidence as to the terms of thepact places Western Armenia within the zone ofinfluence allotted to France and assigns Eastern Ar-menia to Russia.The inevitable logic of events forced the UnitedStates into the war, and on January 8, 191 8, Presi-dent Wilson articulated his program of peace.Point XII declares that " the Turkish portions ofthe present Ottoman Empire should be assured asecure sovereignty, but the other nationalities, whichare now under Turkish rule, should be assured anundoubted security of life and an absolutely unmo-lested opportunity of autonomous development."As both belligerent groups have accepted PointXII in its entirety this recognition of the principletherein formulated left no doubt as to the right ofthe Armenians to enjoy the blessings of autonomy.As a matter of mere historical interest it may bementioned that the two European Powers, to whichwere allotted Eastern and Western Armenia, respec-tively, in the Anglo-Franco-Russian accord of 19 16have expressed themselves in favor of autonomy ina manner which is not lacking in definiteness.Speaking in the French Chamber of Deputies, De-cember 27, 19 1 7, M. Stephen Pichon, then and nowMinister for Foreign Affairs, declared that " anadherence to the policy of the rights of nationalitieshas ever been the honor of our traditions and of


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xixour history. It applies, as we view it, to the Arme'nian, Syrian and Lebanese populations, as it does toall peoples who suffer, against their will, the yoke ofthe oppressor, be he whom he may. Such peopleshave a right to our sympathy, to our help. All ofthem should be given an opportunity of decidingtheir own fate."The Russian attitude is of even more far-reachingimport. An official decree published January 13,19 1 8, enacts that " the Council of the Commission-ers oiF the People declare unto the Armenian peoplethat the government of the working men and peas-ants of Russia upholds the right of the Armenians,of Turkish Armenia, occupied by Russia, freely todefine their own status, including, within the purviewof this language, the right to declare themselvesindependent."

Pretermitting any attempt to decide who is em-powered to speak in the name of Russia the prin-ciple formulated by President Wilson has, by theunanimous acceptance of friend and enemy, removedfrom the domain of doubt the right of the Armeniansto complete autonomy.The kaleidoscopic changes which have occurredupon the world's horizon within the past few monthshave relegated autonomy to the background andsubstituted in its place the principle of complete inde-pendence for Armenia.

This evolution of the Armenian question has beenclearly foreshadowed by the line of conduct pur-sued in respect to the constituent elements of theformer Austro-Hungarian Empire, for an examina-tion of the language of Point XII and of Point Xshows beyond peradventure that both are inspired


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XX THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONby the same dominant thought and that is, that thevarious elements owing allegiance to the Hapsburgdynasty and the non-Turkish units of the OttomanEmpire " should be accorded the freest opportunityof autonomous government." In other words theconstituent elements of the two realms have beenassimilated to one another within the limits beforeset forth.Now since January 8, 191 8, the Czeco-Slovac andthe Jugo-Slav republics have been recognized byAmerica and the governments associate with her,even although the language of Point X contemplatednot independence but autonomy.

Far from desiring, even by implication, to cast adoubt upon the wisdom of this decision, referencethereto has been suggested by the fact that notwith-standing the close analogy maintained, in principle,between " the peoples of Austria-Hungary " and thenon-Turkish elements of the Ottoman Empire, atthe present moment Armenian independence has notbeen officially recognized.

It is believed, however, that official recognition ofArmenian independence cannot be long deferred,particularly as the revendications submitted to thePeace Conference by the Armenian National Dele-gation, February 12, 19 19, specifically ask for " therecognition of an independent Armenian state,formed by the union of the seven vilayets and ofCilicia to the territory of the Armenian Republic."Humanity cannot turn a deaf ear to a plea whichthus embodies a legitimate national aspiration, butdue regard for the opinion of mankind necessitatesan inquiry as to whether Armenia fulfills those re-quirements which, in the opinion of the world, amply


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xxiwarrant the policy pursued as regards the SlavonicRepublics.

Ethnically the Armenians constitute a race andthus possess the primary element of homogeneous-ness.They have a language of their own and a litera-ture of their own and traditions of their own hal-lowed by time and sanctified by the blood of count-less martyrs.

In the Orient religion and nationality are synony-mous terms. The Armenians have been persecutedbecause of their religion but have preferred death toapostasy. That subdivision of Christianity intoirreconcilable sects, which lends such inextricablecomplication to the Balkan question, does not obtainin Armenia. There, with practical unanimity, theentire Christian population owes allegiance to theArmenian National Church, whose spiritual head isknown as the Catholicos. Riveted together by acommunity of sufferings, welded into one compactunit by the torch and flame of the Turkish despoiler,hammered into an indissoluble confraternity by theblows of the Muslim tyrant, when their bodies arenot cut asunder by his bayonet, and fortified by theprayers of their dead, the Armenians of to-day knowbut one God, but one church, but one religion andowe apostolic fealty to but one head.

Historically a nation, with a past replete withglorious achievements, the Armenian people haveclung as tenaciously to their national aspirations asthey have to the tenets of their creed.Thus uniting all of the essential prerequisites of anindependent existence it becomes manifest that Ar-menia is entitled to be admitted into the family of


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xxii THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONnations unless her people have, notwithstandingtheir religious loyalty, failed in other essentials.The stern facts of history will answer, but beforeundertaking this analysis it is well to record that inthe spring of 191 8, when the Central Powers andTurkey were discounting the effect of their advanceon Paris, it had been covenanted and agreed, by andbetween Germany and her allies, to form out of theCaucasian portion of Russian Armenia an inde-pendent Armenian Republic. Thus had a group ofnations, which knew not the meaning of liberalism,admitted the principle of a free state in Armenia.

In an official communication, dated the ForeignOffice, October 3, 191 8, addressed to ViscountBryce by Lord Robert Cecil, British Under Secre-tary of State for Foreign Affairs, it is placed onrecord that,

" I. In the autumn of 19 14 the Turks sent emis-saries to the National Congress of the OttomanArmenians then sitting at Erzroum and made themoffers of autonomy if they would actively assist Tur-key in the war. The Armenians replied that theywould do their duty individually as Ottoman sub-jects, but that as a nation they could not work forthe cause of Turkey and her Allies." 2. On account, in part, of this courageous re-fusal, the Ottoman Armenians were systematicallymurdered by the Turkish Government in 19 15.Two-thirds of the population were exterminated bythe most cold-blooded and fiendish methods, morethan 700,000 people, men, women and children alike.

*' 3. From the beginning of the war that half ofthe Armenian nation which was under the sover-eignty of Russia organized volunteer forces and un-


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xxiiider their heroic leader Andranik bore the brunt ofsome of the heaviest fighting in the Caucasian cam-paigns."Comment is useless. Fifty-three thousand Amer-icans laid down their lives on the fields of Francethat militarism might be uprooted; " 700,000 men,women and children alike " went to their graves be-cause their official representatives spurned an au-tonomy purchased at the price of active oppositionto the cause of the Allies. Such a decision adds tothe probative value of any argument the impassionedplea of despoiled virgins, disemboweled mothersand tortured infants.To-day the same responsible British statesman,from whose official utterances such a lengthy excerpthas just been made, has expressed his own views asto the treatment which should be accorded Armeniain words which blaze the path which should be fol-lowed. He declared in the House of Commons onNovember 18, 19 18, that "in my personal opinionthe future of Armenia should be turned over to theLeague of Nations." " It is difficult to establishduring a debate," he said, " the future frontiers ofArmenia but there should not there remain a ves-tige of Turkish government."

