drabek - em and hs curricula-contexts, cultures, and constra

8/10/2019 Drabek - EM and HS Curricula-Contexts, Cultures, And Constra

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EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND HOMELAND SECURITY

CURRICULA: CONTEXTS, CULTURES, AND CONSTRAINTS

Thomas E. DrabekJoh E!as "ro#essor, Emer$%&s

De'ar%me% o# So($o)o*+ a Cr$m$o)o*+

U$!ers$%+ o# De!er

De!er, Co)orao -/-0/12-

3%e40o.(om

*A paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western Social Science Association,Calgary, Alberta, Canada, April, 2007. I ish to than! "uth Ann #rabe! for her or! on

this paper. $artial support as recei%ed from the &ni%ersity of #en%er through the 'ohn

(%ans $rofessorship $rogram and the )igher (ducation $roect, +ederal (mergencyanagement Agency, #epartment of )omeland Security. Any opinions, findings,

conclusions or recommendations e-pressed in this paper are those of the author and do

not necessarily reflect the %ies of the &ni%ersity of #en%er or the +ederal (mergencyanagement Agency.
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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A5STRACT

#uring the past three decades, emergency management has become more

professionalied. An important part of this transformation has been the e-plosi%e groth

in higher education programs designed to pro%ide the fundamental !noledge and s!ills

re/uired of emergency managers. +olloing the attac!s of September , 200, hoe%er,

curricula reflecting homeland security issues and competencies ha%e been established.

Some ha%e proposed that these programs should be better integrated. +olloing a brief

summary of the historical conte-t in hich these de%elopments occurred, !ey points of

culture clash are identified. It is concluded that future faculty and administrati%e

initiati%es ill be constrained by these cultural differences and deflected by future

go%ernmental policies, disaster e%ents, and other e-ternal factors.

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When disaster stri!es, most people thin! immediately of first responders1police,

fire, emergency medical, and the li!e. And they should 3hese are the people ho e

depend on to confront the conse/uences of disaster, at least initially. 4ut behind the

scenes, aay from the tornado path or the flooded homes, sits another important

responder hose primary mission is to facilitate coordination among the hundreds of on5

scene personnel ho represent doens of agencies. 3his person, and their staff, perform

the emergency management function during the full life cycle of any disaster, i.e.,

response, reco%ery, mitigation and preparedness. 3he multiorganiational netor!s they

see! to coordinate are comprised of personnel and resources from local, state and federal

go%ernment organiations and from the pri%ate sector 6#rabe! 200b8.

#uring the past three decades, emergency management has become more

professionalied 6e.g., $eta! 9:;< #rabe! 9:7, 200=< >uban 99=< Wilson and ?yola5

@amaiel 2000, 2008. An important part of this transformation has been the e-plosi%e

groth in higher education programs designed to pro%ide the fundamental !noledge

and s!ills re/uired of emergency managers 64lanchard 2008. +olloing the attac!s of

September , 200, hoe%er, curricula reflecting homeland security issues and

competencies ha%e been established. Some ha%e proposed that these program areas

should be better integrated. Indeed, some faculty and administrators decided to simply

adopt both terms for program identification as if there as no difference in content,

culture, or perspecti%e. 3his essay e-plores these matters through the e-amination of

three themesB 8 historical conte-t< 28 curricula and cultural differences< and =8

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alternati%e integrati%e strategies. 3he analysis points toard the conclusion that future

faculty and administrati%e initiati%es for increased integration among emergency

management and homeland security curricula ill be constrained by important cultural

differences, future go%ernmental policies, disaster e%ents, and other e-ternal factors.

H$s%or$(a) Co%e6%

)uman response to disaster, both initial impacts and longer term conse/uences,

as ignored by most social scientists during the formati%e years of their disciplines. A

notable e-ception as Soro!ins 69;28 treatise herein he theoried about the human

impacts and responses to a ide %ariety of socially disrupti%e e%ents. (arlier, and more

e-acting and focused, hoe%er, as the seminal documentation of responses to the

)alifa- harbor e-plosion by $rince 69208. &sing this tragedy 6#ecember , 978 as a

case study, $rince formulated a series of generaliations hereby future scholars might

transcend the details of this single case, e.g., Scanlon 997< Scanlon and )andmer 200.

