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Donald Poland, MS, AICP

Introduction to GeographyLecture Notes

Introduction

Chapter 1

The Nature of Geography

Geography as the spatial scienceThe study of spatial variation

How & why things differ from place to place on the surface of the earth

Spatial

Essential modifier“Spatial behavior”“Spatial process”

MeaningThe way things are distributedThe way movements occurThe way processes operate over the whole or part of the earth’s surface

Location

Absolute LocationMathematical location

Latitude & longitudeOther grid systems

Relative LocationSpatial interconnection & interdependence

Site & Situation

SiteThe physical & cultural characteristics & attributes of the place itself

SituationThe external relations of a locale

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Direction

Absolute DirectionCardinal points (N,S,E,&W)

Relative Direction“Out West”“Back East”

Distance

Absolute DistanceStandard units such as miles or kilometers

Relative DistanceTime

“20 minutes from here”

Physical & Cultural Attributes

Physical AttributesClimate, soil, water supply, mineral resources, terrain features

“natural landscape”

Cultural AttributesLanguage, religion, agricultural patterns, food, music

“cultural landscape”

Places

Attributes of places are always changingInterrelations between places

AccessibilityConnectivitySpatial diffusionGlobalization

Regions

Areas of spatial similarityFormal Regions

Uniformity in one or a limited number of related physical or cultural features

“Columbia Plateau” or “The Corn Belt”

Functional RegionsA spatial system

Trade areas or transportation networks

Geography Themes & Standards

Five Fundamental ThemesNational StandardsFour Traditions

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Five Fundamental Themes

LocationPlaceRelationships within placesMovementRegions

Four Traditions

Earth-Science TraditionCulture-Environment TraditionLocational (or Spatial) TraditionArea Analysis (or Regional) Tradition

Fig.1.14

Maps

Chapter 2

The Grid System

PolesEquatorLatitudeLongitude

Latitude

Angular distance north or south of the equatorMeasured in degrees

0°-90° North or SouthEach degree of latitude = 69 miles

Slightly longer near the polesSlightly shorter near equator

Minutes (’) 1.15 miles & seconds (”) 101 feet

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Latitude (Continued)

Prime MeridianPasses through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, EnglandSelected at an International Conference in 1884

Other meridiansTrue N-S lines connecting the polesFarthest apart at equator

Longitude

Angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian

0°-180° East or WestInternational Date Line generally follows the 180th

meridianDistance between lines decreases towards the polesTime depends on longitude

Each time zone ≈ 15° of longitude

Map Projections

Transforming a globe surface to a flat surface always results in distortionProperties of Map Projections

AreaShapeDistanceDirection

Area

Equal-area or equivalent projections represent areas in correct proportion to the earth’s areaBut, the shape of the area is distorted to achieve this

See Figure 2.5

Shape

No map can provide correct shape for large areas, but some can accurately portray shapes for small areasMaps that have true shapes are known as conformalA map cannot be both conformal and equivalent (equal-area)

DistanceDistance relationships are almost always distorted on a map

Some maintain true distances along one direction or along certain lines

Equidistant projections show true distances in all directions, but only from one or two central points

See Figure 2.9A map cannot be both equidistant and equal-area

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Direction

Directions between all points cannot be shown without distortionAzimuthal projections enable a map user to measure the distance from a single point to any other pointAzimuthal projections may also be equivalent, conformal, or equidistant

Types of ProjectionsGlobe properties

All meridians are equal in lengthAll meridians converge at the polesLines of latitude are parallel to the equator and to each otherParallels decrease in length as one nears the polesMeridians and parallels intersect at right anglesThe scale on the surface of the globe is the same everywhere in all directions

Cylindrical Projections

Mercator ProjectionA lot of distortion towards the poles

Shapes are fairly accurate, but areas are widely distorted

Great CircleRhumb lines – straight line is true compass bearing – the only projection

Conic Projections

The cone is closest in form to ½ of a globeConic projections are widely used to depict hemispheres or smaller parts of the earth

See Figure 2.6a

Planar Projections

Plane tangent to the surfacePlanar projections are equidistant from the tangent pointCommonly used for polar areasGnomonic projections show all great circles as straight lines

Other Projections

Goode’s HomolosineRobinsonOvals, hearts, trapezoids, stars, etc.