Just a few days previous to the date of this declar-ation His Excellency Boghos Nubar Pasha, Presi-dent of the Armenian delegation, granted an inter-view to the Paris Libre Parole in which he made itperfectly clear that the Armenian people desired nofurther contact of any kind with the Ottoman Em-pire. " Our second hope," said this official spokes-man, " is that the new Armenian state, which willadopt a republican form of government, may be


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xxiv THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONplaced under the aegis of the liberating Powers, who,instead of creating a condominium of any kind,should delegate one of their own group to act asthe guardian of the new state until the Armenianpeople feel that they can govern themselves. Ifprotection or guardianship is referred to, ratherthan condominium, it is because, under the latterregime, friction has been known to occur which ad-versely affects the interests administered. The in-spiring example of the success attained by the CubanRepublic, whose people the United States educatedbefore launching them alone in the world, affords aproof that guardianship best answers the needs ofour people."As to the territorial ambitions of the Armeniannation the interview makes it clear that " the futurestate should comprise all of that area which was for-merly Turkish Armenia." And the distinguisheddelegate, in concluding, expressed his conviction" that the enlightened policy of Europe would dealfairly with the new nation in respect to that part ofArmenia which has long owed allegiance to Russia,particularly in view of the reorganization of theMuscovite Power."

Inasmuch as the Anglo-Franco-Russian accord of19 1 6 had established that Eastern Armenia shouldfall within the zone of French Influence It Is well toinsist, at this point, that at the sitting of the Houseof Commons held December 4, 19 16, the Under Sec-retary of State for Foreign Affairs gave categoricalassurance that " the agreement entered Into In nosense contemplated annexation."The true Inwardness of the accord was, thatFrance and England were compelled to take steps


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xxvfor their own protection to counterbalance the enor-mous development accruing to Russia as the resultof her proposed annexation of Constantinople andof the country tributary thereto. The eliminationof Russia as a great power to-day places the case ina different light.Not only the welfare of the new nation, but thetranquillity of the world, requires that the frontiersof Armenia be so traced as to permit of the normaldevelopment of her resources. She must be ac-corded that which Point XI assures unto Servia andthat is " free and secure access to the sea." This isaxiomatic.A high range of mountains separates Armeniafrom the Black Sea. The scene of the massacres ofthe Young Turks and of the final bulwark of Arme-nian independence was that part of the territoryknown as Little Armenia or Cilicia. This area,doubly sacred as the symbol of the last vestige ofnational liberty and as the grave of so many thou-sands of patriots, borders upon the Mediterraneanand it is there that the new state should find " itsfree and secure access to the sea."The working out of the details of the exact delim-itation of the boundary lines can well be left to tech-nical advisers, but so important is it for the main-tenance of a lasting peace that nothing may be donewhich may be the cause of " introducing new or per-petuating old elements of discord and antagonism "that it cannot be too strongly urged that there areinterests more sacred than those of Armenia whichrequire that a Mediterranean seaboard be assuredunto her.

Viewing the matter from all angles it may be in-


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3avi THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONferred that the Armenian question is now assumingits definitive shape. Reforms gave way to auton-omy and the logic of events, forecasted by the recog-nition accorded the Slavonic Republics and empha-sized by the official demands of the Armenian Na-tional Delegation, apparently indicates that auton-omy must be discarded in favor of independence,along such rational, conservative but withal inher-ently liberal lines as proposed by the Armenian offi-cial delegate.As to the means of carrying into execution such a

plan, as to the details thereof and the selection ofthe nation charged with the humanitarian role ofguardian of this martyred people, this inquiry willnot attempt to deal. It was just in this same sensethat, in a public address, delivered January 6, 191 8,the British Prime Minister, Lloyd George, declaredthat " in his opinion Armenia is entitled to have itsseparate national existence recognized, but that noattempt will be made at this time to define the exactform which should be given to this recognition." Itwas therefore stated in the House of Commons onJuly II, 1918, by the British Foreign Secretary that" In so far as concerns the future of Armenia I shallsimply recall the public declarations made by theleading public men of the Allies. This future willbe decided according to the principles indicated bythe Right Honorable Gentleman: the right of allpeoples to dispose of themselves."

It is felt that now that the " Age of Absolutism "has passed and " the Era of Nationalities " has be-gun that such solemn ministerial declarations maybe relied upon. Nevertheless eternal vigilance is theprice of liberty and it must never be forgotten that


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xxviibefore America entered the family of nations it wasunder the aegis of principles proclaiming self-deter-mination, justice and liberty that the name of Polandwas obliterated from the map of Europe.The first partition of Poland was carried out, inthe name of the Holy Trinity, July 25, 1772. Nineyears before this outrage was perpetrated, FrederickAugustus II of Poland passed away and Frederickof Prussia took advantage of this vacancy to issuea statement to the effect that " the false reportswhich are spread abroad, and which the enemies ofpublic tranquillity do not cease to propagate, that theCourts of Prussia and Russia wish to profit by thepresent circumstances to dismember Poland or Lith-uania have induced the undersigned to deny them;for far from wishing to aggrandize himself, HisMajesty, the king of Prussia, labors and will con-stantly continue to labor, only to maintain the statesof the Republic in their entirety."Maria Theresa of Austria also declared, in amost solemn manner, that she considered the Repub-lic of Poland " a sovereign and independent state,whose right, assured by the laws and constitutionsof the country, to choose a king with full liberty ofsuffrage cannot be in any way restrained."Turkey set forth that it desired the election of" such a Pole as the electors thought suitable."

Louis XV of France was even more careful in hischoice of language, for he affirmed that " he consid-ered upon that occasion only the advantages of theRepublic; that he entertained no other wish or de-sire than to see the Polish nation maintained in allits rights, in all its possessions, in all its liberties, andespecially in the most precious of its prerogatives.


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xxviii THE ARMENIAN QUESTIONthat of giving itself a king by a free election anda voluntary choice. It is for the nation itself to de-termine its choice by consulting its own advantagewithout regard to foreign influences; and His Maj-esty will recognize as King of Poland, and will sus-tain and protect, whoever shall be elected by thefree choice of the nation and conformably to thelaws and constitutions of the country."

In June, 191 6, President Wilson stated to a dele-gation of Armenians that " many are the peopleswho have suffered as a consequence of this war butthe fate of no nation has touched the heart ofAmerica as much as have the sufferings of the Arme-nians."The same voice which so defined the martyrdomof Armenia has also declared that " right is moreprecious than peace and we shall fight for the thingswhich we have always carried nearest our heartsfor democracy, for the right of those who submitto authority to have a voice in their own govern-ment, for the rights and liberties of small nations,for an universal dominion of right by such a con-cert of free peoples as shall bring peace and safetyto all nations and make the world itself at last free."These words have the ring of sincerity. Theworld believes in the high purpose, fixed resolve andunconquerable will of the American people and alsoknows that the Europe of to-day is no longer theEurope of Frederick the Great, of Maria Theresaand of Louis XV. A new era has dawned, but ifArmenians are to be worthy of sharing in the fruitsof such an epoch they must continue to press theircause until the organized public conscience of man-kind shall have rendered a decree, irrevocable and


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THE ARMENIAN QUESTION xxixbinding, and definitely admitting Armenia into thefamily of nations.The great constructive brains of the world owe itto themselves to hearken to the prayers of those men,women and children who have been sacrificed uponthe altar of European international polity so that,in the words of Lincoln " these dead shall not havedied in vain, that this nation, under God, shall havea new birth of freedom and that government of thepeople, by the people and for the people shall notperish from the earth."