3hree decades later, field teams from the &ni%ersity of Chicago inter%ieed hundreds of

disaster %ictims and completed the first comparati%e studies hereby modal patterns of

response ere identified 6e.g., +rit 9< +rit and ar!s 9;8. ?ften, especially

regarding panic beha%ior, immobility, and anti5social acts such as looting, the

documented patterns ere not consistent ith the public image 6Duarantelli and #ynes

972< #ynes, Duarantelli and >reps 9728. And paralleling these research findings ere

those of social geographers li!e White 69;8, ho unra%eled the decision dynamics

related to users of flood prone areas 6see also )insha 2008. Collecti%ely, these

empirical studies pro%ided the intellectual foundation on hich a ne profession could be

built.

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Apart from the theoretical and empirical research base that as dri%en primarily

by scholars or!ing ithin frameor!s de%eloped ithin sociology and social

geography, go%ernment employees ere guided by to e%ol%ing policy streams that

reflected legislati%e responses to both ar and a ide %ariety of so5called EnaturalF

disasters, including floods, hurricanes, earth/ua!es, tornadoes, and the li!e 6#rabe!

998. )ence, Eci%il defenseF offices ere funded for state go%ernments and some local

communities to prepare for potential enemy attac!s. 4ut hen natural or technological

agents caused ha%oc ithin communities, local officials confronted o%er 0 different

federal units that had specialied interests, programs, and resource priorities. ?ne of the

legacies of $resident 'immy Carter as the reorganiation of this Ebureaucratic buffetF

into a single unified bureau he named the +ederal (mergency anagement Agency

6+(A8. &pon its creation in 'uly, 979, the ne federal bureau confronted the

predictable reorganiation groing pains reflecti%e of the cultures learned by its agency

personnel. &nder $resident "eagan the contro%ersies regarding +(A most often

focused on ar related initiati%es li!e the ill5fated Ecrisis relocation programF 6ay and

Williams 9:8. Gocal go%ernments repainted office doors ith %arying names ranging

from ci%il defense to emergency preparedness to emergency management or %arious

combinations of these and related terms.

#uring the 990s, the agency that too often as easy fodder for late night

comics, as turned around. $resident Clintons e-periences as go%ernor helped him

realie the defects in the local5state5federal partnerships that had failed $resident )erbert

Wal!er 4ush during the response to )urricane Andre in 992. Clinton appointed his

former state emergency manager from Ar!ansas1r. 'ames Gee Witt1as the +(A


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director. Witts leadership, buttressed by continual and consistent support from Clinton

and !ey professionals li!e the late Gacy Suiter ho had directed the program in

3ennessee, transformed the agency and headed the nation toard an alternati%e

philosophy of haard and disaster management. Ho longer ere floods to be %ieed as

enemies best dealt ith by the construction of more dams< rather a philosophy of

en%ironmental sustainability became the assumption base. He federal policies,

reflecting the full life cycle of disaster, pro%ided local and state officials ith ne tools

and higher le%els of legitimacy than e%er had been accorded most of those earing ci%il

defense clothes 6c(ntire 200< 2007, pp. :50;88. Collecti%ely, more and more local

go%ernment employees hose agency missions ere changing oined their national

professional organiation hose leadership renamed the unit to become the International

Association of (mergency anagers 6IA(8 6former name as Hational Coordinating

Council on (mergency anagement8 6e.g., see #rabe! 99< )addo and 4ulloc!

200=8.

A fe faculty, mostly in sociology and geography, designed courses to introduce

students to the burgeoning research literature. raduate students or!ed ithin an

e-panding set of institutes and centers. ost notable among these as the #isaster

"esearch Center at the &ni%ersity of #elaare, hich had been relocated from 3he ?hio

State &ni%ersity in 9:, and the &ni%ersity of Colorados Hatural )aards "esearch and

Application Information Center. raduates of these and other social science departments

founded additional research and teaching programs at numerous other uni%ersities

throughout the &.S.A.


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In 99, I oined se%eral other researchers at a or!shop sponsored by the

(mergency anagement Institute at +(As Hational (mergency 3raining Center in

(mmitsburg, aryland. #r. Wayne 4lanchard, director of a ne initiati%e13he )igher

(ducation $rogram1summaried his research on uni%ersity curricula. At that time only

to formal degree programs e-isted in emergency management1&ni%ersity of Horth

3e-as and 3homas (dison College 6Heal 20008. It as decided that +(A should host

an annual conference for all college and uni%ersity faculty teaching courses related to

emergency management. "ecogniing the professional needs of practitioners and

opportunities for curricular e-pansions into an important ne substanti%e area, faculty

and administrators /uic!ly responded ith course and program proposals 6see #rabe!