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Scale

Ratio between the measurement of something on a map and the corresponding measurement on the earthRepresented in three ways

VerballyGraphicallyRepresentative fraction (RF)

1:25,000 or 1/25,000

Scale (continued)

Large-scale maps show a small areaVery detailed

Small-scale maps show large areasVery generalized

Types of Maps

TopographicSurface areas in relatively high detailPhysical & human featuresUSGS quadrangles

NRCAN in CanadaContour lines & intervals

Shaded relief

Types of Maps (continued)Thematic Maps

Point symbolsDot densityProportional circles

Area symbolsUsually different colors or patterns Choropleth maps

Line symbolsNon quantitative, such as roadsQuantitative, such as isolinesFlow-line maps

Remote SensingDetecting the nature of an object from a distanceAerial photography

OrthophotomapsFalse-color images

Nonphotographic imageryThermal scannersRadarSatellites

Satellite Imagery

LandsatFirst launched 1972

1 hour 40 minute orbitEarth coverage every 16 days50 ft. resolution

SPOT

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Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Five major componentsData inputData managementData manipulationAnalysis functionsData output

Civilian Spy SatellitesDo you think that the availability of the new, detailed satellite images is a potential threat to national security? Might access to images of their enemies make belligerent countries more dangerous than they already are? Why or why not?

In what ways might access to satellite imagery stem the tides of environmental and social destabilization and foster peace.

Should the federal government, which licenses the satellites, be allowed to exercise “shutter control”, cutting off image sales during wartime? Why or why not?

Physical Geography:Landforms

Chapter 3

Earth Materials

Igneous RocksSedimentary RocksMetamorphic Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Cooling & solidification of molten rockUnderground molten rock is magmaAbove ground molten rock is lava

Composition of magma & lava + cooling rate determines the minerals that formGranite, basalt, pumice, obsidian

Sedimentary Rocks

Composed of particles of gravel, sand, silt, & clayPressure & cementing processes cause rocks to formLarge particles form conglomeratesSand forms sandstoneSilt & clay form shale or siltstoneOrganic materials form limestone or coal

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Metamorphic Rocks

Formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks by earth forces that produce heat, pressure, or chemical reactions

Shale becomes slateLimestone can become marbleGranite may become gneiss

Geologic Time

Earth formed 4.7 billion years agoCurrent landforms are often millions of years oldEarly 20th century work by geologist Alfred Wegener on continental drift helped to explain how landforms developed over time

Movements of the Continents

Plate tectonics theoryEarth’s crust is outer, lighter portion of the lithosphereLithosphere broken into 12 large and numerous small plates that slide & drift over the asthenospherePlate movement may be caused by convection

Plate Boundaries

Divergent plate boundariesPlates move away from each other

Transform boundariesPlates slide by each other horizontally

Convergent boundariesPlates move towards each other

Plate collisions can cause earthquakes along faults

Convergent Movement

Convergent plates can cause deep-sea trenches and continental-scale mountain ranges

Heavy, but thin, oceanic crust tends to be forced under continental crustDeep trenches form at these subduction zonesVolcanoes and earthquakes are common in subduction zones

For example, the Ring of Fire

Tectonic Forces

DiastrophismGreat pressure causing plates to fold, twist, warp, break, and compress

VolcanismThe force that transports heated material to or toward the earth’s surface

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Diastrophism

Broad warpingFoldingFaulting

EscarpmentsRift valleysTsunami

Volcanism

Strato or composite volcanoSteep sides

Shield volcanoGentle slopesNo explosion

Gradational Processes

Reduction of the land’s surfaceTypes

WeatheringMass movementErosion

Weathering

MechanicalFrost actionSalt crystalsRoot action

ChemicalOxidationHydrolysisCarbonation

Mass Movement

“Mass wasting”Downslope movement of material due to gravityAccumulation of rock particles at the base of hills is talus

