essential concepts in second
TRANSCRIPT
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND
LANGUAGE TEACHING
A reference for students of English
Gusti Astika
Ardiyarso Kurniawan
Listyani
Antonina Anggraini Setiamunadi
Wimbo Pambudi Wicaksono
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING
A reference for students of English
Penulis: Gusti Astika, dkk.
Desain cover: Tim FBS-UKSW
Layout: Harrie Siswanto
Percetakan: Tisara Grafika Salatiga
[email protected]|081228598985
Griya Media, 2020
viii + 86 hlm, 25 cm
Cetakan pertama, Nopember 2020
ISBN 978-623-7528-81-4
Jl. Sonotirto No. 654 Salatiga
Telp./Fax: 298-328933
email: [email protected]
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |iii
PREFACE
Teaching a second language involves teaching the essential concepts,
issues and challenges that are fundamental to students' knowledge. This
book provides essential concepts in language teaching and language
learning we have taught over several years to students in English Language
Department, Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana. This book is intended for
self-study, primarily designed to support Current Issues in Second Language
Teaching course for the students in the department. The concepts included
in the book have been selected from the main course book: Teaching and
Learning in the Language Classroom (2000) by Tricia Hedge, published by
Oxford University Press. The concepts have been alphabetically organized,
translated or explained in Indonesian and written in broader discourse
contexts as found in the course book to help students get the general
meanings. More precise meanings of the concepts should be explored
within the paragraphs in the course book where a particular concept is
discussed. This book has been published for internal use of the course.
However, it can also be useful to students who enrolled in other
methodology courses that share similar issues.
We would like to thank the Faculty of Language and Arts for the
funding assistance in the production of the book. We hope that the students
find this book useful in their courses.
Salatiga, November 2020
Writers
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |v
Forewords
In second language teaching there are many concepts, terms, and issues
that are challenging to students because of its vast coverage. Sufficient knowledge
and understanding of essential concepts in second language teaching is a necessity
to students as their preparation to become professionals in language teaching. The
concepts, terms, and issues discussed in textbooks and research articles in language
teaching and learning could be quite perplexing that may point to a need for an
innovative technique for learning. The effort to translate and explain new concepts
or technical terms used in the course book is an example of such an innovative effort
initiated by the teachers of the course, Current Issues in Second Language Teaching.
The aim is to support the students enrolled in this course to comprehend the issues
described the main textbook being used in the course. I do hope students taking
this course would find this book useful as a reference and a guide for understanding
the concepts in second language teaching.
I am very pleased to commend this book as a contribution to quality teaching and
learning a second language.
Salatiga, November 2020
Dean Faculty of Language and Arts Universitas Kristen Satya Wacana
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |vii
Table of Contents
Preface ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii
Forewords ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………………………. vii
A ……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 1
B ……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 8
C……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 10
D……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 29
E……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 37
F……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 47
G……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 52
H……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 56
I……………………………………………………………………………................................................. 57
L……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 63
M……………………………………………………………………………...............................................68
N……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 75
O……………………………………………………………………………............................................... 76
P……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 77
R……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 79
S……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 81
T……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 85
V……………………………………………………………………………................................................ 85
W……………………………………………………………………………...............................................85
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |1
A
academic contexts
konteks akademis
A serious related criticism is that the process approach does not address the realities of life for those students who are working with English writing in academic contexts.
academic writing
menulis secara akademis
In academic writing, when tutors set assignments, the first step in pedagogy could be to encourage students to work in pairs and arrive at an understanding of the task by questioning and clarifying the meaning of key expressions and selecting the information needed to fulfil the task.
acceptable collocations
Kolokasi atau gabungan antara kata yang benar, dapat diterima
A growing knowledge of acceptable collocations will build associations which give learners clues about compatibility.
(self)-access centre
tempat/pusat belajar (mandiri). Biasanya berupa ruang baca yang menyediakan buku-buku sebagai referensi belajar siswa
In well-resourced institutions, a greater number of readers can be made available in a self-access centre, but they will then need to be graded and coded for learners at different levels of learning.
accompanying activities
kegiatan tambahan
Many institutions now offer their students materials for independent reading through class libraries or through self-access centres, and teachers provide accompanying activities so that students are motivated to use the resources provided.