200d8. &nder 4lanchards atchful eye, a doen or so faculty produced a series of

instructor guides to facilitate course proposals and preparation. 3hese ha%e been posted

on the +(A )igher (ducation $roect ebsite and may be donloaded free of cost

6httpBJJtraining.fema.go%JemiebJedu8.

4y 'une, 200, o%er 00 formal programs in emergency management ere being

offered throughout the nations colleges and uni%ersities. And about another 00 ere in

the process of being created 64lanchard 2008.

While terrorism as a topic ithin these Eall5haardF programs, the attac!s of

September , 200, changed the priorities of many. As numerous groups criti/ued both

the response and the intelligence failures that permitted these attac!s to occur, many

ithin higher education /uestioned the ade/uacy of e-isting curricula including the

nely formed emergency management programs. 4uilding on the testimony,

obser%ations, and the final report of the 95 Commission 6200;8, some /uic!ly produced

7
http://training.fema.gov/emiweb/eduhttp://training.fema.gov/emiweb/edu


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ne course and program proposals. 4y the 'une, 200, conference, o%er 0 programs in

E)omeland SecurityJ#efenseF ere identified. Indeed, for the first time, hat had been

an emergency management conference as co5sponsored 6+ederal (mergency

anagement Agency, #epartment of )omeland Security and the H?"3)C?

)omeland SecurityJ#efense (ducation Consortium8. It as in this setting that many

faculty ere first e-posed to the cultural clashes that reflected important differences in

perspecti%e. 3hese differences are not limited to alternati%e course titles, rather they

reflect %ery real contrasts in perceptions of ris! and %ulnerability and approaches to

solution. 3hus, the definition of Ethe problemF differs as does the priority among

strategies for addressing it.

C&rr$(&)a a C&)%&ra) D$##ere(es

$rior to the 'une, 200, +(A conference, I as in%ited to ser%e as a panelist for

a session focused on issues of potential integration among homeland security and

emergency management programs. In preparation for this assignment, I re%ieed

numerous program outlines for both types of curricula. y re%ie identified fi%e

important contrasts hich ere amplified by faculty I listened to throughout the

conference.

. Disaster agent. As ould be e-pected, ithin homeland security programs,

terrorism is identified as the maor ris! currently confronting the &.S.A. ?ne faculty

member, echoing lines I had read pre%iously in White )ouse position statements 6e.g.,

4ush 2008, emphasied Ee are at ar.F )e ent on to stress his %ie that increased

aareness of the scope, intensity, and commitment of our enemies must be a maor

program goal. "is! perceptions of Americans must be changed because most are

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unaare of our %ulnerability and unprepared to respond. While emergency management

faculty, reflecting an all5haards perspecti%e, might agree ith that last sentence in

principle, they ould focus on building support for flood mitigation measures and better

hurricane e%acuation procedures. So at the outset, the %ery definition of Ethe problemF is

a sharp contrast.

2. Management paradigm. Again reflecting documents floing from the White

)ouse, most homeland security faculty reflected a top5don approach to management. I

encountered this in the White )ouse analysis of the failed >atrina response.

EA useful model for our approach to homeland security is the Hationsapproach to nationalsecurity. . . . operationally organied, it stresses the

importance of unity of command from the $resident don to thecommander in the field.F 6White )ouse 200, pp. 578.

E?ur model for the command and control structure for the +ederalresponse in the ne Hational $reparedness System is our successful

defense and national security statutory frameor!. In that frameor!,

there is a clear line of authority that stretches from the $resident, through

the Secretary of #efense, to the Combatant Commander in the field. . . .Although the Combatant Commander might not Kon or control forces on

a day5to5day basis, during a military operation he controls all military

forces in his theater< he e-ercises the command authority and has access toresources needed to affect outcomes on the ground.F 6White )ouse 200,

p. 78.

In direct contrast, emergency management faculty ha%e been teaching an

alternati%e model, one that emphasies cooperation, not command< coordination, not

control. A Ebottoms5upF perspecti%e is e%ident ithin the curricula of emergency

management programs 6#rabe! 200;, 200d< c(ntire 20078 and reflects the research

based criti/ues of command and control management models 6e.g., #ynes 99;< Heal and

$hillips 998.

