chapter7 pp hdev mjc
TRANSCRIPT
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CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7
Early Childhood: Physical and Early Childhood: Physical and Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
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Growth PatternsGrowth Patterns
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Growth Patterns
• Growth rate -Slows during preschool years
-Girls and boys gain 2 to 3 inches in height per year -Weight gains remain fairly even at about 4 to 6 pounds per year-Children become “slender” as height increases-Boys become slightly taller and heavier than girls
• Variations are shown from child to child
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Fig. 7-1, p. 134
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Development of the Brain
• Brain-Brain develops more quickly than any other organ during childhood-At 2 years, brain is 75% of adult weight-At 5 years, brain is 90% of adult weight
• Increase in brain size due in part to myelination of nerve fibers
• Completion of myelination of neural pathways that link the cerebellum to the cerebral cortex helps development of fine motor skills, balance, and coordination.
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Brain Development (cont’d)• Parts of the brain involved in the ability to sustain attention and screen out distractions have become increasingly myelinated (between ages 4 and 7).
• Visual processing speed improves and reaches adult level (at adolescence)
• Functions of left and right hemispheres overlap
• The hemispheres are aided in cooperation by the myelination of the corpus callosum.
- a thick bundle of nerve fibers that connects the
hemispheres
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Brain Development (cont’d)
• Plasticity
-Brain’s ability to compensate for injuries to particular
parts of the brain
-Greatest at 1 to 2 years of age
• Preschoolers with damage to language areas can overcome them due to plasticity.
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Motor DevelopmentMotor Development
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Motor Development
• Gross motor skills-Involve large muscles used in locomotion
-ex.: balancing on one foot, walking up stairs, pedaling a bike
-By age 4 to 5, most older preschoolers have mastered large motor skills.
• Boys and girls similar in motor skills-Girls somewhat better in balance and precision-Boys show some advantage in throwing and kicking
• Motor experiences in infancy may affect the development of motor skills in early childhood.
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Table 7-1, p. 136
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Table 7-2, p. 137
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Physical Activity • Preschoolers spend an average of 25 hours a week in large muscle activity. -Decreases as child ages
• Rough-and-tumble play helps develop physical and social skills in children.
-Is not the same as aggressive behavior
• Physically active parents are likely to have physically active children.
-Children of active fathers 3.5 times as likely to be active
-Twin studies also suggest there is a genetic tendency
for activity level
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Fine Motor Skills & Children’s Artistic Development
• Fine motor skills involve the small muscles used in manipulation and coordination.
-Development of drawing is linked to the development of motor and cognitive skills
-Kellogg (1959, 1970) identified basic scribbles needed in the building blocks of art: vertical, horizontal, diagonal, circular, curving, waving/zigzagging, and dots
-Four stages of making scribbles consist of
1. placement
2. shape
3. design
4. pictorial
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Handedness
• Handedness emerges during infancy-By 4 months
-clear preference for right
hand
-By 6 to 14 months
-preference to grasping with particular hand increases
-By childhood
-clear preference for right or
left hand
• Origins of handedness• If both parents are right-
handed, 92% chance that child will be right-handed
• If both parents are left-handed, 50% chance that child will be left-handed
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Health and IllnessHealth and Illness
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Nutrition
• Nutritional needs vary by age.
-1- to 3-year-olds need 1,000 to 1,300 calories a day
-Appetite becomes erratic during 2nd and 3rd year of life and caloric needs decrease
-4- to 6-year-olds need 1,400 calories a day
• Children are often fed too much salt and sugar.• Food preferences are somewhat environmental.• Repeated exposure to a food increases the liking of it.• Parents are the role model for which types of food a
child will like to eat.
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Minor Illnesses
• Minor illnesses include
-respiratory infections
-gastrointestinal upsets
-last a few days to a week
• These diseases in childhood are normal
-Leading killer of children in developing countries is diarrheal illness
• American children between the ages of 1 and 3 average eight to nine minor illnesses a year– Between the ages of 4 and 10, the average drops to four to six
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Major Illnesses
• Advances in immunization along with development of antibiotics have reduced and/or eradicated illnesses such as rubella, measles, tetanus, mumps, whooping cough, diphtheria, and polio.
