chapter 6 learning learning learning – a process through which experience produces lasting change...
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Chapter 6Chapter 6LearningLearning
LearningLearning
Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes
Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus
Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning)
Learning – Can be Simple or ComplexLearning – Can be Simple or Complex
Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed
Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which
a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes
associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit
essentially the same response
What Sort of Learning Does What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?Classical Conditioning Explain?
The Essentials of Classical The Essentials of Classical ConditioningConditioning
Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus
Essentials of Classical ConditioningEssentials of Classical ConditioningPrior to conditioning
During Conditioning
After conditioning
Neutral stimulus(bell)
(Orientation to soundbut no response)
Unconditioned stimulus(meat)
Unconditioned response(salivation)
Neutral stimulus (bell)
Unconditioned stimulus(meat)
+Unconditioned response
(salivation)
Conditioned stimulus(bell)
Conditioned response(salivation)
Think of it as a formula!Think of it as a formula!
Before Conditioning:
(UCS) meat = (UCR) salivation
During Conditioning:
(NS) bell + (UCS) meat = (UCR) salivation
After Conditioning:
(CS) bell = (CR) salivation
Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer
Spontaneous recovery –Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
Classical Conditioning:Classical Conditioning:Generalization and DiscriminationGeneralization and Discrimination
Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS
Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus butnot to stimuli that are similar
Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis
Applications of Classical ConditioningApplications of Classical Conditioning
Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness
How Do We LearnHow Do We LearnNew Behaviors byNew Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?Operant Conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior,
such as rewards and punishments, influence the
chance that our behavior will occur again
How Do We LearnHow Do We LearnNew Behaviors byNew Behaviors by
Operant Conditioning?Operant Conditioning?
Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences
Skinner’s Radical BehaviorismSkinner’s Radical Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences
Consequences are Powerful!Consequences are Powerful!
Reinforcement
• Strengthens
• Increases
• Encourages
the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.
The Power of ReinforcementThe Power of Reinforcement
Positive (added) Reinforcement –An appetitive (liked) stimulus is added after a response/behavior which increases the probability of that response/behavior happening again.
Negative (removed) Reinforcement – A response/behavior occurs in order to remove an aversive (disliked) stimulus, which increases the probability of that response/behavior happening again.
Consequences are Powerful!Consequences are Powerful!
Punishment
• Weakens
• Decreases
• Discourages
the likelihood that a behavior will happen again.
The Power of PunishmentThe Power of PunishmentPositive punishment – The application of an aversive (disliked) stimulus after a response/behavior, which decreases the response/behavior from happening again.
Omission training (negative punishment) –The removal of an appetitive (liked) stimulus after a response/behavior, which decreases the response/behavior from happening again.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Four Kinds of ConsequencesFour Kinds of Consequences
Appetitive (like)
Aversive (dislike)
STIMULUS
-Remove
Omission TrainingHaving your cell phone taken away for coming
home late
Negative Reinforcement
Taking an aspirin to remove headache
causes more aspirin use.
+Present
PositiveReinforcement
$ Bonus for working hard
leads to more hard work
Positive PunishmentGetting speeding ticketleads to less speeding
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
So, is it Negative Reinforcement or So, is it Negative Reinforcement or Punishment?Punishment?
(Aversive Stimulus)Threat of
being grounded
Come home on time
Stayed out Late
Not grounded
Grounded
Response ConsequenceNegative Reinforcement
Punishment
No Stimulus
The Use and Abuse of PunishmentThe Use and Abuse of Punishment
Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed
Punishment• Often triggers aggression• May inhibit learning new and better
responses• Is often applied unequally
When does punishment work?
Alternatives to PunishmentAlternatives to Punishment
Extinction
Reinforcing preferred activitiesPremack principle
Prompting and shaping
Other Types of ReinforcementOther Types of Reinforcement
Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism
Other Types of ReinforcementOther Types of Reinforcement
Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)
Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced
Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)
How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning?
Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement
Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Schedules of Schedules of Reinforcement/PunishmentReinforcement/Punishment
Ratio schedules : (Ratio = Behavior) (Root Beer)
Provide reinforcement/punishment after a certain number/repetition of responses/behaviors occur. (Can’t get the root beer out of the vending machine until you put 4 quarters into the machine).
Interval schedules :(Interval = Time) (Iced Tea)
Provide reinforcement/punishment after a certain time interval lapses following the behavior/response. (It’s not iced tea until the tea-bag steeps for 5 minutes).
Two Types of SchedulesTwo Types of Schedules
Fixed:
Reinforcement is given in a set, predictable pattern.
Variable:
Reinforcement is given in a varied, unpredictable pattern.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Ratio SchedulesRatio Schedules
Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval (VI)
Reinforcement/punishment appears after a certain set number of responses
e.g. Buy 1 get 1 free.
e.g. 3 strikes and you’re out!
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Ratio SchedulesRatio Schedules
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio Variable Ratio (VR)(VR)
Variable Interval (VI)
Reinforcement/Punishment appears after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial
e.g. slot machine pay-offs
e.g. Getting your cell phone taken away at school.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Interval SchedulesInterval Schedules
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval Fixed Interval (FI)(FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval (VI)
Reinforcement/punishment appears after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses
e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks
e.g. report cards
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Interval SchedulesInterval Schedules
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval Variable Interval (VI)(VI)
Reinforcement/punishment appears after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial
e.g. fishing
e.g. Tardy Sweeps; Sobriety Check Points
What is the reinforcement schedule?What is the reinforcement schedule?
1. Speed traps on the highway
2. Selling a product door to door
3. Getting the clothes from the dryer once it buzzes
4. Doing 20 pushups to stay fit
5. Playing Bingo
6. Getting a strike in bowling (if you’re not a pro!)
7. Surfer waiting for the perfect wave to ride in
8. Wife getting a kiss from her husband for every touchdown his football team gets.
9. Husband getting a kiss from his wife at the beginning of every commercial break while he watches Dancing with the Stars with her.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
How DoesHow DoesCognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?Explain Learning?
According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained
as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone
How DoesHow DoesCognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?Explain Learning?
Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions
How DoesHow DoesCognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?Explain Learning?
• Cognitive maps –A mental representation of physical space
Observational Learning: Bandura’s Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to BehaviorismChallenge to Behaviorism
Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior
Brain Mechanisms and LearningBrain Mechanisms and Learning
Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning
End of Chapter 6End of Chapter 6
Congratulations (Positive Reinforcement)! You made it to the end of the chapter (Fixed Ratio). Your hard work will pay off on the test on Wednesday (Fixed Interval). You will receive a good grade (positive reinforcement), which will shape the future behavior of studying (operant conditioning), and you will have fond memories of feeling good every time you hear the word “study” (classical conditioning). And, if you see other people succeeding in class, that will prompt you to do your work and study (observational learning). Now, go get yourself a treat for working so hard (Premack principal).