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=. Scope of event. #isasters come in a ide %ariety. Indeed, many ise

researchers ha%e suggested that much attention must be gi%en to a fundamental /uestion,

i.e., What is a disasterL 6Duarantelli 99:, $erry and Duarantelli 200, $erry 200,

Duarantelli et al. 2008. In part at least, the issue has to do ith establishing appropriate

limits of generaliation of research findings 6for elaboration, see Committee on #isaster

"esearch in the Social Sciences 200, pp. ;;5;8. #o the responses to a small tornado

in 3ope!a, >ansas, inform our predictions regarding those that might be forthcoming

folloing an airplane crash in the same localeL )o might the response pattern differ if

the crash as into an office building folloing a hiac!ing by a band of terroristsL And

ould there be e%en more differences if the hiac!ers had been successful in smuggling a

nuclear de%ice onboardL If detonated in the crash, the potential disaster scene escalates

immediately from a single plane and office building to an entire city. It is such Ehat

ifsF that Clar! 62008 urges disaster officials to build into their training and planning

acti%ities so as to stimulate the imagination. And by doing so, he recommends more

focus on Ethe possibleF rather than the current blinders reflecting focus on Ethe probable.F

)omeland security faculty are ad%ised to study the isdom ithin Clar!s

analysis so as to go beyond their limited proections of terrorists plots. 4ut by a near

singular focus on Ethe enemy,F these faculty fail to benefit from the insights of a much

larger picture. In a frameor! I ill outline belo, I ill suggest potentials for greater

integration ith emergency management. We learned long ago that a primary focus on

planning for Ethe big oneF1in those days nuclear attac! from the So%iet &nion1as a

barrier to both public credibility and effecti%e use of community resources during times

of disaster. 3hat lesson should not be forgotten. +urthermore, the failed >atrina response

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must not be used to narro our focus to EcatastrophicF e%ents to the neglect of the

hundreds of disasters that probably ill occur before another e%ent of that scope.

;. Intergovernmental system. All disasters are local. At least, the first response

to any type of maor e%ent ill reflect local resources. (mergency management

programs emphasie the horiontal pattern of relationships that must be nurtured if the

emergent response netor! is to be effecti%e 6#rabe! 200, 200=< c(ntire 20078. And

procedures to rapidly access state and federal resources are among the core !noledge

that any emergency manager must !no thoroughly. )omeland security faculty,

hoe%er, emphasie Ethe crime sceneF nature of the disaster setting and the important

roles played by la enforcement agencies. Intelligence gathering designed to thart

potential enemy attac!s and the /uic! capture of those ho might be successful in

implementing their plot becomes a top priority. While local officials are recognied, the

role of the federal bureaus rises to the top of the homeland security agenda. Students are

thereby socialied into a culture that differs significantly from the orld of emergency

management as it is practiced ithin most local communities.

. Content. In 200 a group of e-perts as con%ened by a committee ithin the

Hational Academy of Sciences to e-amine proposals regarding undergraduate degrees in

homeland security. What ould comprise the contentL any topics ere discussed,

some of hich reflect courses currently being offered at %arious uni%ersities and colleges.

3opics li!e these are listed in different program statementsB E$ort Security,F EA%iation

Security,F EAsymmetric 3hreats and 3errorism,F ECi%il5ilitary "elations,F E3he

Intelligence Community and the Intelligence $rocess,F E$rinciples of Criminal

In%estigation,F EGegal and Constitutional Issues in )omeland Security and (mergency


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$reparedness,F EHuclear, 4iological, and Chemical 3hreats,F E(nergy and 3ransportation

Security.F ?b%iously this is ust a sampling, but the HAS e-perts ere concerned. 3heir

conclusionL EHot a single or!shop participant, or any of the committee members,

%oiced support for an undergraduate degree program focused specifically on homeland

security. As an area of study, it as deemed too immature and too broad.F Such matters

seemed best pursued at the graduate le%el. 6Committee on (ducational $aradigms for

)omeland Security 200, p. 98.