Erosional Agents & Deposition

Running waterAmount of precipitationLength & steepness of the slopeKind of rock & vegetation

Forms landscapes such as deltas

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Stream LandscapesHumid areas

WaterfallsV-shaped channelsFloodplainsMeandering streams

Oxbow lakes, natural levees, flooding

Arid areasLack of vegetation increases erosional forcesTemporary lakesAlluvial fansDeep, straight-sided arroyos (wadi)Buttes & mesas

Groundwater

Aquifers form in zone of saturationUpper zone is the water table

Can dissolve soluble materials to form stalactites, stalagmites, & sinkholesKarst topography

Glaciers

Covered a large part of the planet only 10-15,000 years agoLarge body of ice moving down a slope or spreading outward on a land surfaceCan move as much as 1 meter per day

Glacial Landforms

Glacial troughsU-shaped valleysFiords

TarnsCirquesArêtesOutwash plainMoraines

Waves, Currents, & Coastal Landforms

WavesDeposition & erosionSandbars

Longshore currentsForms beaches & spits

Coral reefs & atollsFormed by the secretion of calcium carbonate by coral organisms in sunny, warm water areas

Wind

Abrasive action of sand & dust sculpts the landscapeDunes

BarchanLoess

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Landform Regions

A large section of the earth’s surface where a great deal of homogeneity occurs

Physical Geography:Weather & Climate

Chapter 4

Air TemperatureSolar energy

InsolationSun angleNumber of daylight hours

1. Amount of water vapor2. Cloud cover3. Land vs. water4. Elevation above sea level5. Degree & direction of air movement

Earth inclinationAxis of the earth tilts at ≈ 23.5°Rotation once every 24 hours21 June / summer solstice

Vertical rays of the sun at 23.5 ° NTropic of Cancer

Northern hemisphere tilted towards the sun21 December / winter solstice

Vertical rays of the sun at 23.5 ° S Tropic of Cancer

Equinoxes on March 21 & September 21

Reflection & Reradiation

Clouds & light surfaces reflect energyReradiation also contributes to lost energyWater stores more energy than land

Land heats & cools more rapidlyWater heats & cools more slowly

The Lapse Rate

6.4°C per 1000 meters3.5°F per 1000 feet

Temperature inversionsCooler air trapped below warmer air

Can contribute to smog problems

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Air Pressure & Winds

Air pressure is higher near the earth’s surfacePressure measured by a barometer

Pressure gradient forces air to blow from high to low pressure areasConvection

Warm air risesCool air sinks

Land & sea breezesWarmer air over land replaced by cooler air over water

Mountain & valley breezesCooler air in mountains sinks into valley (often at night)Warmer air in valleys rises into mountains (often during the day)

Coriolis effectWind veers towards the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere

Global Air-Circulation Pattern

Equatorial low pressureNortheast trades WesterliesSubpolar lowPolar easterliesPolar high

Ocean Currents

Roughly corresponds to global wind direction patternsDifferences in water density also cause movementCoriolis effectLandmasses are a barrier to currents

Moisture in the Atmosphere

PrecipitationRain, sleet, snow, or hailSupersaturation leads to droplets if condensation nuclei are present

Relative humidityA percentage measure of moisture content of the air, expressed as the amount of water vapor present relative to the maximum that can exist at the current temperature

Types of Precipitation

Convectional precipitationResults from rising, heated, moisture-laden air

Orographic precipitationWarm air is forced to rise by hills or mountains

Cyclonic, or frontal precipitationWhere cool and warm air masses meetAir Masses: Large bodies of air with similar temperature and humidity – Leading edge of an air mass as it moves is a front

