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“Itwouldbehelpfuliftherewerepredictablephasesofteacherdevelopment that could guide educators.” ‐ Hammerness, K., Darling‐Hammond,L.,Bransford,J,Berliner,D., Cochran‐Smith,M,McDonald,M.&Zeichner,K.(2005).Howteacherslearnanddevelop.In,L.Darling‐Hammond&J.Bransford,Eds.Preparingteachersforachangingworld:whatteachersshouldlearnandbeabletodo.Jossey‐Bass.

“As differences between experts and novices accumulated ineduca:onandotherfields,itbecameapparentthattherewasaneed fora theoryofdevelopment todescribe the transi:onfrom novice to expert.” ‐ Berliner, D. C. (2004). Describing the behavior anddocumen9ngtheaccomplishmentsofexpertteachers.Bulle7nofScience,Technology&Society,24,1,200‐212.

“Exper:se can be fostered bymaking the exper:se trajectoryvisibletolearnersthroughmodelsofexper:se…”–Lajoie,S.P.(2003).

Threestagemodels:Glaser,Anderson,Alexander

Anderson–cogni<ve,associa<ve,autonomous Glaser–externallysupported,transi<onal,selfregulatoryAlexander–acclima<on,competence,proficiency(MDL)

Fivestagemodel:Berliner(Dreyfus&Dreyfus)

Stage1:noviceStage2:advancedBeginnerStage3:competentStage4:proficientStage5:expert

1. “Student teachers and many first year teachers areordinarilyconsideredtobenovices.”‐Berliner,2004,p.206.

This seems to suggest a minimal role for teacherprepara<on in the developmental path of exper<se and,again, emphasizes <me and experience as the dominantfactorsinthedevelopmentofexper<se.

2. “Theproblem is not how to turnnovices into expertsfaster orwith lesswork. The problem is how to ensurethat novices develop into experts rather than intoexperiencednonexperts.”‐Bereiter&Scardemalia,1993,p.18

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“Experts,likeotherhumans,arenotallalike.”–Berliner,D.(2004),p.203)

Rou<neexper<se

*Quickandaccuratesolvingoffamiliarproblems*Modestcapaci9esofdealingwithnoveltypesofproblems

Keyfactorsindevelopment

*Observa9onandimita9on*Experienceandrepe99onundercontrolledcondi9ons

Adap<veexper<se

*Effec9vesolvingofnovelproblems*Genera9onofnewproceduresandprac9cesfromexpertknowledge*Deepconceptualunderstanding

Keyfactorsindevelopment

*Repeatedprac9ceofskillsandproceduresundervaryingcondi9ons*Needforexplana:on(notjustdoing)–seekingforprinciples.*Explicitlearninggoalorinten:on(intenttoreachbeyondcurrentlevelofperformance)

(Hatano&Inagaki,1986)

FromNovicetoExpert:DevelopmentalPhasesinBecomingaMasterTeacher(Adap<veExpert)*

TheImportanceofPrepara<onfor

Teaching“…evidence…suggeststhatteachers’developmentisinfluencedbythenatureoftheprepara<ontheyreceiveini<ally…”–Hammerness,Darling‐Hammond,Bransford,Cochran‐Smith,McDonald&Zeichner,2005.

Themodelweareproposingseekstoar<culatewhatis,andneedstobe,happeningintheearlystagesofexper<sedevelopmentandtherolesuchprepara<onplaysinthelikelihoodthatfullexper<seiseventuallyaaained.

Atthislevelwearedealingwithanindividualwhothinkshe/shemightwantto become a teacher. Of course, different individuals comewith differentbackgrounds,buttheseindividualstypicallyshareanaïveconcep<onoftheprofessionandtheirlevelofcommitmentisnotyetdeep.Theprimaryfocusofthisphaseshouldbeonthedevelopmentofbasicskillstothehighestlevelpossible, andperhaps acquiring a general understandingof thenature andexpecta<onsof theteachingprofession. In termsofknowledge,skills,anddisposi<ons,wewant students tobedevelopinghigh levelsof literacyandnumeracy, a broad and general knowledge and understanding of science,literature, history, different cultures, etc. The abili<es to read, write,compute, communicate, and reason should be clearly established andwelldeveloped. Lastly,welookforanoverallcommitmentto learningandself‐improvementingeneralthatisconsistentandgoaloriented.