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSCHAPTER I

Geographical configuration, climate and products Legendaryhistory The Ourarti The origin of the Armenians Theirsettlement in the valleys of the Euphrates and of the Araxes TheArmenians during the days of the Persian Empire and of the King-dom of the Seleucids.That region which extends to the east of the peninsula of

Asia Minor as far as the confines of the Caspian Sea betweenthe Pontic Mountains and the ramifications of the Caucasuson the north and Mesopotamia on the south, which geogra-phers call Armenia ^ during the Assyrian days of old wasdesignated by names whose origin is lost in the darknesswhich preceded the dawn of history such as: Ourartou orArarat, Nairi or Nahri, Supan or Sophene, Enzite or Han-zid, Arzn, Bian'ina or Viaina or Van, Manna or Minni orAtrpatcan.Taken as a whole It may be said that Armenia

constitutes an high table-land of an altitude varyingbetween 1500 and 2000 meters, which rises abruptlyon the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea and the plains ofMesopotamia. The mountains which join the Cau-casus to the Pontic range and to the Taurus chainfurrow the table-land In all directions and take the

^ The Armenians, who are known as Hai, sometimes called theircountry Haik (plural of Hai), but more often Haia-Stan, an ap-pellation in which the suffix Stan, borrowed from the Persian, meansa country or residence.

I


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2 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSform of enormous solid masses, the highest of whichis Mount Ararat, the Massis or Massik ^ of theArmenians. This snow-clad peak is of an altitudeof over 5000 m. and the two cones, which crown itssummit, are of porphyry. Towards the north be-tween the Araxes and the Kura rises Mount Aragazor Alagoeuz (4000 m.). On the northwest isfound Mount Paryadis ^ (3000 m.). In the centerMount Abos * (3200 m.) dominates the table-land.On the east lies Mount Niphates or Npat ^ and far-ther to the south Mount Sepouh or Sipan (3600 m.)which overlooks Lake Van.

Broken up into amphitheaters, the mountains ofArmenia abound in hollows over which extend lakesof considerable area. The most remarkable is LakeVan, situate at an height of 1600 m. Its waters^are brackish and their area is six times greater thanthat of the Lake of Geneva (Switzerland). Tothe southeast of the former body lies Lake Ourmia(altitude 1300 m.), larger in superficial area thanLake Van but quite shallow. To the north of theAraxes craters of extinct volcanoes, transformedinto lakes of sublime beauty, pour forth their waterstowards that river.

2 The Massis of the Armenians must not be confused with theMassios of classical geography, which rises to the north of Nissi-bina. The mount referred to in the text is known to the Tatarsas Arghi-Dagh (the mountain of Arche) and to the Persians asKohi-Nouh (the mountain of Noah).^Barkhar or Ko-Dagh.* Bingoeul or the mountain of the thousand lakes.5 Ala-Dagh.8 Lake Van or the sea of Ourartou was known to the Assyrians

as the upper sea of Nairi. Classical geography has called itArsissa; and Armenians designate it indifferently as the sea ofBjnounis, Tosp, Ardjis or Vaspouracan.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 3It is here, amidst the uplands of Armenia, that

the great rivers of Western Asia find their source.The Araxes and the Kura ^ which flow towards theCaspian Sea; the Euphrates and the Tigris^ whichdrain the fields of Assyria and of Babylonia; theHalys and the Lycus which wend their serpentinecourse across Asia Minor to the Black Sea, owe theirorigin to Armenia.The Araxes, which is the Armenian River ofRivers, springs from Mount Abos lying to the southof Erzroum. It winds its sinuous channel throughthe wide and fertile plains of Phasiane and ofArarat ^* and receives the waters of a great numberof tributaries, such as the Akhourian ^^ which in itsturn comes from the land of Ani. Thence theAraxes flows through Tchoukha ^^ and passing fromrapid to rapid reaches the Caspian plains where itblends itself with the Kura, the Georgian Riverwhich descends from the Caucasus.The Euphrates, made up of two branches, carriesthe waters of the table-land towards the west.The eastern branch known as the Arazani ^^ watersthe high and productive plain of Valarskert,^^ turnssouthwards, passes Melazkert, flows alongside thefields of Taron ^^ and, after taking the form of aseries of cascades, runs through Balou and Kapan ^where the western branch is joined. This latterafiluent rises in a swamp near Erzroum and afterfollowing a winding course reaches the plains of

7 Cyras. ^2 Djoulfa.8 Dglath. 1^ Mourat-Tchai. Bassene. ^* Askert.^^ Erivan. ^^ Mouche.11 Arpa-Tchai of the Tatars. ^^ Keban-Maden.


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4 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSEriza '^'^ only to enter the deep gorges of the Acn orEghine. After its confluence with its easternbranch, the Euphrates skirts the rich lands of Meli-tene ^^ only to dash into precipitate gorges where itsbreadth is sometimes reduced to fifty m. Thencethe Euphrates flows towards the west, making itsway towards the uplands of Mesopotamia.The Tigris, which drains the fields of Assyria andof Babylon, owes its origin to a series of branchesflowing near the course of the Euphrates. Themain branch is that of the Amid ^^ whose tributariesare the Nymphius,^*^ which issues forth from themountains of Samsoum, the Bitlis, and the Kentrit,-^an outlet of Lake Van.The Halys and the Lycus which carry the watersof the table-land towards the North Sea, spring fromthe mountains to the west of Eriza. The Halyswaters the city of Sebaste ^^ and thence winds itsway across Asia Minor until it reaches the sea tothe west of Samsoum. The Lycus passes Neocaes-area ^^ and flows into the sea to the east of Sam-soum.

Another river, the Sper,^^ which rises in themountains to the north of Erzroum, traverses theplains of Baberd,^^ and making its way through thePontic Mountains, continues its course until itreaches the Black Sea near Batoum.From a purely topographical point of view fewcountries, if any, show signs of greater general up-heaval than Armenia. It is true that the volcanoes" Erzlndjian. 22 Sivas.18 Malatia. 23 Nikissar."Diarbekir. 24Djorokh.20 Batman-Sou. 25 Baybourt.21 Bohtan-Tchai.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 5which called it into being are now extinct but the soilshows traces of their fire. The land is continually-shaken and violent earthquake shocks are repeatedcentury after century. A country abounding in con-tradictions, Armenia offers on the one hand the spec-tacle of sharp peaks and of deep precipices; stretchesof country of majestic beauty and wide expanses ofmonotonous sameness ; then there are fertile pasturelands, shaded valleys where grapes and fruit may-grow in profusion, and plains covered with a richalluvion where in spring time smiling crops of wheatand vegetation abound.

Intense cold follows excessive heat. Snow coversthe fields during five months of the year. The tem-perature often falls as low as twenty-five degreesbelow zero (Centigrade) and in the valley of theAraxes it sometimes mounts as high as forty degrees(Centigrade). The winter frosts and biting coldoften delay the planting season but in May naturebursts forth, as it were, and vegetation hastens tomaturity.

Whilst Armenia is a country of great agriculturalpossibilities, its sub-soil conceals minerals whose re-nown goes back to remote antiquity. Copper, ironand lead abound. Recent investigations furnish evi-dence of the presence of anthracite and of mineraloils.

Birds are not numerous, and wild beasts fail tofind a retreat in the open spaces which summer trans-fers into prairies. Here is the demesne of sheep,the raising of which constitutes one of the principalsources of riches of the country. The main domes-tic animals are the horse, the mule, the buffalo.


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6 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSProtected on the north by the Caucasus range and

on the south by the Taurus, Armenia would be acountry safe against invasion if its geographical posi-tion had not made of it the converging point of theprincipal roads leading towards the heart of Asia.The Armenian table-land constitutes the main routefrom east to west and it is at the same time thekey to that position which lies between the Caspian,Black and Mediterranean Seas and the Persian Gulf.Medes, Persians, Tatars, Turks, conquerors all,there continually passed; whereas the Assyrians andthe Arabs touched upon the country from south tonorth. The strategic center of the upland is Erz-roum, the ancient Theodosopolis, a city which wasfortified by the Byzantines about the middle of thefifth century.