• 1/3 of children in the U.S. (younger than 18 years of age) suffer from a chronic illness such as: – arthritis, diabetes, cerebral palsy, or cystic fibrosis
• Worldwide, 8 to 9 million children die from:– pneumonia, diarrhea, measles, tetanus, whooping cough,
and tuberculosis
• Air pollution from the combustion of fossil fuels for heating and cooking causes many respiratory infections.
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Major Illnesses (cont’d)
• Diarrhea
-kills nearly 2 million children under the age of 5 each year
-is due to unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation/hygiene
• Lead exposure
-Consuming lead
-Breathing in dust from paint with lead in it
-Drinking tap water with lead in it
-Can contribute to neurological damage and lowered cognitive functioning and other delays in childhood
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Accidents
• Number one cause of death in early childhood-Motor vehicle accidents
• Boys-More likely than girls to incur accidental injuries at all ages
and in all socioeconomic groups
• Poor children-Five times as likely to die from fires-More than twice as likely to die in motor vehicle accidents
• High accident rate of low-income children may result in part from living in dangerous housing and neighborhoods.
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SleepSleep
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Sleep Disorders
• Sleep terrors
-More severe than nightmares
-Occur during deep sleep (not during REM)
-Begin in childhood; end in late adolescence
-Can be associated with stress
-May wake suddenly with a surge in heart and respiration rates, talk incoherently; thrash about
• Sleep terrors can contribute to child’s fear of going to sleep and insomnia; caretakers have to be understanding and give affection; regular sleep routine helps
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Sleep Disorders (cont’d)
• Sleep walking (somnambulism)
-Children may walk, rearrange toys, go to the bathroom, go to the refrigerator
-Will have no memory of the activity
-Awakening does not cause aggressive behavior
-Onset is between ages of 3 and 8
-Occurs during deep sleep
-Associated with immaturity of thenervous system
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Table 7-3, p. 141
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Elimination DisordersElimination Disorders
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Elimination Disorders
• Most American children potty train between the ages of 3 and 4; may still have “accidents”
• Enuresis-Failure to control the bladder (urination) once the “normal”
age for achieving bladder control has been reached (usually at age 5)-Does not include bed-wetting under twice a month-Immaturity of the motor cortex may be contributor-Outgrow between age 8 and adolescence
• Bed-wetting-Inability to wake up during the night and go to the bathroom-8-10% of American children bed wet-Occurs during deep sleep
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Elimination Disorders (cont’d)
• Encopresis-Lack of control over the bowels
-More common with boys as is bed-wetting
-1-2% of children at the ages of 7 and 8 have continuing problems with bowels
-Soiling more likely to happen during the day, causing embarrassment to the child
-Stems from physical causes such as chronic constipation as well as psychological factors such
as harsh punishment for toileting accidents
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Jean Piaget’s Preoperational StageJean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
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Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
• Preoperational stage lasts from age 2 to age 7.
• Language ability is the greatest symbolic activity during this stage.
-Scribbling/drawing begins at start of this stage
• Symbolic play (pretend play) is engaged in from 15 months of age.
-Increases in complexity as child ages
• Quality of child’s play has long-term implications.-Preschoolers who engage in violent pretend play are less empathic, less likely to help other children, and more likely
to engage in antisocial behavior later on
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Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (cont’d)• 65% of preschoolers have imaginary friends.
-More common among first born and only children than children with older siblings
• Children with imaginary playmates are -less aggressive, more cooperative, more creative than children without imaginary friends; show better ability to concentrate and are more advanced in language development
• Egocentrism-One-dimensional thinking-Think parents are aware of everything that is happening to them-Piaget used “three-mountains” test to measure it
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Fig. 7-4, p. 144
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Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (cont’d)
• Precausal
-Unless preoperational children know the natural causes of an event, their reasons are likely to be based egocentrically and not based on science.
• Transductive reasoning
-Children reason by going from one specific isolated event to another.