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Thisindividualhastakenthenextstep. His,orher,professionalknowledgeandunderstanding of core subject maaer (or domain, if secondary educa<on) isdeepening. The focus turns to acquiring pedagogical knowledge, skills, anddisposi<ons as individuals are ini<ated into the tasks, challenges andcommitments they will confront as future teachers. The ini<ate has metrequirementsforentryintoteachereduca<on,hasalooselydeveloped,emergingknowledge of the profession based on personal experience and ini<al coursework,hismisconcep<onsarefewerbutnotfullyeliminated,andhehasmadeabasic commitment to enter the profession. Given that his/her basic skills andgeneralknowledgebasearewelldeveloped,thefocusturnstodevelopingdeepcontentspecificknowledgeaswellasasoundprofessionalcore,andpreliminarydevelopment of pedagogical skills. The ini<ate possesses an emergingunderstandingof learners and learning, the importanceof cultural context andbackground,andrelatedcoreprofessionalknowledge.

“Metacogni:onisanespeciallyimportantcomponentofadap:veexper:se.”‐Hammerness,K.,et.al.(2005).

Having acquired some pedagogical (general and content specific) training,content specific understanding, and a basic grasp of the social, cultural,professionalandethicalchallengesofclassroomlife,theappren<ceispreparedtobeginworkingintheclassroomundersupervision. Thefocusnowturnstoprac<calapplica<onof theknowledgeandskillsacquired in theclassroomtoreal situa<ons and sehngs that approximate thedemandsof theprofession.Mostmisconcep<ons (thoughnot all) regarding the profession are nowgoneandtheappren<ceis intheprocessofbecomingawareofthereali<esofthedemandsoftheprofession. Beyondacquiringmanybasicrou<nes,developingthe mental habits of self‐analysis, reframing, self‐explana<on, and self‐monitoringduringthisphasearecri<calintermsofthelong‐termdevelopmentofteachers.

Thecandidatehasaccumulatedtheknowledgeandskills,anddevelopedthedisposi<ons,neededtoentertheprofessionofteaching. She/hehashadtheopportunitytoapplytheknowledge,skills,anddisposi<onshehasacquiredin increasingly complexandvariedfield sehngsand isprepared tomanagethe demands of a classroom at a rudimentary level using basic rou<nesdeveloped during student teaching and learned in the classroom. However,the ability to improvise and adapt to unusual circumstances is limited andunderdeveloped.Equippedwiththerighthabitsofmindanddisposi<ons,thecandidate, with appropriate support and mentoring, can navigate thecomplexworld of the classroom successfully at a basic level. The candidatehasaccomplishedallthatisnecessarytobeworthyofini<alcer<fica<on.

TogetfromphaseItoPhaseIV,acurricularmechanismisrequired. Atonelevel,ofcourse,thisisthespecificteacherprepara<on program of a given ins<tu<on. However, this isnotveryspecificintermsofwhatexactlyisbeinglearnedbothintermsoftheul<mategoalandthestepsalongtheway. Toachieve greater specificity,we are in the process of adap<ngand adop<ng the idea of a learning progression (LP) fromscience educa<on. This allows us to specify what the finalobjec<ve is, in terms of “big ideas” or principles, and theintermediate steps that will, hopefully, produce the desiredresult.Butthat’satopicforanotherday.Fornow,wewilljustfocusafewofthekeycharacteris<csofaprogramdesignedtoproducethekindofexper<seweareajer.

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Reduc<veproblemsolvingisaprocessofreducingproblemstotasksthatcanbe handled by simply following the rou<ne procedures that do away withwhateverchallengesaproblem,orsetofproblems,mayposeforthelearner.

*Prac<ceandrefinementofexis<ngprocedures*Some<nkeringmayberequired(notwositua<onsareexactlyalike)*Highlysituated(implicitcogni<on)

“Problem reduc<on reflects the commonplace view of problems as things to begoaenridof,tobereduced innumberandseverity. Italsorepresentsacommonwayinwhichproblemsarehandled,byreducingthemtotasksthatcanbehandledwithrou<neprocedures.”(Bereiter&Scardamalia,1993,p.99)

Ananalogymightbeusefulhere. Intermsoffitness,suchanapproachwillprobablygetyouinto,andkeepyouindecentshape,butitwon’tturnyouintoan athlete. Developing rou<ne exper<se is, to a degree, necessary but it is notsufficientfordevelopingadap<veexper<se.

Progressive problem solving is a process of genera<ng expert knowledgethroughthecon<nualreinvestmentofmentalresourcesintoaddressingproblemsathigherlevels.

*Reinvestmentinlearning*Seekingoutmoredifficultandchallengingproblems*Formingmorecomplexrepresenta<onsofrecurrentproblems*Requiresnonsituatedcogni<on(explicitcogni<on)

“…mentalresources,astheybecomeavailable,arereinvested…leadingtofurthergrowthinskillsandknowledge.This,wepropose,istheprocesswherebypeoplemovebeyond theplateausofnormal learningandacquireexper<se.” (Bereiter&Scardamalia,1993,p.92)

This is what we are ajer. An important characteris<c of progressive problemsolving is the undertaking of increasingly more challenging problems and awillingnesstoacceptworkingattheedgeofone'scompetence.

