Chapter 6

Lexical Semantics

1. Traditional semantics2. Basic semantic relationships3. Structural semantics4. Semantic features

4.1 Feature analysis of nouns4.2 Feature analysis of verbal predicates4.3 Feature analysis of modals4.4 Postscript on semantic features

5. Prototypes6. Semantic anomaly

6.1 Selectional restrictions6.2 Figurative language

7. Cognitive approaches to meaning

Commentary

Semantics: study of linguistic meaning•Lexical semantics: meaning properties of individual wors (lexical items) in isolation•Sentence semantics: study of meaning properties of a sentence, of the semantic relationships among the parts of sentence.•Discourse semantics: study of the meaning of extended discourse, semantic relationship among utterances used in context

1. Traditional semanticsPreconceptions about meaning: prescriptive, attitudes toward

dictionariesMeaning of a phrase or sentence consists of a sum of the meaning of

its parts.Assumption1: There is one correct and accepted meaning for each

word. There is no correct and accepted meaning for each word in the language.

But, Individual variation. For example, “Brother-in-law.” Meaning changes over time.

Ignores function of meaningful phonological features (stress, intonation); meaning of the grammatical structure of the utterence; significance of the communicative context (pragmatics)

Assumption2: correspondence between a word and a thing is simple and direct. Relation between a word and the world may be quite complex: For example, “laid-back”

Assumption3: Words name things or objects in the real world; meaning is always in reference to phenomena outside language. However, many words do not name things at all: function words, words denoting abstractions or nonentities.-Extension: the set of entities that a word denotes in the world-Intension: the set of properties shared by all the referents of a word (defining characteristics)

Phrase: students in Hukuk 323-extension: Doruk, Onur, Aynur, Merve, … (may change

over time)-intension: whoever is in this classroom (does not

change over time)Assumption4: it is possible to treat the meanings of individual words

separately. However, words refer to things in the real world indirectly (by means of concepts existing in the mind, meanings internal to language (sense)), for example, “see” and “look.”

2. Basic semantic relationships• We already have the implicit understanding of the following

concepts.1.Paraphrase: the same meaning: Gul bought a car. Gul purchased an

automobile.2.Entailment (implication): one is logically necessary consequence of

the other (one-way): Gülşah was born in Gaziantep. Gulsah was born in Turkey.

3.Inclusion: one encompasses another (one-way). Faik loves fruit. Faik loves grapes.

4.Contradiction: if one is true, the other must be false: Melis is behaving well this semester. XX Melis is too spoiled this semester.

5.Anomaly: meaningless: Ferhat ate the exam. (maybe figurative!)6.Lexical Ambiguity: more than one meaning: “large bill”; he lost his

head

7.Denotation VS Connotation: denotation: literal or referential meaningconnotation: evoke feelings, attitudes, or opinions

terrorist VS rebel8.Polysemy: related meanings of a word: “bug” : ‘insect’, ‘enthusiast’, ‘electronic

device for eavesdropping’, ‘design defect in a computer’; 9.Homonymy: sound the same, look the same, but totally different:

swallow kırlangıçswallow yutmak

10.Meronymy: a word denotes part of a whole: weekmonth; 'finger' is a meronym of 'hand'

11.Presupposition: things assumed beforehand, taken for granted: Gizem didn’t read the article.Factive expression: presupposed complement clauses: “it is tragic that it is not raining.”Nonfactive expression: not-presupposed complement clause: “I think it is raining.”Counter factive: event that has not occurred “He wishes that he were rich.”