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accuracy based
berdasarkan ketepatan/akurasi tata bahasa
Typical classroom activities for accuracy-based learning are grammar drilling, fill-in-the-gaps exercises, error analysis, and grammar presentation.
achievement behaviour
Perilaku belajar yang mengarah kepada capaian, prestasi
Achievement behaviour is the behaviour shown by language learners where they try to find ways to deal with their learning problems.
achievement strategies
strategi belajar untuk memperoleh capaian, prestasi
In speaking, in order to deliver the message of their speech, speakers need an ability to negotiate meaning where part of this involves using achievement strategies, such as paraphrase or gesture, to explain things more clearly.
acquire language
memperoleh, memahami bahasa
Children acquire language through interaction - not only with their parents and other adults, but also with other children.
acquisition factors
faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi pemerolehan bahasa
Age and motivation are two of the many other acquisition factors.
acquisition process
proses pemerolehan bahasa
The acquisition process, often called a creative construction process. is parallel to that of a child learning its first language.
acquisition studies
penelitian-penelitian tentang pemerolehan bahasa
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |3
Recent years have seen a resurgence of interest in extensive reading, perhaps as a result of insights from second language acquisition studies into the role and nature of input in the learning process.
active construction
pembentukan bahasa secara aktif
Active construction theory of grammar states that children learn a language by imitating their parents and by listening to inputs in their surrounding environment.
active vocabulary
kosakata aktif
Active vocabulary consists of those words over which one can use in his/her speech and writing (i.e., he/she knows the meaning of those words accurately).
adjacency pairs
percakapan secara berpasangan
The term 'adjacency pairs' has been given to exchanges where a turn by one speaker requires an immediate response, as in greetings, invitations, compliments, enquiries about health, and complaints.
adult learners
pembelajar dewasa
Critics were quick to point out that adult learners can be encouraged on process error correction in useful ways.
affective factors
faktor-faktor afektif, berhubungan dengan perasaan atau suasana batin, sikap
Most discussions have limited affective factors to personality characteristics, attitudes, and emotional responses to the language learning process.
affective filter
filter afektif, yang menghambat seseorang untuk belajar
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A learner who has generally negative attitudes towards learning English will have a high affective filter.
ambiguous message
pesan atau informasi yang ambigu, menimbulkan keraguan, kekaburan, ketidakjelasan
Environmental noise and disturbance may create gaps in the message. Thus, it is difficult for a first language listener as well as it is for the second language listener to make sense of the ambiguous message in which the speaker has given in the conversation.
analytic learner
pembelajar analitik (menggunakan analisa atau penalaran logis)
An analytic learner likes to analyse elements in detail.
analytic style
gaya belajar analitik, menggunakan analisa atau penalaran logis
Brown (1987) suggests that Anglo-American have an analytic style. On the other hand, Egyptian students prefer a global approach (Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995).
analytical activities
kegiatan yang memerlukan kemampuan analitis
Regular use of analytical activities which draw students attention explicitly to some linguistic features of texts might be beneficial to build their awareness of the grammatical structures of the language.
aptitude test
tes bakat berbahasa
Two well-known language aptitude tests, still widely used, are the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) (Carroll and Sapon, 1955) and the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (LAB) (Pimsleur, 1966).
articulatory organs
organ-organ artikulasi yang berfungsi untuk menghasilkan bunyi, suara
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |5
Esling and Wong (1983), for instance, suggest that if students are given early instruction on how to set their articulatory organs to produce the typical voice quality of North American English speakers, then it will be easier for them to produce individual sounds.
assimilate language
menyatukan, menggabungkan aspek bahasa
Intake refers to the ways in which learners process input and assimilate language to their interlanguage system.
atomistic approach
pendekatan pembelajaran atau pengajaran atomistik, terpisah-pisah
An atomistic approach to language attempts to analyse language into parts, such as grammatical structures or functional exponents, which can later become the content of a syllabus.
attitudinal variable
Faktor, variabel yang berhubungan dengan sikap
Ethnocentricity is an attitudinal variable which has been investigated, and it will not surprise experienced teachers that studies show a negative correlation with language learning.
audiolingual approach
pendekatan belajar-mengajar audio lingual
The audiolingual approach, for example, suggests that while perceiving listening as the primary skill in the sequence of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, at the same time teachers need to provide only restricted practice of scripted dialogues which have the main aim of presenting repeated practising language forms.
auditory ability
kemampuan untuk mendengarkan
The two well-known language aptitude tests generally put forward a multi-componential view of aptitude as comprising four components: auditory ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and memory.