Informal knowledge – factual informa<on and skills acquired experien<allyresul<nginimplicitunderstanding(largelysituated,basedinprac<ce).

Impressionis:cknowledge–similartoinformalknowledgebutreferstoyoursenseof people and events; more a feeling than ar<culated knowledge (also largelysituated,prac<cebased).

Self‐regulatory knowledge– yourunderstandingof yourself as a learner, and thevarying demands associated with learning tasks, and the ability to use suchknowledge,inacontrolledfashion,towardthefurtheranceoflearninggoals.

Formalknowledge–knowledgeandlearningthatistextandschoolbased;explicitknowledgethathasbeenobjec<fiedandabstracted(nonsituated). Theargumenthere is that formal knowledge is not necessarily opposed to informal andimpressionis<c knowledge; it ideally enriches and focuses such knowledge. Forthat to happen, however, it must become integrated with the other types ofknowledge.‐(Bereiter&Scardamalia,1993).

*Inclusiveofdeclara<veandprocedural(content,pedagogical,andpedagogicalcontent)knowledge.Inanycase,knowledgemaaers.

AccordingtoEricsson(2006,p.685)“…extensiveexperienceofac<vi<esina domain is necessary to reach very high levels of performance. Extensiveexperience in a domain does not, however, invariably lead to expert levels ofachievement…further improvements depend on deliberate efforts to changepar<cularaspectsofperformance.”

The image above (from Ericsson, 2006) captures the rela<onships betweendifferent levels of experience and prac<ce. Reaching the expert level requiresfocused,deliberate,effornulprac<ceoverextensiveperiodsof<me.

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“The key challenge for aspiring expert performersis to avoid the arrested development associated withautoma<city and to acquire cogni<ve skills to supporttheir con<nued learning and improvement. By ac<velyseeking out demanding tasks – ojen provided by theirteachers and coaches – that force the performers toengage in problem solving and to stretch theirperformance, the expert performers overcome thedetrimental effects of automa<city and ac<vely acquireand refine cogni<ve mechanisms to support con<nuedlearningandimprovement…”‐Ericsson,2006.

What’sthedifferencebetweenrou<neprac<ce(repe<<on)anddeliberateprac<ce?

Deliberateprac<ceIS:(Ericsson,2006)

  Inten<onalandrelevanttotheskillbeingprac<ced(improperprac<cecanactuallymakeyouworse!)

  Effornul,requiringaaen<onandconcentra<onfromthelearner(involveschallengeandfocus)  Targeted,specificandsustained(aimedatelimina<ngspecificweaknesses)  Pitched at a level just beyond current reach (based on careful observa<on, analysis, and

diagnosis)  Ojeninvolvesac<vi<esselectedbyacoachorteachertofacilitatelearning(It’sojenhardto

be objec<ve about oneself, and hard to no<ce everything thatmight be relevant; providescri<calfeedback)

Deliberateprac<ceisNOT?

  (typically)Inherentlyenjoyable(hardWORK;longterm,achievementbased,reward)  Takingaclassorworkshop(althoughtheymightincludesomedeliberateprac<ceinthem)  Aaendingalectureordiscussingsomethingwithanexpert(althoughinspira<onmayfollow)  Simplyreadinganar<cleorabook(unlessyoutryoutandtestsomeofwhatyouread)  Simplywatchinganexpertperform(unlessyouarefairlyskilledtobeginwithandyouapply

whatyoulearn)  Teachingoranyotherformofactuallyperformingyourskill

The cri<cal ques<on ‐ How do we developboth the opportuni<es for engaging in (1)progressive problem solving and (2)deliberate prac:ce, and the disposi<onnecessary to sustain them, intoour coursesand programs? How do we help ourcandidatesexercise,anddevelopanappe<tefor,thesecri<calcomponentsofthepathto(adap<ve)exper<se?Examplesanyone?

1.  Buildingasolidfounda<onofbasicskillsandcontentknowledge2.  Elimina<ngmisconcep<ons(correctknowledgemaaers)3.  Providingopportuni<esforprac<ceundervaryingcondi<ons4.  Elici<ngexplana<ons(beyonddoing;reflec<on),encouragingself‐

explana<on(understandingalsomaaers)5.  Focusingonreframingandre‐representa<onoftasks,issuesand

problems(anotheraspectofreflec<on;progressiveproblemsolving)6.  Encouragingdeliberateprac<ce(highlyrelevant;significanteffort)7.  Incrementallyincreasingthechallengelevel(progressiveproblem

solving)8.  Fosteringselfregula<on(internalizingcontrol)9.  Promo<ngcon<nualreinvestment(affectandmo<va<on)10. Suppor<ngrisktaking11. Appealingtotheheroicelement12. Crea<ngaculturethatsupportsthedevelopmentofexper<se