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Storms

Midlatitude cyclonesHurricanes

TyphoonsBlizzardsTornadoes

Climate

A generalization based on daily & seasonal weather conditions

Soil FormationVariation in soil types due to five major factors

Geology – Underlying rockClimate – Effects of temperature & precipitationTopography – Elevation of land & slopeBiology – Living & dead plants & AnimalsTime – Length of time the four above factors have been interacting

Soil Profile & Horizons

O-horizon – Surface layer – organic manterialA-horizon – Fertile topsoilE-horizon – Water removes minerals/lighterB-horizon – deposits from the E-horizonC-horizon – Were weathering erodes bedrockR-horizon – Bedrock - unaltered

Soil Properties

CompositionOrganic & inorganic

TextureProportion of sand, silt, & clay

StructureSize, shape, and alignments of clumps

Soil Classification

Natural VegetationNatural Vegetation Regions

Tropical rain forestMediterranean or chaparralSemidesertDesertPrairie / steppeDeciduous woodlandsConiferous woodlandsTundra

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Climate Classification

Köppen Climate TypesA - TropicalB – Semidesert & DrylandC – Humid MidlatitudeD – Humid MidlatitudeE – Arctic & SubarcticH - Highlands

Tropical Climates (A)Tropical Rain Forest (Af)Savanna (Aw,Am)

Hot Deserts (BWh)Midlatitude Deserts & Semideserts (BWk, BS)

Steppe

Dryland Climates

Humid Midlatitude Climates

Mediterranean (Cs)Cold, wet winters & dry, hot summers

Humid Subtropical (Cfa)Marine West Coast (Cfb)Humid Continental (Dfa,Dfb)

Climate Change

Long cyclesQuicker changes

Small changes in upper-air wind movementsVolcanic eruptionsHuman activity

The Geography of Natural Resources

Chapter 5

Resource Terminology

Renewable resourcesPotentially renewable resources

Nonrenewable resourcesResource reserves

Proven reserves

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Nonrenewable Energy Resources

Crude OilCoalNatural GasOil Shale & Tar SandsNuclear Energy

Fission vs. fusion

Geography & Public PolicyWhich of the following Statements do you agree with: (from text)

Do you think Congress should raise CAFÉstandards?Should SUV’s and minivans be subject to less stringent standards than passenger cars?Do you think SUV’s should be exempt from the Fuel Standards?

Renewable Energy Resources

Biomass FuelsWoodWaste

Hydroelectric PowerSolarGeothermalWind

Geography & Public Policy

Dammed Trouble

Questions in Book

Food Resources

Food is plentiful but poorly distributed worldwideShortages can lead to malnutrition, which can have health, social, and political consequencesExpansion of cultivated areas

Most of the planet is not suitableMuch of available land is in tropical rainforest areas

Food Resources (continued)

Increasing yieldsWheat, rice, & corn are keyImproved yields account for most of the gains in food supply since the 1950sIncreasing yields is more costlyYields in many irrigated or fertilized areas have already been maximized

Increasing fish consumption may help solve widespread protein deficiencies

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Land Resources

SoilsWetlandsForests

Domestic forestsTropical forests

Resource Management

Environmentally sustainable economiesSoil erosion cannot exceed formationForest destruction cannot exceed regenerationSpecies extinction cannot exceed evolutionFish catches cannot exceed the regenerative capacity of fisheriesPollutants cannot exceed the capacity of the system to absorb them

Population Geography

Chapter 6

Population Geography

Focuses on the number, composition, and distribution of human beings in relation to variations in the conditions of earth space.

Demography: Is the statistical study of human population, in its concern with spatial analysis, the relationship of numbers to areas.