According to the narrative of the historian Mosesof Khorene,^ the Armenian table-land had been col-onized from the very beginning by the Hai, or de-scendants of Haic, great grandson of the biblical Ja-peth. It would appear from the writings of Mosesof Khorene that Haic, a child of the plains of Senaar,had fled to what is now Armenia in order to escapethe persecutions of Belus of Babylon. Belus fol-lowed Haic into Armenia for the purpose of con-quering him, but in an heroic combat the former waskilled by the man whom he sought to persecute.The uplands of Ararat were given the name of hisson Haik (plural of Hai) and the settlers werecalled Hai or Haikian. It seems that Aram, thesixth descendant of Haic in the direct line, was a con-

26 The history of Moses of Khorene deals with the origin of theArmenians^ and stops at A. D. 440, about the time of the fall of theArcbacouni.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 7temporary of Nimos. The sovereignty of Aram ex-tended as far as Cappadocia, and foreigners, onaccount of his exploits, applied the name of Armenor Armeni to the country ruled by him. It is saidthat Aral was killed in a battle fought against Se-miramis. The construction of castle Van,^^ contain-ing inscriptions written in a language unknown tothe Hai, is attributed to Semiramis. The sameauthor maintains that Ararat, even while it pre-served its own princes, descendants of Ha'ic, fellunder the yoke of Assyria, until the days of Arbaces,king of the Medes. The recital goes on to statethat after the taking of Niniva, the king of theMedes raised ParouTr, the Haikian, to the rank ofking. It is added that Tigranes, son of Erivant andthe eighth direct descendant of Parou'ir, fought As-tiage ^^ and slew him with his own hand. Vahagn,Tigranes's successor, is declared to have been made agod on account of his exploits, and his seventh suc-cessor. Van, is said to have rebuilt the Semiramocertaand to have given his name to the city. To bringthe recital to an end it is set forth that Vahe, son ofVan, went forth to fight Alexander the Great andhaving lost his life upon the field of battle thusbrought to an end the authority of the Ha'ikians.

Outside of a few names which are revealed by theinscriptions of Assyria and Ararat, there is abso-lutely no confirmative proof of the narrative whichhas just been sketched; which is a tissue of fables em-broidered upon a background of biblical traditions.The very presence in the cantons of the Araxes, atso distant a date, of an Armeno-Hai people is notestablished. The only thing that seems to perco-

27 Semiramocerta. 28 Azi-Dahac.


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8 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSlate through this legendary narrative, if it be theecho of an historical fact, is that in the long forgot-ten past, the cantons of Van were subjugated bychiefs of Assyrian or Chaldean clans.

It is also necessary to reject the theory admittedby ethnographers to the effect that a branch ofMedes and Persians, stranded upon the table-landof Ararat at the time of Aryan migrations, gavebirth to the Armenian race. This ingenuous enun-ciation is, in the last analysis, nothing but a purehypothesis based upon a similarity more apparentthan real, between the customs and the religion ofthe Medes and the Armenians. This hypothesiscomplacently discards all of the traditions whichhave been compiled by the Greek classical writers,Herodotus, Strabo and Eudoxus, who report thatthe Armenians, properly so called, are related to thepeoples of Asia Minor and more particularly to thePhrygians.

Records, which have been discovered, show thatthe primitive population of the table-land of Araratwas an agglomeration of peoples of different origin.Ararat, as most mountainous countries, had been suc-cessively invaded by the tribes who camped in itsneighborhood. These peoples came principallyfrom the Caspian district. Media, Mesopotamia andAsia Minor. Succeeding migrations cast upon Ar-arat, on the one hand, Scythian and Touranian tribesof the same branch as the Alains and the Saspirians,whom Ezekiel designates as Gog and Magog, andon the other hand Medes, Aramcens of Mesopota-mia, as well as Indo-Europeans from Asia Minor.From this simple enumeration it is clear that theprimitive settlers were peoples of different languages


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 9and of different religions, many of them belonging toraces of which history preserves but a faint memoryif she knows of them at all. The immigrants hail-ing from the North conquered, beyond peradven-ture, the valley of the Araxes and, perhaps, thebasin of Van, but they were unable to advance alongthe banks of the Euphrates, where the tribes fromAsia Minor and Mesopotamia had taken root. Itmust be assumed that these two peoples lived, forcenturies, without fusing, because they are found astwo distinct entities towards the end of the PersianEmpire.The principal element known to students as Khal-dae or Khaldi, on account of their national godKhald, or Chald, represent beyond question theOurarti of Assyrian inscriptions, whose descendantsHerodotus knew under the name of Alarodians.The language in which their inscriptions are written,and which scholars decipher, bears no affinity toArmenian or any other known language. It is es-tablished by these inscriptions that the kings ofArarat were proud warriors. They led their armiestowards the North and West and even towardsNorthern Syria. They long fought against As-syria to maintain their independence. They con-structed cities and forts and dug canals of whichsome are still extant. After an existence whichlasted for several centuries the Ourarti disappearedfrom the scene at about the beginning of the con-quest of the Medes and without the splendor of thepart played by their kings in the history of Asiahaving reached the writers of antiquity.Among the peoples who surrounded the Khaldi, sothe inscriptions show, were the Khiti or Khati (the


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lo ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSHittites of scholars). They hailed from the Cill-cian Taurus. The Khiti advanced as far as Meli-tene and paid tribute to the Ourartian kings andthe Assyrian monarchs. On the north the Khalditouched upon the Saces or Scythians who had occu-pied a district between the Araxes and the Kura,called Sacasene.^** Cuneiform documents speak ofthis country as early as the eighth century B. C, un-der the name of Ashgouzai or Ischouzai'.^*^ Inthe mountains bordering the south of Lake Vanwere camped the Carducques ^^ famous for theardor displayed by them both at war and in pil-laging.^^ These early inhabitants of Ararat lived,just as the present population of Armenia, invillages half buried in the soil in order to pro-tect themselves against the hoar-frost of winter.Xenophon, who visited these villages during the

29 Known to Persians and Armenians as Sissacan.30 Jeremiah speaks of the country as the Kingdom of Asckenas.31 Referred to as Kudraha (Kurds) in the inscriptions of Darius.32 The modern Kurds, who have maintained the same customsand an organization based upon obedience to hereditary chiefs of

clans, are a composite race composed of Persian, Arab, Chaldaeanand Armenian elements. They use a dialect, the basis of whichwould appear to be of Iranian origin but which has drawn largelyupon the languages of the various elements which have contributedto create the modern Kurds. There are among this people seden-tary tribes who devote themselves to agriculture, whilst others arecomposed of wandering shepherds. The Kurds embraced Islam atthe time of the Arab conquest and the Seljuk invasion and theyinvariably ally themselves to those who have the upper hand, inorder that they may be able to indulge in rapine and pillaging.Their extension towards the north in Armenia, and towards thewest in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Halys, as far as thegulf of Alexandretta dates mainly from the days of the OttomanTurks. During the twelfth century A. D. several Kurdish familiesattained political situations of high import and bore the title ofAtabek, such as the famous Zinghi Atabek of Mossoul and ofAleppo who took Edessa from the Crusaders (a. D. 1134) and hisson, _Nour-Ed-Din, who shortly afterwards played an importantpart in Syria.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS iiretreat of the ten thousand, found them abun-dantly provided with all necessities. Fortifiedmarket-towns had been constructed generallyperched up on rocks of difficult access. Amongsuch places may be cited Touspa or Tosp, Arzacou,Erouand, Erouandakert, Manavazakert, Balou andArghni.^^ During the several centuries Ourartouand its petty kings owed allegiance to Niniva.At about the commencement of the ninth centuryB. c. two kingdoms were carved out of Ourartou.One was created in the east in the country knownas Manna and the other in the center, or Ara-rat, and this latter territory was ruled over byArame, a descendant of Shadour or Sour, a contem-porary of Salmanassar III (b. c. 840). One ofhis successors, Ishpouin-Is, organized the provinceof Van and made of Touspa his favorite residence.His son, Menouas,^^ carried on further conquests,subjected to his rule the Khati of Melitene and builtthe market-town of Manazkert. His grandson,Shardour-Is (b. c. 755), taking advantage of theweakness of Assyria, descended upon Syria, tookArpad and then Aleppo but he was finally compelledto retreat before Teglatphalassar II, who invadedOurartou and laid siege to Touspa. The contestagainst Assyria was renewed under the reign ofRousas.^^ Several campaigns ensued before Sar-gon, king of Assyria, was able to assert his suprem-acy.Towards the middle of the seventh century B. c.