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1.  Thenovicetoexpertframeworkallowsustoframeteacherprepara<onasalogical,coherentandvisiblesequence

2.  Greatteachersaremade,notborn3.  Prac<ceandexperiencealonedonotproduceexper<se4.  Inshort,indeterminingul<mateoutcomes,(typeof)prepara<onmaaers5.  Bothsituatedandnonsituatedcogni<on is required for theproduc<onof

(adap<ve)exper<se(theoryandprac<ce)6.  Prepara<onshouldbe focusedonproducingadap:ve, rather thansimply

rou<ne,exper:se(althoughbotharenecessary)7.  Exper<se is developed and takes considerable <me and investment to

achieve(5‐10years)8.  Generally speaking, it takes a culture of exper<se to sustain the

developmentofanexpert9.  Although adap<ve exper<se leads to greater adaptability and flexibility,

thereisnosuchthingasageneralexpert(domainspecificityistheruleinexper<se)

1.  Is the genera<on of adap<ve (as opposed to rou<ne)exper<seareasonablegoalforteacherprepara<on?

2.  Is teaching a field prepared to view itself in terms of thedevelopmentofexper<se?

3.  Howdoweaaractandretainthekindsof learners likely tobecome(adap<ve)expertstocareersinteaching?

4.  Is two years enough to make an impact on the futuredevelopmentofteachercandidates?

5.  Howwill adop<ng a focus on thedevelopmentof adap<veexper<se impact those involved (the instructors and fieldsupervisorsandothers)inteacherprepara<on?

6.  Cancollegesofeduca<onbecomecommuni<esthatsupportthedevelopmentofexper<se?

Alexander, P. A. (2003). The development of exper9se: the journey from acclima9on to proficiency.Educa7onalResearcher,32,8,10‐14.

Bereiter,C.&Scardamalia,M.(1993).Surpassingourselves:aninquiryintothenatureandimplica7onsofexper7se.Chicago,IL:OpenCourt.

Berliner, D. C. (2004). Describing the behavior and documen9ng the accomplishments of expertteachers.Bulle7nofScience,Technology&Society,24,3,200‐212.

Berliner, D. C. (1994). Thewonder of exemplary performances. In, J. N.Mangieri and C. Collins, Eds. Crea7ng powerful thinking in teachers and students. Ft. Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart &Winston.

Darling‐Hammond, L. (2006). Construc9ng 21st‐century teacher educa9on. Journal of TeacherEduca7on, 57,10,1‐15.

Dreyfus,H.L.&Dreyfus,S.E.(1980). Afive‐stagemodelofthementalac7vi7esinvolvedindirectedskillacquisi7on.ORC‐80‐2.Opera9onsResearchCenter,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,pp.1‐18.

Dunn,T.G.&Shriner,C.(1999). Deliberateprac9ceinteaching:whatteachersdoforself‐improvement.TeachingandTeacherEduca7on,15,631‐651.

Ericsson,K.A., Charness, N.,Feltovich,P.J..&Hoffman,R.R.Eds.(2006). TheCambridgehandbookofexper7seandexpertperformance.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate prac9ce on the development ofsuperior expertperformance.In,K.A.Ericsson,N.,Charness,P.J.,Feltovich,&R.R.Hoffman, Eds. The Cambridge handbook of exper7se and expert performance. Cambridge, UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Hatano,G.,&Inagaki,K.(1986).Twocoursesofexper9se.InH.Stevenson,H.Azuma&K.Hakuta(Eds.),Childdevelopmentandeduca7oninJapan(pp.263‐272).Freeman&Co.

Hoffman, R. R. (1998). How can exper9se be defined? Implica9ons of research from cogni9vepsychology.InR.Williams,W.Faulkner,&J.Fleck(Eds.),Exploringexper7se:issuesandperspec7ves.NewYork:Macmillan.

Hammerness,K.,Darling‐Hammond,L.,Bransford,J,Berliner,D.,Cochran‐Smith,M,McDonald,M.&Zeichner,K.(2005). Howteacherslearnanddevelop. In,L.Darling‐Hammond&J.Bransford, Eds.Preparingteachersforachangingworld:whatteachersshouldlearnandbeabletodo.Jossey‐Bass.

Lajoie,S.P.(2003).Tradi9onsandtrajectoriesforstudiesofexper9se.Educa7onalResearcher,32,8,21‐25.

Welker, R. (1991). Exper9se and the Teacher as Expert: Rethinking a Ques9onable Metaphor.AmericanEduca7onalResearchJournal,28,1,19‐35.