3. Structural Semantics

• John Lyons’ description• Synonymy: sameness in meaning

Synonymy is context dependent:Pedigree (for animals)Ancestry, genealogy, lineage (for humans)

Carcass (for animals)Corpse (for humans)

Synonymous in one context, but not all:

•Synonymy ignores connotations:HorseSteedNag•Degree or intensity may differ:Rain, showers, sprinkles, downpour•ignores stylistic aspects, dialectical variation:Privy, loo, wc, bathroom, restroom, washroom,

toilet

• Hyponymy: relation of inclusion and entailment.Superordinate redHyponyms scarlet, crimson, vermilion,

pink, maroon

Oppositeness according to Lyons: 1.Complementarity, 2.Antonymy, 3.Converseness

1.Complementarity: denial of one term is the assertion of its complementary term. Works for incompatible extremes (not gradable):

right = not wrongnot right = wrong

2. Antonymy: For gradable concepts; in comparison to a norm.

warm beer = 38° = cold coffee

3. Converseness: permitting reversalSinem bought the car from Ozge Ozge …

Tugba ate the strawberries.

4. Semantic features

4.1. Feature analysis of nouns[±COMMON][±COUNT][±CONCRETE][±COLLECTIVE][±ANIMATE][±HUMAN][±GROWN][±MALE]

butter cabbage[+COMMON][--COUNT][+CONCRETE][--COLLECTIVE][--ANIMATE][xHUMAN][xMALE]

[+COMMON][+COUNT][+CONCRETE][--COLLECTIVE][--ANIMATE][xHUMAN][xMALE]

lioness experience[+COMMON][+COUNT][+CONCRETE][--COLLECTIVE][+ANIMATE][--HUMAN][--MALE]

[+COMMON][+COUNT][--CONCRETE][xCOLLECTIVE][--ANIMATE][xHUMAN][xMALE]

4.2. Feature analysis of verbal practices[STATIVE][DURATIVE][TELIC][VOLUNTARY]

Vendlor’s four situation types:1. state2. activity3. accomplishment4. achievement

4.3. Feature analysis of modalswill, wouldcan, couldshall, shouldmay, mightmusthave to have got toought toneed tobe supposed tobe able to

Features:[EPISTEMIC]: a matter of belief; inference; deduction; potentiality, possibility, probability, prediction, certainty.

•Answers the question “How do you know?”•relates to the entire proposition

[DEONTIC]: a matter of action; permission, duty, responsibility, obligation, command. •Answers the question “What should I do?”•subject-oriented

Sentences with modals are either epistemic or deontic, or ambiguous.

Sometimes distinction is obvious:I must leave now. [--EPISTEMIC], [+DEONTIC]I must be dreaming. [++EPISTEMIC], [--DEONTIC]

Sometimes not:She will be home soon. [+EPISTEMIC], [--DEONTIC]I will marry you. [--EPISTEMIC], +[DEONTIC]

Expressing obligation in the past:had to (not must)

Ambiguous sentences:They must be married.You might have said something.A student whose file of essays is incomplete may not be considered for appeal.Frank may go out to buy a newspaper.She must not care.You may see him.

4.4. Postscript on semantic features

5. Prototypes

-Core members-Peripheral members

6. Semantic Anomalymeaningless VS interpretable expressions

6.1 Selectional RestrictionsWords co-occur only with those words that have certain features.

• fly – requires [+WINGED] subject{The airplane, the bird, *the goat} flew north.

• talk, think, dream – require [+HUMAN] subject (or possibly [+ANIMATE]){The man, *the rock} is talking/thinking/dreaming.My dog is talking to me/thinking about his dinner/dreaming about cats.

• admire – requires [+HUMAN] subject{Judy, *the goldfish} admires Mozart.

• anger – requires [+ANIMATE] objectIntruders anger {dogs, homeowners, *houses}.

• shatter – requires [+SOLID] subject or objectThe hammer shattered {the rock, *the pudding}. The rock shattered.

• tall – requires [+VERTICAL] object{The building, the person, *the road} is tall.

• long – requires [+HORIZONTAL] object{The ribbon, *the tree} is long.

6.2 Figurative Language

Figurative use of language (personification, metaphor, etc.) routinely violate selectional restrictions. However, we can interpret figurative language.