"egardless of ones position on the issue of uni%ersity degrees, the contrast in

substanti%e content to that offered ithin undergraduate emergency management

programs is informati%e. 4eyond the Eintroduction toF classes, typical course topics areB

E)aard itigation 3heory and $ractice,F E#isaster "esponse and "eco%ery,F

EGeadership and ?rganiational 4eha%ior,F E)aardous aterials,F E$ri%ate Sector

Issues,F EComputers in (mergency anagement,F E4uilding #isaster "esilient

Communities,F EMoluntary Agency #isaster Ser%ices,F ECrisis CommunicationsF and

ECommunity #isaster $reparedness.F

As ith )omeland Security, the multidisciplinary nature of emergency

management has resulted in program placement issues. 3he first undergraduate degree

program as founded at the &ni%ersity of Horth 3e-as and is administered ithin the

#epartment of $ublic Administration hich identified an E(mergency Administration and

$lanning $rogram.F In contrast, the first $h.#. program in emergency management as

created at Horth #a!ota State &ni%ersity and is housed ithin the E#epartment of

Sociology, Anthropology, and (mergency anagement.F

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?thers ha%e e%ol%ed ith much greater specificity. +or e-ample, graduate

degrees and certificates may be earned at eorge ason &ni%ersitys Hational Center for

4iodefense. Among the courses offered are theseB E3hreat Analysis IB 4acterial

AgentsF< E3hreat Analysis IIB Miral AgentsF< E3hreat Analysis IMB 3o-insFreps. 972. 1 (erspective on Disaster(lanning2Columbus, ?hioB #isaster "esearch Center, 3he ?hio State &ni%ersity.

#rabe!, 3homas (. 9:7. #he (rofessional 'mergency Manager& Structures and Strategies

for Success. 4oulder, ColoradoB Institute of 4eha%ioral Science, &ni%ersity ofColorado.

+rit, Charles (. 9. E#isasters.F $p. 59; in Contemporary Social (roblems,"obert

>. erton and "obert A. Hisbet 6eds.8. He @or!B )arcourt.

+rit, Charles (. and (li S. ar!s. 9;. E3he H?"C Studies of )uman 4eha%ior in#isaster.F #he .ournal of Social Issues0B25;.

+uredi, +ran!. 200. EHe #imensionsB 3he roth of a ar!et in +ear.F $p. 0:520 in

)andboo of Disaster -esearch, )a%idRn "odr/ue, (nrico G. Duarantelli, and

"ussell ". #ynes 6eds.8. He @or!B Springer.

ardner, 'ohn W. 9. Self"-enewal& #he Individual and the Innovative Society. He@or!B )arper O "o.

)addo, eorge #. and 'ane A. 4ulloc!. 200=. Introduction to 'mergency Management.AmsterdamB 4utterorthJ)einemann.

)art, ary. 200. #he Shield and the Cloa& #he Security of the Commons. He @or!B?-ford &ni%ersity $ress.

)insha, "obert (. 200. 0iving with *ature3s 'xtremes& #he 0ife of $ilbert !owler

hite. 4oulder, C?B 'ohnson 4oo!s.

>uban, "on. 99=. ECrisis anagementB Analysis of the anagement of Communal

Catastrophes.F $h.#. 3hesis. (dmonton, Alberta, CanadaB &ni%ersity of Alberta.

ay, $eter '. and Walter Williams. 9:. Disaster (olicy Implementation& Managing

(rograms +nder Shared $overnance. He @or! and GondonB $lenum $ress.

c(ntire, #a%id A. 2007. Disaster -esponse and -ecovery. He @or!B 'ohn Wiley.

2=


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c(ntire, #a%id A. 200. EGocal (mergency anagement ?rganiations.F $p. :5:2

in)andboo of Disaster -esearch, )a%idRn "odr/ue, (nrico G. Duarantelli, and

"ussell ". #ynes 6eds.8. He @or!B Springer.

Hational Commission on 3errorist Attac!s &pon the &nited States. 200;. #he 4566

Commission -eport. He @or!B W.W. Horton O Company.

Heal, #a%id . 2000. E#e%eloping #egree $rograms in #isaster anagementB Some

"eflections and ?bser%ations.F International .ournal of Mass 'mergencies andDisasters:B;75;=7.

Heal, #a%id . and 4renda #. $hillips. 99. E(ffecti%e (mergency anagementB

"econsidering the 4ureaucratic Approach.F Disasters& #he .ournal of DisasterStudies, (olicy and Management9B=275==7.