Population Growth

Over 6.4 billion peopleAbout 77 million increase per year since 1990China & India account for 38% of the world’s populationU.S. to hit 300 million tomorrow @ 7:46 AM

Population Definitions

RateCohortCrude Birth Rate (CBR)Total Fertility Rate (TFR)Crude Death Rate (mortality rate) (CDR)Infant Mortality Rate

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Population Pyramids

Rapid growthStabilityDeclineDisrupted growth

Growth

Rate of natural increaseDoubling times

Demographic Transition Model

Western ExperienceStage 1: High births, high deathsStage 2: High births, declining deathsStage 3: Declining births, low deathsStage 4: Low births, low deaths(Stage 5: Deaths higher than births)

A Divided World Converging

The population history of Europe is not necessarily predictive of what will happen in the developing worldWestern technologies, medicines, & public health lower death rates quicker today than in the pastStill some areas with very high fertility rates

Demographic Equation

Regional population change is a function of natural change (difference between births & deaths) and net migration (differences between in-migration and out-migration).Births – Deaths + Immigration – Emigration = Population Growth. When this equals out, it is known as zero population growth.

World Population Distribution

90% of all people live north of the equator, 2/3 in midlatitudesA large majority occupies a small part of the land surfacePeople congregate in lowland areasMore people live on the continental margins, near oceans

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Population Concentrations

East Asia ClusterChina, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan

South Asia ClusterIndia, Bangladesh, Pakistan

EuropeNortheastern United States / SW Canada

Population DensityThe relationship between number of inhabitants and the area they occupyCrude density

# of people per unit of landPhysiological density

# of people per unit of arable landAgricultural density

Excludes city population from the physiological density calculation

Overpopulation

A value judgment reflecting an observation or a conviction that an environment or territory is unable adequately to support its population.Overpopulation is a reflection of carrying capacity

The # of people an area can support on a sustained basis given the prevailing technology

Can be equated with conditions of life

Urbanization

Cities have grown rapidly in the past 50 yearsUrban growth raises issues of housing, sanitation, employment, transportation, etc.Some of the developing world cities, often surrounded by concentrations of people living in uncontrolled settlements, slums, and shantytowns, are among the most densely populated areas in the world.

Population Data & Projections

Accurate & precise data is often difficult to obtain, but census quality is slowly improving worldwideProjections are based on assumptions and are not forecasts

Population Controls

Malthus / Neo-MalthusiansPopulation will outstrip foodPopulation growth must be controlled

Fertility can be difficult to controlCultural preferences for large familiesRejection of Western plansBelief that technology will provide more food

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Cultural Geography

Chapter 7

Components of Culture

Culture is learned, not biologicalA complexly interlocked web of behaviors

Culture traitsCulture complexesCulture regionsCulture realm

Interaction of People & Environment

Environmental DeterminismPossibilismCultural landscapes

The earth’s surface as modified by human action

Subsystems of Culture

The Technological SubsystemArtifacts

The Sociological SubsystemsSociofacts

The Ideological SubsystemsMentifacts

Culture Change

InnovationSpatial Diffusion

SyncretismAcculturation

Amalgamation theoryAssimilation

Language

Language familiesIndo-European, etc.

Language spread & changeWord meaning, pronunciation, vocabulary, & syntax

Standard & variant languagesDialects

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Language & Culture

Gender differencesLanguage as a unifying forceBilingualism / Multilingualism

Religion

Dominant in some societies, less so in othersAffects social roles, economics, politics, etc.

Classification of Religions

UniversalizingSeek to transmit beliefs to othersBuddhism, Christianity, Islam

EthnicStrong territorial & cultural tiesJudaism, Hinduism, Shinto

Tribal or TraditionalSmall, ethnic religions

Judaism

MonotheisticEthnic religionOrigins in Southwest Asia about 3,000-3,500 years agoDispersion after 1st century AD (CE)

Known as the DiasporaSynagogues are centers of worship

Christianity

Origins in Southwest Asia 2,000 years agoGrounded in Jewish religious beliefsUniversalizing; grew rapidlySplit by dissolution of the Roman EmpireReformation in the 15th & 16th centuries

IslamJudeo-Christian rootsMohammed lived in the early 7th century in modern-day Saudi Arabia

Islamic calendar begins in 622 AD with the flight to Medina (Hegira)

Five PillarsKoran

Should be read in ArabicSuccession disputes led to Sunni / Shi’ite split

Sunnis account for 80-85% of MuslimsWorship centered on the mosque

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HinduismPossibly 5,000 years old1 billion adherents