33 Touspa is now known as Van; Arzascou as Ardjis; Erouandas Erivan. Kert is an Armenian suffix meaning built, adorned.Its use goes back to the Persian epoch.

8* Manavas.*B Ursa. Armenian historians speak of the Rouchtouni.


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12 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSthe kings of Ourartou were able to come to termswith the Assyrian monarchs, but an unexpected en-emy arose in their rear. The Cimerians ^^ and theScythians burst forth like a wild torrent from thecountry adjacent to the Caspian Sea and the PonticMountains and incessantly harassed them. Thesetribes led in their wake the Moushki,^^ the Armen,the Khati and hordes from all the neighboring ter-ritory and caused their followers to fall upon Ourar-tou and Assyria, whose inhabitants were murderedand their towns set on fire. Their subjects massa-cred, their towns reduced to ashes, the kings ofArarat were compelled to take refuge in the moun-tains only to disappear shortly afterwards when(b. c. 600-580) the Medes completed the work thusinaugurated.^^Of the remnants of the population some re-

trenched themselves in the Caucasus Mountains andin the country of the Carduchi, in the Pontic Moun-tains.^* Others, including the landed proprietors,fused with the new masters of Ararat.The kingdom of Ourartou was shortly forgottenand the deeds accomplished by its kings were blended

into the legends of Ninos, Semiramis, Haic and38 Armenian writers refer to them as the Camirk.37 The Mesheks of the Bible.38 The following chronological list of the kings of Ourartouhas been compiled from the best available data:Arame (about 850 B.C.), Loutibir (843), Shardour (833), Ish-pouin (828), Menouas (800), Arghest (780), Shardour II (755),Rousas (720), Arghest II (714), Menousas II (685), Erivenas

(670), Rousas II (645), Shardour III (640).3The Greek Church still applies the designation "theme ofKhaldea " to the region lying to the north of Trebizond and inthis appellation is found confirmative proof that the Khaldi tookrefuge in this district at the time of their dispersion.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 13Belus. The history of the country was handeddown as that of an heroic contest between thegods of Ourartou and of Babylon. Moses ofKhorene, the author of the genealogy of the Hai-cans, makes of Haic the ancestor of the Hai, whereasthe earlier writers of Armenia, the translators of theBible, look upon him as a mythical character, simi-lar to the Greek Orion.

Henceforth Ourartou, where the Armens tookroot, is called Armina or Armenik ^ or accordingto the Bible, Tog-Arma or Thorgoma, not to citethe fact that in national folk lore it is known asHaik or Hai'stan. The Armens, who were ofThracian origin, and related to the Phrygians, eitherpreceded or followed the latter in their migration toAsia Minor. In support of the traditions handeddown by Herodotus, Eudoxus and Strabo, Armenianhistorians add a genealogical table, founded upontradition, according to which Thorgom ^^ hailedfrom Tiras or Thrace. The Armens were campednear the head waters of the Halys, to the west ofthe Euphrates ^^ and were there leading a precari-ous existence under their chiefs when the armies ofSargon, the Assyrian, invaded Cappadocia and Meli-tene (B.C. 720). This was the signal for a newemigration towards the east, a movement encour-aged by offers made by the kings of Ourartou whodesired to maintain good relations with the neigh-boring peoples In order to be able to make use ofthem in the contest against Assyria.

* Inscriptions of Darius at Behistoun.41 The Biblical Tag-Arma.*2 An inscription of Menousas reveals the existence of a peopleknown as the Urmani or Armeni, living to the west of Ourartou.


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14 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSThe Armens seemed to have mixed their blood

with another Asiatic element whose patronymic,Hai, became in time their national designation.Superficially it would appear as if the strain thuscalled into being may be identified with the Khaldiof Ourartou, owing to the fact that the Armeniansappropriated to themselves Hai'c, the supreme godof Ourartou and that a tradition, more or lessvague, has it that they descend from Aschkenas,^^that is to say from the Scythian peoples of the regionof Ararat. Armenian historians know of the appel-lation Khaldi or Khalik ** and do not confound itwith the national name of Hai. They consider thatthe monuments and inscriptions of Van are the workof Semiramis and are of the opinion that the lan-guage used is a foreign tongue.At the very dawn of their history the Armeno-Hai' give evidence of characteristics which maketheir assimilation with the Ourarti or with the Alar-odians of Herodotus entirely improbable. On theother hand when the presence of the Khati or Hatin the regions adjacent to the Halys and the Eu-phrates is considered, and it is borne in mind thateverything indicates that their language was Indo-European, and the manifest similarity between theappellations Khat and Hai is taken into account, itmay well be deemed that the Khati are the sur-vivors of these ancient populations of Asia Minor.The Khat of the Euphrates valley coalesced with theArmen,^^ conserving at the same time the name of

*3 Cf. the following passage: "Thus, bear in mind that we de-scend both from Aschkenas and the house of Thorgom" Histoirede I'Armenie by Jean Catholicos.**The Kbaldik of the Pontic Mountains."Jensen"Les Hittites et les Armeniens."


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 15Ha'i, which became in due course the national desig-nation. This fusion produced a race having all ofthe aptitudes the one of the other: a people peace-ful, laborious, tenacious, self-willed and capable,when occasion called, of bearing the brunt of battle.The great invasion of the Cimmerians and of theScythians, which changed the face of the Asiaticworld, seems to have permitted the Armeno-Hai" totake up a position beyond the Euphrates and to enterinto possession of the cantons situated on the leftbank of that river. But this thrust was not carriedon by the entire population, for several tribes con-tinued to inhabit the cantons west of the Euphrates,thereafter called Minor Armenia. The country inwhich the Armens settled was a mountainous region,traversed by deep valleys and smiling plains. Itwas composed of several cantons. The inscriptionscite the names of Supna, Enzite, Erez, Ghirzanouand Daiani. There were a number of castles nest-ling among the mountains and many market-townsof which a few, Amiti or Amid,*** Argheni, Henni,Anghl, and Balou, have until this day preserved theirold names.

It was in the districts which they had conqueredthat the Armeno-Hai, who there also established anumerical preponderance, became known to theneighboring peoples, under the name of Arma, Ar-mai or Armeni. It is believed that a custom, whichobtained among these petty kings, may have hadsomething to do with this designation, for theyjoined to their names the prefix Arma. Thus Mosesof Khorene, in his genealogy, speaks of Arma-Is, Ar-men-Ac, Armen-Si, whom he cites as the first Patri-

** Diarbekir.


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1 6 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSiarchs of the nation. The country subject to theirrule was called Armina, or Armenik, and this is theappellation applied thereto by foreigners, first by theArameens, under the style of Tog-Arma, and then bythe Iranians, the Greeks and the Romans. The bib-lical Tog-Arma, country situated between Gomer andGog, that is to say between Cappadocia and Ararat,evidently refers to the cantons of the valley of theEuphrates, to the Armenia of Herodotus.*'' Thename Armina or Armenik was extended little by lit-tle to Ourartou and to Biaina as the Armen estab-lished their preponderance in the valley of theAraxes.