Literal: “An intruder attacked me.”Metaphorical: “Envy attacked me.”Anomalous: “The rock attacked me.”

Types of Figurative Language1.oxymoron (paradox): explicit contradiction: living death, silent scream, soft rock2.tautology: true by definition; an orphan is parentless child, new innovation, boys will be boys, free

gift.3.synesthesia: combining a word from one sensory domain with

another: sweet sound, cold response, cool reception. For example, visual + emotional = blue mood, green with envy, red

with anger.4.synecdoche: referring to a thing by naming part of it or the material

that composes it: a new face, new blood (=new person); a cork, an iron, a glass, plastic

(=credit card)

Types of Figurative Language (continued)

• 5.metonymy: denoting a thing by naming something associated with it:

Types of Figurative Language (continued)

6.personification: attributing human qualities to nonhumans or inanimate objects.

The idea grabbed me.The vending machine ate my money.

7.metaphor: transferring a word from one conceptual domain to another.

grasp the pointget a jokewrestle with an idea

translate (carry over)deduce (lead down)abstract (separated from material objects)explain (spread out on a flat surface)compose (place together)conceive (take and hold)affirm (make strong, make steady)understand ()comprehend ()

a rat (for humans)wolf (for humans)snake (for humans)pit bull (for humans)tiger (for humans)

Interpretation of metaphors: We interpret them by selecting only some, but not all of the features of a word.

Selectional restrictions violated: Ralph is married to a gem.Juliet is the sun.Billboards are warts on the landscape.My car drinks gasoline.Craig ate up the compliments.Kevin is married to his work.The moonlight sleeps upon the bank.

No apparent violation of selectional restrictions:They have swerved from the path.He bit off a larger bite than he could chew.

7. Cognitive approaches to meaning

What is metaphorical is the cognitive processes.

I won the argument.He retreated from his initial position.She buttressed her position with several examples.He shot down all my arguments.

(ARGUMENT IS WAR)

Source domains tend to relate to concrete and more immediate areas of human experience.

Target domains are more abstract than the source domains.

Concepts, cognitive mappings, and metaphorical expressions

CONCEPT COGNITIVE MAPPING Metaphorical Expressions

Consciousness CONSCIOUSNESS IS SPATIAL ORIENTATION-LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS IS GOING DOWN-GAINING CONSCIOUSNESS IS GOING UP

-fall into a coma-be under a spell-drop off to sleep

-come out of a coma-wake up

ideas IDEAS ARE OBJECTS-ARGUMENT IS A BUILDING-IDEA IS FOOD-SCIENTIFIC FIELDS ARE HUMAN BEINGS-IDEAS ARE PLANTS

-The argument is shaky.-That notion is half baked.-He is the father of linguistics.-The seeds of the idea were planted.

Mappings work in one direction.CONCEPT COGNITIVE MAPPING Metaphorical ExpressionsMoral Goodness MORAL GOODNESS IS SPATIAL

ORIENTATION-GOODNESS IS UP-BADNESS IS DOWN

He has high standards.He’s sunk into deprivity.

Physical Health PHYSICAL HEALTH IS SPATIAL ORIENTATION-BEING HEALTHY IS UP-BEING ILL IS DOWN

-She is in peak form.-She fell ill.

Metonymy, according to Lakoff and Johnson (1980) is also cognitive.

Within a single domain, rather than across domains.

• Conceptualizing a person by means of the object or place associated with that person.

The stroller needs to get off at the next stop.The taxis are on a strike.He is a hired gun.The green car is driving too fast.High level talks are taking place between

Washington and Beijing.

Image Schema: Based on our physical experience, we form basic conceptual structures, which organize our thoughts. Then, we

form more complex domains.

-up-down-front-back-part-whole-inside-outside (container-contained)-force-path-balance-containment

-path schema: LIFE IS A JOURNEY ON A PATH