MERRELL, K.W., ERVIN, R. A., & PEACOCK, G. G. (2006). SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: FOUNDATIONS AND PRACTICES. NEW YORK, NY: THE GUILFORD PRESS.

Chapters 7 and 9

Facilitating Change through Data-Driven Problem Solving: A Model for School Psychology Practice.

Chapter 7

Roles of the School Psychologist

Diagnostic Refer Test Place SEARCH FOR

PATHOLOGY!

Non-categorical diagnostics

Problem-solving model Assessment Intervention Systems Change Research

Focus on prevention

Expected Role Future Roles

Aptitude by Treatment Interaction (ATI) Assumptions:

Characteristics of the person affect response to treatment

Person will learn more easily from one method than another

The method differs from person to person The method can be determined based on data from

assessment. Data:

Fails to support these assumptions Individuals are not simply one variable deep (mediating

and moderating variables and multiple aptitudes).

Problem Solving Model

Focuses on the problem Emphasis on early intervention (fix it before

it gets bigger). Uses research and not “assumptions” to

guide practice. [Evidence-based practice] Uses direct assessment tools for measuring

academic and behavioral outcomes. Links the assessment to the intervention. Outcome-focused and context-specific

Problem Solving Model

Basic Problem Identification

• This will vary across different academic and behavioral tasks.

•Changes to make this gap smaller need to focus on all aspects of the child’s issues.

•This distance may widen and shorten throughout the span of time a child is in school.

What is the problem?

Requires objective means to measure the problem. Precise Practical Objective Socially valid

Problem morphs into goals (short- and long-term)

Measurement must be quantifiable. Intensity Frequency Duration Severity Magnitude Complexity Resistance to

intervention.

Why is it Occurring?

Linking assessment to treatment and evaluation

Analysis of problem context and function

Hypothesis formation phase

Assess when, where and with whom the problem is better or worse.

Why is it Occurring?

Variety of Sources: Student Teacher Parent Peers Admin

Variety of Tools Formal Informal

Low motivation Rewarded for not

doing the tasks Work is too hard. Work is not sufficiently

explained or not enough help provided.

Work is too different from what is expected.

Ways to Test Review of the reasons for problems:

What Should Be Done About It? Use the collected data to determine the basis

of the intervention. Design the intervention around this data AND

around research-based interventions in the literature.

Interventions chosen for: Relevance to the problem Contextual fit Likelihood of success.

Establish progress monitoring tools and timelines

Did it Work?

To be completed, problem should be resolved.

Examine data collected through progress monitoring.

Compare pre-post intervention data.

Single-subject design techniques are good.

The School Psychologist’s Role in Prevention and Intervention: Part 1: Academic Skills

Chapter 9

Fundamentals

Children learn and develop at different rates.

Developmental progress varies over time and across domains.

Interventions must be adapted to meet the individual student’s needs.

Problem solving model cannot guarantee success BUT it should increase the probability of success.

Risk and Protective Factors

Poverty (lack of resources) Economic Dependence Overcrowding Disorganization within

the family system Uncaring parents Chronic family conflict Abuse/ Maltreatment

Quality parent/child relationships

Good cognitive development

Self-regulation of attention, emotion, and behavior

General Risk Factors Protective Factors

Intervention Considerations

Trustworthy and effective For your student In that context

Relevant to the problem and context Efficient Practical Acceptable Feasible in context Produces desired outcomes Evaluated for your child in this situation

Things to note:

Early Intervention in Reading: Phonological

awareness Alphabetic

understanding Accuracy and

fluency

Learning needs interactions and alignments between Student (who is

being taught) Curriculum (what

is being taught) Instruction (how it

is being taught)

Student (Who is being Taught?) What is the student’s prior knowledge: skills,

strategies, perceptions, expectations, and beliefs Task specific: information needed for that task.

Know the foundational information Can access needed information with automaticity

Task related: skills needed for learning. Can solve problems Can self-monitor Can self-regulate

Student variables that affect learning: Selective attention Motivation Ability to recall

The Curriculum (What to Teach?) Types of curriculum:

Intended: formally recommended and adopted

Taught: what is actually taught by teachers Learned: what is actually learned by

students Problems when significant difference

between intended and learned.

Instruction (How and When to Teach) Should be timed

for hierarchical learning (example below) Step one =

mastered Step two = in

progress Step three = on

hold

Learning facilitated through: Explanations Demonstrations Guided practice Timely correction Task-specific

feedback

Improve Academic Engagement, Motivation, Self-Regulation, & Problem Solving Structuring the

Classroom Environment: Organizing a productive

classroom Establishing rules and

procedures Managing transitions Managing independent

seatwork Communicating

competency with students Teaching pro-social

behavior

Contingency-Management: Systems of rewards

and punishments Established

expectations Teaching Strategies:

Interactive strategies over lecture Peer tutoring Cooperative Learning Teacher questioning

Improve Academic Engagement, Motivation, Self-Regulation, & Problem Solving Self-Monitoring:

Teachable skill Observing

behavior Recording

observations Self-evaluation Self-reinforcement

Self-Instruction Teach them to

verbalize information that is unfamiliar.

Teaching strategies for learning. Mneumonics Study skills

Improve Skill Development, Fluency, and Retention of InformationOrganizing Materials Techniques:

Demonstration Modeling Cueing Prompting

Considerations Break into smaller bits Identify what will be

confusing and focus on it. Relate new information to

older information Teach to mastery

Strategies for Improving Academics Math = number

sense Reading =

phonemic awareness

Reading Fluency = repeated readings

Prevention

Primary prevention: All students are target Who receives intervention (nature of population) What will be the nature of the services How and when to be implemented

Collect data to determine who needs help Begin problem solving model to provide help Repeat at secondary and tertiary levels if

applicable

Class Discussion

Read the Discussion Question #5 (pg 204-205) and discuss with the group.