Nevertheless the Armeno-Hai were not able, atthe outset, either to constitute a homogeneous stateor to coalesce with the old population. After acomparatively short time they were themselves ab-sorbed by the Persian Empire.

Situate on the highway of the conquering nations,upon the battle field of the friction point between theOccident and the Orient, the Armenians were calledupon to remain upon the defensive. Upon thistable-land, devoid of geographical homogeneity, theywere compelled in advance to lead a national exist-ence devoid of brilliancy. So thoroughly did theythere take root, however, that after their conversionto Christianity and the birth of their literature, theycame to consider Ararat as their country of origin.From the glimpse that may be had into thesetimes, it appears that the Armen petty kings weredivided into two branches, one dominating that partof the country contiguous to the Euphrates and theother the territory drained by the Araxes. The

*'' Herodotus places Armenia between Cllicia and Matiene.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 17princes of the western cantons were generally knownas Zareh, Vardanes or Archam. Their principalplace of residence was Archamousat on the Arzania.The princes of the other cantons were generallynamed Oroute, Hrand, Schavarche or Tigranes, andthey were domiciled at Armavir on the Araxes.^^At about this time Media, which had long beenravaged by Assyria, strengthened itself. Cyaxaresdestroyed Niniva (b. c. 600) and after a few yearsthe Assyrian Empire, which had made the Orientalworld tremble before it, became a legend of thepast. Assyria, once subdued, Cyaxares turned hisarms northwards and westwards, in order to subduethose peoples who were still showing signs of unrest.The Scythians, the Armen, the Moushki and theOurarti did him homage. The hegemony of theMedes did not arrest the evolution of the Armenianpeople, to whom, from this moment, the classicauthors call attention. Xenophon speaks of the ex-istence of an Armenian king who is reported to haveshown hostile proclivities at a moment when a changeof dynasty made of Cyrus the master of the world(b. c. 550). This king of Armenia was, however,constrained to send his son Tigranes as an hostageto the Persian court. Tigranes, who was a valiantprince, entered the army and gained the friendshipof Cyrus. He served through the Lydian campaignand took part in the siege of Babylon and these serv-ices were the means of his being permitted to suc-ceed his father. Until this moment several kings,

*8 Arsamousat on the left bank of the Arzania, opposite Bajouand Armavir on the Araxes, the site of which is known as Tepe-Dibi, may be considered to be the first localities built by the Ar-menian petty kings.


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1 8 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSwho bore the name of Tigranes, had succeeded oth-ers known as Orontes and the Armenians had madequiet, unostentatious progress. The insurrections,which broke out more or less everywhere, when Da-rius ascended the throne extended to Armenia.When the revolt was put down Darius made of Ar-menia a Persian satrapy under the name of Arminaor Armenik (b. c. 518). The satraps of Armenia,whose names and deeds are unknown, were, as ageneral rule, allied by blood with the Median Royalfamily. The tribute paid by Armenia consisted of30,000 colts and of a few talents of raw silver.Besides this the Armenians were required in timeof war to equip a certain quota of soldiers. It isfor this reason that they figured in the armies ofDarius and Xerxes during Median wars. Thisstate of vassalage and the influence of the Iranianlanguage and customs were such that the Armenianslost all consciousness of their own national existenceand were welded into the mass of the Iranians.During the two centuries of submission to Persiandomination the Armenians enjoyed great prosperity,and a period of uninterrupted development. Theirattachment to the royal power became so accentu-ated that Armenian archers and horsemen, in largenumbers, joined the armies of Darius Codomanusto combat Alexander at Issas.When the Persian Empire was overthrown Ar-menia passed under the sway of the Macedonians.At the death of Alexander, Perdiccas gained theupper hand. Eumenes placed eastern Armenia un-der the governorship of a national prince namedArtavasd, and this governor was succeeded by an-other prince of the same name and afterwards by


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 19Hrand. When the ultimate division came about theSatrapies of Armenia fell to the Seleucids who werecontent to allow the government to remain in thehands of native princes, whom they treated withkindness when their lieutenants were strong men andwhom they did not hesitate to menace and to intimi-date when it was felt that such practices could safelybe attempted.The Seleucids were primarily engrossed with theattitude of the war-like tribes camped near the east-ern extremity of their empire, in Bactria *^ andParthyene.^ A descendant of Darius Codomanusplaced himself at the head of Parthian warriors,known as the Mazkouthes,^^ in order to found a newpower, the kingdom of the Arsacid Parthians.**^Tiridates and Artabanus, successors of the mon-arch just referred to, took Media and pushed theirconquest as far as the Tigris. The Seleucids, men-aced on the east by the Parthians and on the northby the rising kingdoms of Asia Minor, enjoyed but asemblance of authority over Armenia where reignedHrand and Archam. Antiochus the Great (b. c.222-186) entrusted the native generals Artaschesand Zareh ^ with the government of Armenia, plac-ing the former in charge of the country lying nearthe Araxes and the latter in control of the territorybordering upon the Euphrates. The new satraps,who had entered into relations with the kingdoms


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20 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSof Asia Minor, did not hesitate to declare them-selves independent when Antiochus the Great wasdefeated by the Romans at Magnisi (b. c. i86).The Seleucid domination had lasted for a centuryand a half without in any sense changing the destinyof the Armenian people. Whilst the conquest ofAlexander had altered conditions in Egypt, Syriaand in Asia Minor and the arts and sciences hadtaken a great forward bound along the shores of theMediterranean, the Armenian remained isolated,relegated to suffer such conditions as obtained in theOriental world and also kept in ignorance of theart of writing. No trace is found of a monument orof any form of art dating from these centuries ofPersian and Seleucid domination. Cities of Arme-nian origin, such as Armavir, Zarcharan, Bagaranand Archamoussat, are either mere names or shape-less ruins.


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CHAPTER IIThe formation of Armenian royalty The Tigranian DynastyKings elected by the Romans and the Parthians The Arsacids ofArmenia Organization of the royalty, territorial division Thegreat feudatories The people, their customs and religious beliefs.The dominions of Artasches and of Zareh, who

had taken, with the consent of the Roman Senate,the title of king, were reduced to narrow limits.The two kings, however, concentrating their efforts,enlarged their possession at the expense of theirneighbors. They took from the Medes territoryadjacent to the Caspian Sea, as well as Varpoura-can;^ from the Iberians or Virks,^ Phaunitide * andGogarene ;^ from the Chalybes and the Mosyneques,Korenitide ^ and Derxen f from the Cataons, Akili-sene,^ and from the Syrians Taronitide.^ The ris-ing kingdoms of Armenia were, however, far fromconstituting an homogeneous whole; side by sidewith unassimilated elements, masters of great landedestates divided the territory and counterbalanced theroyal authority. It became necessary to found anew capital to replace Armavir which no longer layupon the Araxes as the waters of that river hadiVan.^ The modern Georgians and Gurdjis.3 Kars.* Ardahan.* Erzroum.^Terdjan.7 Erzindjian.* Mouche.

at


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22 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSreceded from their former bed. The new royal res-idence called Artoschat,^ from the name of its foun-der, was also built on the Araxes, on a fortified site.According to a tradition, Hannibal, having takenrefuge in Armenia, conceived the plan of the newtown. Artasches died about b. c. i6o,^ and wassucceeded by his son Artavasd, who according tolegend fell a victim to insanity.

Mithradates II, called the Great, the Ninth Ar-sace ^^ of the Parthians (b. c. 114-86), had turnedhis arms against the King of Araxian Armenia whohad taken from the Medes and Iberians certain dis-tricts the restitution of which was insisted upon byMithradates. The resistance which the ParthianArsace encountered In Armenia prevented him fromregaining the lost districts, but he seized the CrownPrince of Armenia and held him as an hostage.