80% of IndiansSpread into Southeast AsiaNo single creed or doctrineCaste systemDharmaA lot of rites, ceremonies, festivals, and gatheringsTemples & shrines are important

Buddhism

Began in the 6th century BC in what is now northern IndiaSiddhartha Gautama was the Buddha, “Enlightened One”Four noble truthsUniversalizingSpread to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, China, Korea, & Japan

Ethnicity

Refers to the ancestry of people who share some common characteristic

Language, religion, race, national origin, customsTerritorial segregation

Gender & Culture

Gender is a social term, not biologicalGreatly affected by culture

Traditional roles changed by industrial revolution & modern society

Culture Realms

Regionally discrete areas that are more alike internally than they are like other realms Spatial Interaction

Chapter 8

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Distance & Spatial Interaction

Spatial Interaction

Distance decay

Critical distance

Barriers to Interaction

DistanceCostPhysical environmentCulture

Religion, language, gender, political systemsPsychological

Individual Activity Space

TerritorialityActivity spaceMental MapsStage in LifeMobilityOpportunities

Diffusion & Innovation

Contagious diffusion

Hierarchical diffusion

Spatial Interaction & Technology

Automobiles

Telecommunications

Migration

A relocation of both residential environment and activity spaceThe decision to migrate

Push factorsPull factors

Place utilityMigration issues

Anti-immigration laws

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Barriers to Migration

Physical barriersEconomic barriersCost factorsCultural factorsPolitical barriers

Patterns of Migration

Migration fieldsChannelized patternsReturn migrationHierarchical migration

GlobalizationThe increasing interconnection of all parts of the worldEconomic Integration

International bankingTransnational corporations (TNCs)Global marketing

Political IntegrationSupranationalismNongovernmental organizationsNews media & Internet

Cultural Integration

Political Geography

Chapter 9

States, Nations, & Nation-States

Political Geography

StateNationNation-State

Binational or multinational statePart-nation state

Stateless nation

Geographic Characteristics of States

SizeMinistates

ShapeCompactElongatedProruptFragmentedPerforated

LocationCores & Capitals

Core areasPrimate citiesUnitary statesFederal statesForward-thrust capitals

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Boundaries

Natural (physical) boundariesArtificial (geometric) boundariesAntecedent boundarySubsequent boundaryConsequent boundarySuperimposed boundary

Boundaries as Sources of Conflict

Landlocked statesWaterbodiesMinority-group identificationResource disputes

Centripetal Forces

NationalismUnifying InstitutionsOrganization & AdministrationTransportation & Communication

Centrifugal Forces

Organized religionNationalism

SubnationalismRegionalismDevolution

Cooperation Among States

SupranationalismUnited Nations (UN)

Law of the SeaTerritorial SeasExclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)High Seas

Regional AlliancesEconomic Alliances

European Union (EU)NAFTAASEAN

Military & Political AlliancesNATOWarsaw PactCommonwealth of NationsOrganization of American States (OAS)

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The Geography of Representation

Electoral geographyRedistricting

Voting rights & raceGerrymandering

Stacked, excess vote, & wasted vote methods

Economic Geography

Chapter 10

Classification of Economic Activities

Primary activitiesHunting, gathering, grazing, agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining

Secondary activitiesManufacturing

Tertiary activitiesServices

Quaternary activitiesProcessing & dissemination of information

Quinary activitiesHigh-level decision-making jobs

Types of Economic Systems

Subsistence economies

Commercial economies

Planned economies

Agriculture

The growing of crops & the tending of livestock

Subsistence Agriculture

Extensive Subsistence AgricultureNomadic herding

TranshumanceShifting cultivation

Swidden or shifting cultivation

Intensive Subsistence AgricultureRice farmingUrban farmingGreen Revolution gains

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Commercial AgricultureProduction ControlsVon Thünen Model

Land near markets is used intensively for high-value crops & is divided into small unitsLand far from markets is used extensively