Hormand, Alain. 200. EIntegration of #isciplines is in the +uture for (mergency

anagement, 4usiness Continuity and Security.F $aper presented at the annualCanadian "is! and )aards Hetor! Symposium, ontrPal, DuPbec, Canada,

?ctober.

$erry, "onald W. 200. EWhat Is a #isasterLF $p. 5 in)andboo of Disaster -esearch,

)a%idRn "odr/ue, (nrico G. Duarantelli, and "ussell ". #ynes 6eds.8. He @or!BSpringer.

$erry, "onald W. and (.G. Duarantelli. 200. hat Is a Disaster7& *ew 1nswers to an 8ld

9uestion, $hiladelphia, $AB Tlibris Corporation.

$eta!, William '. 9:;. EHatural )aard itigationB $rofessionaliation of the $olicy

a!ing $rocess.F International .ournal of Mass 'mergencies and Disasters2B2:5=02.

$rince, Samuel )enry. 920. ECatastrophe and Social Change, 4ased &pon a SociologicalStudy of the )alifa- #isaster.F $h.#. thesis. He @or!B Columbia &ni%ersity

#epartment of $olitical Science.

Duarantelli, (. G. 99:b. hat Is a Disaster7& (erspectives on the 9uestion. Gondon andHe @or!B "outledge.

Duarantelli, (. G. and "ussell ". #ynes. 972. EWhen #isaster Stri!es 6It Isnt uch Gi!eWhat @ou%e )eard and "ead About8.F(sychology #odayB570.

Duarantelli, (.G., $atric! Gagadec, and Aren 4oin. 200. EA )euristic Approach to +uture#isasters and CrisesB He, ?ld, and In54eteen 3ypes.F $p. 5; in)andboo of

Disaster -esearch, )a%idRn "odr/ue, (nrico G. Duarantelli, and "ussell ". #ynes

6eds.8. He @or!B Springer.

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Scanlon, 3. 'oseph. 997. E"eriting a Gi%ing GegendB "esearching the 97 )alifa-

(-plosion.F International .ournal of Mass 'mergencies and DisastersB;757:.

Scanlon, 3. 'oseph and 'ohn )andmer. 200. E3he )alifa- (-plosion and the $ort Arthur

assacreB 3esting Samuel )enry $rinces Ideas.F International .ournal of Mass

'mergencies and Disasters9B:520:.

Sno, C.$. 99. #he #wo Cultures. Cambridge, &.>.B Cambridge &ni%ersity $ress.

Soro!in, $itrim A. 9;2. Man and Society in Calamity. He @or!B #utton.

3homas , '.". 200. $ersonal communication during the (mergency anagement and

)omeland SecurityJ#efense )igher (ducation Conference. (mmitsburg, aryland,'une.

Waugh, William G., 'r. 200. E3errorism as #isaster.F $p. =::5;0; in )andboo of

Disaster -esearch, )a%idRn "odr/ue, (nrico G. Duarantelli, and "ussell ". #ynes6eds.8. He @or!B Springer.

Waugh, William G., 'r. 200. E3errorism and the All5)aards odel.F .ournal of

'mergency Management2 6Ho. 8B:, 0.

Waugh, William G., 'r. 9:;. 'mergency Management and Mass Destruction #errorism& 1(olicy !ramewor. +ederal (mergency anagement AgencyB (mmitsburg, #

6HAS$AAJ+(A Wor!shop for $ublic Administration +aculty8.

White, ilbert +. 9;. )uman 1d:ustment to !loods& 1 $eographical 1pproach to the

!lood (roblems in the +nited States. 6"esearch $aper Ho. 298. Chicago, IllinoisB

#epartment of eography, &ni%ersity of Chicago.

White )ouse. 200. #he !ederal -esponse to )urricane ;atrina& 0essons 0earned.

Washington, #.C.B 3he White )ouse.

Wilson, 'ennifer G. and Arthur ?yola5@emaiel. 2000. E3he )istorical ?rigins of

(mergency anagement $rofessionaliation in the &nited States.F #he .ournal of

the 1merican Society of (rofessional 'mergency (lanners7B25=.

Wilson, 'ennifer G. and Arthur ?yola5@emaiel. 200. E3hree (ssential Strategies for

(mergency anagement $rofessionalism in the &.S.F International .ournal ofMass 'mergencies and Disasters2= 6arch8B775:;.

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