This prince became Tigranes the Great. He wasonly able to ascend the throne, about B. c. 95, as theresult of ceding to the Parthians the territory cap-tured by his fathers.As a consequence of the difficulties which arose,from the inception of his reign, between him andVerdanes, king of Euphratean Armenia, Tigranesattacked Verdanes, vanquished him and put him todeath and thus became the sole king of the two Ar-

9 Artaxata.1 Several facts which the history of Moses of Khorene attaches

to the reign of Artasches II (latter part of the first century A. D.)appear to find their proper place during the epoch of the founderof the royalty. The marriage of the sovereign with Sathini, daugh-ter of the king of the Alains, heralded by the songs of the Trouba-dours, the taking possession of the domain of Argam, in littleMedia, the warlike character and insanity of his son Artavasd allrelate to the earlier period.

11 See note No. 52 in Chapter I.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 23menias and his sovereignty extended from the valleyof the Kour as far as Cappadocia and Melitene.The reign of Tigranes the Great, which lasted fortyyears, was a flash of lightning in the history ofArmenia.

In a contest with Rome in which he was alliedwith Mithradates Eupator, King of Pont, his father-in-law, Tigranes expelled from the throne of Cappa-docia the king placed thereon by Sylla. He ex-tended his dominion over Iberia, Atropolene,^- Ad-iabene,^^ Osrohene,^^ penetrated as far as Assyriaand forced the Parthian Arsace to accord him thetitle of King of Kings. He then went to Ciliciaand entered Syria as far as Phenicia and made ofthese countries one of his satrapies. When theseconquests were achieved he founded a new capital,Tigranocerta,^^ which he peopled with inhabitantscarried off from the towns of Cappadocia. The citywas hardly finished before it was adorned with mon-uments and theaters, whither Greek tragedians andartists were attracted by Queen Cleopatra, the pro-tectress of Greek letters. Artavasd, the eldest sonof Tigranes, cooperated with the queen in this work.The successes of Tigranes, however, disturbed theRomans. LucuUus, appointed to the command ofthe armies of the Orient, seizing upon a pretext,marched upon Tigranocerta, took it, and sacked it,after having completely routed the army of Ti-

12 Atrpatacan-Aderbeijan.1* Gordyene." Ourfa.i^The site of Tigranocerta Is not definitely known. Sometimes itis located at Mejafarkine, a fortified locality to the east of Diarbe-kir, and thence again at Tel-Arinen to the south of Mardine, whilstArmenian authors identify it with Diarbekir itself without takinginto account the data furnished by the ancients.


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24 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSgranes. Lucullus turned northwards for the pur-pose of attacking the old capital, Artaschat, but hewas set upon and defeated by Tigranes and his fa-ther-in-law, Mithradates, and compelled to abandonthis idea and to retreat with his decimated legions.The success of the allies was destined, nevertheless,to be short-lived. Pompey, appointed to succeed Lu-cullus, vanquished Mithradates, and marched uponArtaschat. Tigranes, dependent solely upon hisown resources, was constrained to surrender. Uponarriving at the camp of Pompey the King of Armeniaagreed to relinquish all of his conquests and to payan indemnity of 6,000 talents. Armenia was thusreduced to its ancient limits (b. c. 54).

Tigranes's son, Artavasd, who fluctuated betweenthe two rival powers, the Romans and the Parthians,and who was held to be responsible for the disasterof Crassas, fell into a trap which was laid for himand, with his wives and children, was captured byAntony. Banished to Egypt, Cleopatra rid her-self of him by having him decapitated the day afterthe battle of Actium (b. c. 36 or 34). Thethrone of Armenia was, for a short while, assignedto Alexander, son of Antony and Cleopatra, andthen to Artavard, King of Atropotene, but the houseof Tigranes regained the throne under the protec-tion of Augustus. The dynasty of the Tigranes wasextinguished shortly afterwards in the person ofErato, a sister of Tigranes IV, (a. d. 10).^^i^The kings of the house of Artasches-Tigranes were: Arta-

schese I (b. c. 190-160); Artavasd I; Tigranes I; Artaschese II,Artavasd II (b. c. 108-95; Tigranes II (the Great) (b. c. 95-54);Artavasd III (a. c. 54-36 or 34); Artaschese III; Tigranes III;Tigranes IV; Erato; Artavasd IV; Tigranes IV (2nd time);Tigranes V and Erato (2nd time).


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 25The extinction of the royal family brought an-

archy in its wake. The Armenian notables, tornasunder through internal dissensions, accepted what-ever prince the Romans and Parthians imposed uponthem. No Armenian prince was able to assure thesuccession to the throne to his descendants, and thisform of government, which lasted for two centuries,made of the Armenian royalty a puppet in the handsof the Romans and the Parthians. The first of theseelected kings was Vonones (a. D. 16), brother ofArsace Fraat IV. He was supported by Rome butmenaces directed against him by Artaban forced himto abdicate. Zenon, son of Queen Pitidoris ofPont, put forward by Rome, remained on the throneuntil his death. He was succeeded by Mithradateswho in turn was followed by Khadamistes. Theywere relatives of the King of Iberia. Under theirrule Armenia was in a state of anarchy. The pre-ponderance then passed to the Parthians, and Va-larses I, their ruler, notwithstanding the resistanceoffered by Corbulon, who commanded the Romanlegions, was able to place his younger brother Tirid-ates upon the throne. ^^ The accession of Tiridateswas finally recognized by Rome when (a. d. 64) heconsented to go to the capital in order there to payhomage to Nero.^^ His successor, who was desig-nated by Rome, was Aschkatarque, but Chosroes ofParthia dethroned him and replaced him by hisnephew named Barthamassir. This interventionbrought about a mighty expedition directed by Tra-

17 Tirite.18 Certain Armenian writers desire to date from the reign of

Tiridates the accession of Armenian Arsacides. This prince was acontemporary of Nero and accordingly such a deduction fails totake in consideration well-established facts of an anterior date.


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26 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSjan who occupied Armenia as far as Karin/^ andmade of it a Roman province (a. d. 114). Bartha-massir, who swore fealty to Rome, was killed whenhe sought to escape from the Roman camp. Ha-drian, departing from the policy followed by Trajan,permitted Armenia to choose as king a prince ofArsacidian origin, named Akemenid. The destiniesof Armenia were drifting along in this way whenthe Emperor Antoninus turned over the throne toSoyemus, a descendant of the royal family ofEmesa,^*^ a Roman Senator of outstanding reputa-tion. The answer of the Parthians was an imme-diate declaration of war and Soyemus was com-pelled to take to flight. Lucius Verus, colleagueof Marcus Aurelius, renewed the expedition ofTrajan, took Ctesiphon and once again pillagedSelencia. The Roman candidate returned and fin-ished his reign (about A. D. 166). His successor,named by Rome, was Sanatrouc, son or nephewof one of the Abgares of Osrhoene. This prince,in a short while, fell a victim to the Parthians,for Artaban IV, taking advantage of the civil warwhich arose between Niger and Septimus Severus,caused him to perish as the result of a plotwhich had been fomented by the Armenian nota-bles whom Artaban had gained over to his side.Many useful enterprises were carried out by San-atrouc among which may be pointed out the foun-dation of the city of Mzour at the confluence ofthe two branches of the Euphrates. Moses ofKhorene confounds this city with NIssibine. Thisis the outstanding event of his reign of 27 years(a. D. 193) excepting always the legends kepti Erzroum. 20 Horns.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 27alive by the national chronicles, according to whichSanatrouc occupied the throne during the firsthalf of the first century and embraced Christianityonly to recant. It is also handed down that hisdaughter Sandought, a zealous Christian, highlyhonored by the National Church, suffered martyr-dom at the same time as the apostles Thadeus andBartholomy, said to have come to Armenia aboutthis time for the purpose of evangelizing thecountry.

