Chapter 26

Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, the Islamic Heartland, and Qing China

I. From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey

• Ottoman decline– By early 1700s– Power struggles– Rivalry with the West for trade– Succession of weak rulers

• Results– Austrian Habsburgs benefit

• Ottomans driven from Hungary, northern Balkans

– Russians expand into Caucasus, Crimea

– Christian Balkans challenge Ottomans

– Greeks, independent, 1830– Serbia, 1867

• By 1870, most of the Balkans– Capital threatened

Ottoman Empire from Late 18th Century to World War I

I. From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey

• A. Reform and Survival– Ottomans manage to somehow

survive into the 20th century…• Division of Euro powers

– Europeans fear Ottoman breakup• British support Ottomans v. Russia

– Don’t want Russian to have control of Mediterranean, so they “prop” them up

– Survival depends on internal reforms…

– Selim III (1789-1807)• Reforms anger Janissaries

– Selim wanted new navy/army; seen as direct threat to Janissaries

• 1807, deposed, assassinated– Mahmud II

• Professional army (secretly built)– Replaces Janissaries, 1826

» Incites mutiny, then kills them

• Reforms: Tanzimat– Universities on Western models– Railways– 1876, European-style constitution– Went against advisors that argued

for a return to Islamic past

I. From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey

• B. Repression and Revolt– Sultanate, ulama (religious

experts)• seen as barriers to reform

– Sultan Abdul Hamid (1878-1908)• turns to despotic absolutism

– Nullifies constitution, restricts civil liberties

– Deprive Westernize elite groups of power of they had gained in forming imperial policies

• continues work on infrastructure

• Even Hamid, though, continues to push for Western ideas of military; railways

– Young Turks• Exiled Turkish intellectuals

and political agitators– Wanted to restore 1876

constitution • remove Abdul Hamid

– Arabs push for independence

II. Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands

• A. Muhammad Ali and the Failure of Westernization in Egypt– Napoleon

• Defeats Ottoman Mamluk vassals in Egypt

• Viewed this as a means to an end, that end being destroying British power in India

• Egypt underestimates Napoleon– Mamluks view them as inferior

• Battle reveals just how susceptible the Muslims are to the Europeans

– Muhammad Ali (1801)• Emerges after French withdraw• Albanian Ottoman• Reforms

– Military: army, navy» westernized

– Agricultural modernization– Reforms fall short

– Khedives follow Ali in power, until 1952

II. Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands

• B. Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance– Muhammad Ali's successors

• Drop reform• Ayans profit from peasantry

– Cotton• Crucial export crop• Production increases, but peasants suffer• Makes Egypt dependent on one crop….

– Indebtedness to foreign creditors• Khedives in debt to Europeans• Europeans have ulterior motives:

– Suez Canal, open, 1869– Makes Egypt most strategic place on Earth

– University of al-Azhar• Center of Muslim thinkers who want to ward

off Europeans• al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh

– Push for Westernization– Underline traditional Muslim rationalism

– Ahmad Orabai• Revolt against khedive, 1882

• British intervene– Period of puppet khedives under British– Direct European control over the Islamic

heartlands had begun…..

II. Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands

• C. Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan– As Egypt falls under British

control, they are drawn into Sudanic conflict

– By 1870s, Egyptian oppression and British intervention arouses deep resentment in South, but they need a leader

– Sudan challenges British• Can't control camel herding

nomads– Muhammad Achmad, the Mahdi

• Proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British

• Controls Sudan• Succeeded by Khalifa Abdallahi

– General Kitchener (British)• Sent in fall of 1896 to put an end

to one of the most serious threats to European domination in Africa

• Battle of Omdurman, 1896• Mahdists crushed

Ottoman Empire from Late 18th Century to World War I

III. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China

• Nurhaci (1559-1626)– Manchu leader– Drives Chinese south of

Great Wall– Signification of Manchuria

• Weakness of Ming regime gave Manchus opportunity to seize control in China

• 1644, take Beijing– Almost by luck……

• Allowed Manchu past Great Wall to help, then they took over

– Found Qing dynasty• Qing

– Retain Ming rule• Keep people from Ming in

certain posts, pardon many

Qing Empire from Opium War of 1839-1841 to World War I

III. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China

• A. Economy and Society in the Early Centuries of Qing Rule– Qing social system maintained

• Old over young• Male over female• Scholar over commoner

– Manchu • Rural reforms

– Infrastructure maintained– Burdens lessened

» Taxes lessened– Population continues to grow

– Silver influx to 1800• State and mercantile classes

benefited from this– Compradors (wealthy new group

of merchants)• Merchants along south coast• Tie China to outside

– Major links b/t China and outside

Qing Empire from Opium War of 1839-1841 to World War I

III. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China

• B. Rot from Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintegration– Qing decline

• Exam system corrupt; cheating– Yellow River dikes not maintained

• Flooding• Farms wiped out

– Unrest: migration, outlaws• Food shortages prompt mass migrations• Banditry increases

– Seen as sign of decline

• C. Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After– “Barbarians”

• Out of ignorance…– Treat Europeans like nomads…BUT…

» These “nomads” had guns, and superior technology

– British• China didn’t want British goods, so British had to trade

silver bullion– Britain turns to opium from India

• Import Indian opium to China• Chinese react• Lin Zexu

– Blockades European trade

– British invade, 1839• Opium Wars - 1839• Chinese defeated• Hong Kong to British• Ports forced to reopen

III. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China

• D. A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reforms– Hong Xiuquan (mentally

unstable)• Taiping rebellion• Calls for social, land reforms• Criticize Qing, Manchus• Crushed by Empress Cixi, 1898

– Boxer Rebellion• Anti-foreign conflict• Crushed by Western powers

• E. The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization?– Resistance goes underground

• Plots to push Westernization• Sun Yat-sen

– 1905, civil service exams ended• End of scholar-gentry

– 1911, rebellions– 1912, last Qing emperor removed