• Animism
-Attribution of life and intentions to inanimate objects
• Artificialism
-Assumes environmental factors such as rain and thunder have been designed and made by people
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Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (cont’d)
• Preoperational child has difficulty making distinctions between mental and physical events; may believe dreams are real
• Can only focus on one dimension at a time• Conservation
-Law that holds that properties of substances such as volume, mass, and number remain the same even if you change their shape or arrangement
-Attainment of this skill moves the child into concrete
operational stage
• Preoperational child has not mastered reversibility
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Fig. 7-5, p. 145
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Fig. 7-6, p. 146
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Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (cont’d)
• Class inclusion
-Including new objects or categories in broader mental classes or categories
-Requires child to focus on two aspects of a situation at once
-This skill not observed during preoperational stage
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Factors in Cognitive DevelopmentFactors in Cognitive Development
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Vygotsky’s Factors in Cognitive Development
• Scaffolding-Temporary support provided by a parent or teacher to
learning children-Guidance by adult decreases as child is capable of
carrying out task on their own
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)-Vygotsky’s term for the situation in which a child carries
out tasks with the help of someone who is more skilled-Gap between what children are capable of doing now and what they could do with help from others-Adults or older children help in guiding by gearing
assistance to children’s capabilities
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The “HOME” Environment
• HOME-Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment
-Caldwell et al. (2003) developed measure for evaluating children’s home environments-Contains six subscales-Better predictor of young children’s IQ than social class, mother’s IQ, or infant IQ scores-Home environment is connected with occupational success
as an adult
• Factors such as parental responsiveness, stimulation, encouraging independence of preschooler are connected with higher IQ scores and greater school achievement.
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Table 7-4, p. 147
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Effects of Early Childhood Education
• Preschool education enables children to get an early start on achievement in school.
• Children from lower SES
-show lower performance on standardized
intelligence tests
-are at greater risk for school failure
• Effects of preschool intervention programs
-Studies of Head Start and other enrichment programs show that environmental enrichment as well as parent education can enhance the cognitive development of economically
disadvantaged children.
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Television
• U.S. children spend more time watching television than they do in school.– 3-year-olds watch 2 to 3 hours of TV per day
• Children’s programming – Shows mild to moderate effects on preschoolers’ cognitive
development
• Sesame Street– Regular viewing increases children’s learning of numbers,
letters, and cognitive skills
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Theory of MindTheory of Mind
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Theory of Mind
• Preschoolers can accurately predict and explain human action and emotion in terms of mental states.
• Preschoolers can separate their beliefs from those of another person who has false knowledge of a situation by age 4 to 5.
• By age 4, children understand that senses contribute to understanding qualities of an object.
• Appearance-reality distinction-Understanding the difference between real events and
mental events
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Development of MemoryDevelopment of Memory
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Development of Memory
• By age 4, children can remember events from 1 1/2 years earlier.
• Scripts-Young children form scripts when describing what happens during a particular event.-Script becomes more elaborate as it is told
• Autobiographical memory (episodic memory)-Memory or specific events is facilitated by children talking about them with others
• Parental interest and questioning increases preschooler’s memory.
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Development of Memory (cont’d)
• When preschoolers are younger, they remember more than they reported.
• Verbal reports used to measure accuracy of preschoolers’ memory appear to underestimate their memory.
• Rehearsal-Memory strategy using repetition; engaged in around 5 years
• Sorting objects enhances preschoolers’ memory.
• Memory strategies advance during middle childhood.
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Language Development: Language Development: Why “Daddy Goed Away”Why “Daddy Goed Away”
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Development of Vocabulary
• Preschoolers learn an average of 9 words a day.
• Fast-mapping-Process where child quickly attaches a new word to its appropriate concept
• Whole-object assumption-Assume that words refer to whole objects and not to their component parts or characteristics
• Contrast assumption-The assumption that objects have only one label
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Development of Grammar
• Children’s sentence structure increases during 3rd year of life
• Overregularization
-Children acquire grammatical rules as they learn language; young ages apply rules rigidly
-Reflects accurate knowledge of grammar
• Certain “wh” questions (what, who, where) appear earlier than others (why, when, which, how).
• Passive sentences are difficult for 2- and 3-year-olds.
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Pragmatics and Language
• Pragmatics-Practical aspects of communication-Children demonstrate pragmatism when they adjust
speech to fit the social situation
• Language and cognitive development are interwoven.• Piaget maintained cognitive development precedes
language development.-Children learn the word and then apply it to the category
• Research on which develops first is inconclusive• Vygotsky maintained that vocalizations and thoughts are
separate during the first year.• Inner speech
-Spoken aloud thoughts are internalized
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