Intensive Commercial Agriculture (Large Investment – Near Market)Dairy & truck farmsLivestock-grain farming

Extensive Commercial Agriculture (Far from Market – Cheap Land)Large-scale wheat farmingLivestock ranching

Special Crops (Climate – Not distance to market)MediterraneanPlantations

Other Primary Activities

Fishing & ForestryMining & Quarrying

ManufacturingIndustrial Location Models

Least Cost TheoryAlfred WeberAgglomeration

Other ConsiderationsFordist vs. flexible manufacturing

Transport CharacteristicsAgglomeration Economies

External economiesComparative Advantage

Transnational Corporations (TNCs)

Many of the world’s largest economies are corporations75 million employees

10% of worldwide, nonagrarian employment

Geography & Public Policy

Contests and BriberyDo you think it is appropriate to spend public money to attract new employment to your state or community? Why or why not? If yes, what kinds of inducements and what total amount offered per job seems appropriate to you?

World Manufacturing Patterns & Trends

Small number of areas dominateEastern Anglo AmericaWestern & Central EuropeEastern EuropeEastern Asia

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High Tech Patterns

Major factor in employment growth & an increasing share of industrial outputRegionally concentrated

Silicon ValleyLocation tendencies

Proximity to universitiesAvoidance of areas with strong unionsLocally available venture capitalAreas with favorable quality of lifeGood communication & transportation infrastructure

Tertiary & Beyond

Over 80% of all workers in U.S.Distribution of services must match effective demandTourism an important sectorQuaternary & Quinary increasingly important

Services in World Trade

Nearly ¼ of all world tradeFinancial, brokerage, & leasing services

Developing countries can benefitForeign Direct Investment

Urban Geography

Chapter 11

The Functions of Urban AreasRetailingWholesalingManufacturingBusiness ServicesEntertainmentPolitical & Official AdministrationMilitary Defense NeedsSocial & Religious Service

Public ServicesEducationTransportation & CommunicationsMeeting PlacesRecreationVisitor ServicesResidential Areas

The Location of Urban Settlements

SiteBreak-in-bulk locations

River crossings, head-of-navigation locations, railheads

Situation

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The Economic Base

Basic sectorWorkers engaged in “export” activities

Nonbasic sectorSupport the urban area, but do not bring in outside money

Basic/nonbasic ratioMultiplier effect

Systems of Urban Settlements

The Urban HierarchyRank-Size RulePrimate citiesWorld citiesUrban influence zonesTowns in Agricultural Areas

Central Place TheoryNetwork cities

Central Place Theory

Walter Christaller (1933)A model for helping to explain town interdependenceThreshold & rangeA hierarchy exists of numerous small towns offering basic goods and services and fewer large towns offering a wider range of goods

Inside the City

Competitive bidding for land determines much of the land use within the cityIn general, population density & land values decrease as distance from the CBD increases

Peak-value intersectionsPopulation densities tend to show a hollow center

Models of Urban Land Structure

Concentric Zone Model

Sector Model

Multiple-Nuclei Model

Social Areas of Cities

City residents, especially in larger, more complex cities, will often segregate themselves based on:

Social statusFamily statusEthnicity

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Institutional Controls

Local & national governments pass laws to control urban life

Zoning and other non-market controlsAmbler V’s Euclid 1926Euclidian Zoning – Segregated useExclusionary ZoningZoning Out Kids

Suburbanization in the U.S.

Metropolitanization & suburbanization after WWIIHousing developments served as a pull factor to the suburbsIndustries followed the trendSuburbs began to rival the power of the central city

Edge Cities

Central City Change

Constricted central citiesSuburbanization reduced the economic base of the central city and isolated its residentsImmigration & gentrification have revived many urban areas

Expanding central citiesCities have expanded automobile linkages to keep the suburbs within the sphere of the central city

World Urban Diversity

U.S. & Canadian citiesWest European citiesEast European citiesCities in the Developing World

Latin AmericaAsiaAfrica