After Artaban ^^ had dethroned Sanatrouc heraised one of his brothers or nephews, Valarses, tothe throne of Armenia. This prince rapidly obtainedthe assent of the more powerful men of the countryand founded a dynasty which maintained its ascend-ancy in Armenia until the first quarter of the fifthcentury. It suited the policy of Rome henceforth tosupport these Arsacides, for they were looked upon,after the fall of the elder branch thereof, as the polit-ical enemies of the Sassanids, who had become thenew adversaries of Rome in the Orient. The newkings of Armenia were called Arsace, in imitation ofthe Parthian sovereigns and the generic designationof Arsacid or Archacouni was applied to their dyn-asty.2^

Valarses was a renowned and clear-visioned princeand, following out the policy called for by the needsof his country, yielded fealty to Rome. He founded

21 Artaban belonged to that line of Arsacides known as Pahlavior Pehlevi.22 The national chronicles agree that a prince named Valarses or

Valarsaces was the founder of the Archacouni but they fix the dateof his accession at B.C. 150 and make of Artasches and Tigranessuccessors of this prince, and in this way entirely lose sight of thosefacts which history shows took place in Armenia during the firstand second centuries before Christ.


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28 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSthe city of Valarsapat ^^ on the site of Vardghes, notfar from the Araxes, and this city became the capitalof the Archacouni until A. D. 340. To him is alsodue the castle of Valas-Kert,^^ in the upper basin ofthe Arzania, on the road between Erzroum andTebris.

Armenia, after having been left in peace fortwenty years, was again troubled by senseless actsof aggression on the part of the Roman EmperorCaracalla. This potentate, desirous of achievingwhat he deemed to be a success, summoned Valarsesof Armenia before him, apparently for the purposeof obtaining from him information in regard to acontest which was then pending between Valarsesand his sons. The Armenian king was held as pris-oner and died in captivity. The Emperor Macri-nus, who succeeded Caracalla, showed clemency tothe Armenians, who took sides with Parthia in thewar against Rome, and he recognized Tiridates, sonof Valarses, as their king.The general insurrection stirred up by Artaschir,the Sassanid, reversed the Parthian Empire (a. d.226). This chieftain, an orthodox follower ofZoroaster, sought to bring about the complete anni-hilation of the entire Arsacidian line, and attackedArmenia, but without success, owing to the interven-tion of a Roman army led by Alexander Severus.Shapur I, son of Artaschir, renewed the attack, putto flight the Armenian King, Tiridates II, and or-

23 The site of Valarsapat is often confused with that of Etchmia-zine, situate at a distance of twenty-five kilometers to the southwestof Erivan, on the River Abaran. Valarsapat, which afterwards wascalled Nor-Kaak (new city), is the most famous place in the annalsof Armenian Christianity.

2* Now Alaschquert or Toprak-Kale,


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 29dered that the worship of fire be universally intro-duced into the country. The success obtained bythe King of Palmyra over the Sassanid ruler enabledthe Romans to reestablish their influence in Armeniaand to call to the throne Chosroes, son of Tiridates.Shortly afterwards this king fell into a trap whichwas laid for him by Shapur of Persia and (a. d.271) he was killed by his relatives and court dig-nitaries. The life of his son, also named Tiridates,was barely saved but he was able to escape and wascarried to Roman territory. Thus Armenia fellonce again under the domination of the Sassanidkings and there remained until Ctesiphon was takenby the Roman Emperor Carus (a. d. 283).

Shortly afterwards Diocletian designated theyouthful Tiridates III, who had grown up in Rome,as King of Armenia. Tranquillity seemed to be es-tablished but the Sassanid Nerses ^^ (a. d. 293-303) returned to the charge. Tiridates took toflight, as his uncle had done, but in a short whilehe returned with a Roman army led by Galerius.The victory obtained by this general and the policyenforced by Diocletian assured a period of peacewhich lasted until the reign of Constantine. Thereign of Tiridates III, notwithstanding these mis-fortunes, was made memorable by the official con-version of Armenia to Christianity, a fact which hasproved to be of immense importance to the destiniesof the Armenian people.^*During the days of the Arsacids the kingdom of

25 Nerseh.28 The following is a chronological list of the first Arsacides of

Armenia: Valarses (a.d. 193); Roman domination (197); Tirida-tes II (216) ; Artavasd named governor by Persia (253) ; Chosroes(261-271); Persian domination (271-286); Tiridates III (287).


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30 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSArmenia included a number of territories or coun-tries designated as follows: (a) Ararat, includingthe districts of Araxiana,^^ Chirac,^^ Vanande,^''*Bassen,^ Bagrevand,^^ Sunik,^^ Minor Media,^^Oudi and Artzakh, inhabited principally by Albani ;^^(b) Gougark and Taik,^^ inhabited principally bythe Virk;^^ (c) Vaspouracan ;^''' (d) Mocs, to thesouth of the Lake of Van; (e) Taron,^^ (/) Karen-itide ^^ including the district of Derdjan; (g) Soph-ene ^^ and (h) Arzen.^^The kingdom of Armenia, modeled upon the linesof the old monarchies of the Orient, was composedof regions and countries devoid of homogeneity andwhich the landed proprietors divided among them-selves. This rule obtained even in the days whenthe limits of Armenia were much circumscribed.The chiefs of these families called Nakharar, Iscp-kan, BdeTchk, Khahap or Sadrape, held the land un-der an hereditary title. There was no centralpower, nor regular army, nor organized justice.The system which prevailed was typically feudal.

27 Valarsapat.28 Ani.29 Kars.30 Hassan-Kale.81 Alachkert.32 Karabagh.83 Her-Khoi.3* The Albani, known to Armenian writers as the Aghouans, whoembraced Christianity during the fourth century, were finallymerged into the Armenians.35 Ardahan.38 Georgians.37 Van.38 Bitlis and Mouche.39 Erzroum.*9 Kharpout.*iArzanene, Arghi, Diarbekir.


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ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANS 31The lords were the vassals of the king but this didnot prevent them from carrying on war and fromridding themselves of a prince who no longer suitedthem. The king had his estates and his personalincome, just as did the lords of the country. TheArsacid kings were the owners of the plains of Ar-axiana and of Bagrevand, besides possessing estatesand castles in Akilisene, Sophene and Taron. Acertain number of dignitaries were directly dependentupon the pleasure of the king such as the office ofHazarapet or collector of revenue in rural districts,the commandership of the royal troops (which be-came hereditary), and the trust of Mardpet or guar-dian of the domestic household which carried with itthe administration of the royal estates.The number of feudal families who divided thesoil among themselves was very great. Some ofthese were as wealthy as the royal house; their chiefswere accorded precedence at court and punctiliouslyobserved the rules established by the protocol. TheBagratid family, which apparently occupied the postof highest honor, was originally a sacerdotal fam-ily. The title of Aspet was accorded the Bagratidsand it was their privilege to crown the king. Theypossessed the districts of Sper, Vanand and Elhirae.During the sixth century they acquired added im-portance as kings of a part of Armenia. Anotherfamily of great nobles was that of Camsaracan. Itwas of Parthian or Pahlavian origin and enjoyedgreat prestige on account of its relationship to theArsacids. The celebrated family of Mamiconian,also of foreign origin, perhaps hailing from Sogdi-ana, appears to have emigrated to Armenia duringthe days of Tiridates II. The house possessed im-


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32 ARMENIA AND THE ARMENIANSportant estates to the north of Taron. Celebratedas warrior

armenia armenians 00 as la i a la

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