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auditory input
masukan untuk melatih kemampuan mendengar
The role of vision in first language listening, especially lip movements, is particularly important when the auditory input is of poor quality.
aural activity
aktivitas untuk melatih kemampuan mendengar
In most situations, listening is not just an aural activity. We are usually able to see the speaker, who provides non-verbal clues to meaning. For example, lip movements, facial expressions, and gestures.
authentic materials
bahan yang otentik, asli, bukan bahan untuk belajar bahasa
Authentic material is any material written in English that was not created for intentional use in the English language classroom. Some examples of it are news stories, magazine articles, radio programs, etc.
authority figure
figur atau orang yang memiliki otoritas
Authority figure is a person who has or represents authority. Parents, teachers, and police officers are traditional authority figures for children.
automatic production
penggunaan, pemakaian secara otomatis
It is most useful to see vocabulary knowledge as a scale running from recognition of a word at one end to automatic production at the other end of the scale.
available resources
sumber-sumber pembelajaran, pengajaran yang tersedia
There are many available resources for teachers to help them in their teaching.
avoidance behaviour
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |7
cara belajar yang menunjukkan perilaku menghindar
Avoidance behaviour is the opposite of achievement behaviour. Learners show avoidance behaviour when they try to eliminate their speaking problem by changing the topic or not participating in a conversation.
awareness raising
menumbuhkan kesadaran dalam proses belajar dan mengajar
Awareness raising activities aim to make learners more aware of language and so improve their understanding, but do not involve learners in using the language themselves.
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B
basic approaches
pendekatan mengajar utama
Teachers have a choice of two basic approaches, which Richards (1990) has called direct and indirect. The indirect approach simply involves students in conversation through role-play and problem-solving tasks, and gives them opportunities to practise these things in classroom activities. The direct approach applies a systematic analysis to the themes of speaking competence and takes students through a programme of awareness-raising and practice.
basic concepts
konsep-konsep dasar
Part one is a linguistic analysis of the English lexical system and looks in turn at basic concepts and terms, the notion of core vocabulary, words and patterns, and lexis in discourse.
basic lexicons
kosakata utama, yang paling sering dipakai
A native-speaker child on entering school at the age of five or six would already have a productive vocabulary of some 2,000 to 3,000.words. Compare this with the basic lexicons of similar size used to design the higher levels of graded readers intended for EFL adults (for example, Heinemann Guided Readers Upper Level at 2,200 words or Collins English Library Level Six at 2,500 words) and the substance of the learning task becomes evident.
become accountable
menjadi akuntabel, bertanggung jawab
Collaborative writing makes students become accountable in the way that writers are in real life, and this accountability is a strong incentive for clear and effective writing.
become evident
menjadi jelas
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |9
Cultural differences in interaction also become evident and can be commented on in order to build understanding of sociocultural background.
beneficial effect
pengaruh yang bermanfaat
The pedagogical value attributed to extensive reading is based on the assumption that exposing learners to large quantities of meaningful and interesting L2 material will, in the long run, produce a beneficial effect on the learners' command of the L2.
bilingual dictionary
kamus dwi (dua) bahasa
A bilingual dictionary or translation dictionary is a specialized dictionary used to translate words or phrases from one language to another (English - mother tongue; mother tongue - English).
build rapport
membangun hubungan baik
The most important qualities a teacher needs to have, according to a group of teachers on an in-service training course, are having a sense of burnout, self-confidence, sensitivity to learners as people, and ability to build rapport.
build understanding
membangun pengertian, pemahaman
Cultural differences in interaction also become evident and can be commented on in order to build understanding of sociocultural background.
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C
carefully articulated
diucapkan dengan cermat, tepat
In recordings of English, conversations are manipulated in several ways, such as the intonation patterns are exaggerated, pronunciation of words is carefully articulated, the background noise is eliminated, etc.
case studies
studi kasus
The book is illustrated with case studies and contains many practical suggestions for dealing with the professional issues arising from contextual factors.
catchphrases
Slogan, ungkapan yang sering dipakai
Two examples of catchphrases are 'keep smiling' and 'chin up'.
centred teaching
pengajaran terpusat, pada guru atau murid
There are two types of centered teaching. They are teacher-centered teaching or student-centered teaching.
cognate words
kata yang mirip, hampir sama
Students can work in pairs and build a collective picture of cognate words
cognitive ability
kemampuan kognitif
Different students may have different level of cognitive abilities
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |11
cognitive challenge
tantangan kognitif
Some students find role-play easier as they do not have to face the cognitive challenge of finding original and intelligent things to contribute.
cognitive hold
pegangan kognitif, tempat untuk menyimpan ingatan
Words are quickly forgotten again as there is no “cognitive hold” in the learners’ memory.
cognitive influences
pengaruh kognitif
It investigates the dimensions of affective and cognitive influences.
cognitive style
cara berpikir, mengingat sesuatu
A possible cause of differences in cognitive style is the kind of teaching methodology.
cognitive operations
cara kerja berpikir
A piece of writing is the outcome of a set of complicated cognitive operations
cognitive processes
proses berpikir
Cognitive processes affects the behaviour of the writer and, in fact, distorts them
cognitive psychologists
ahli psikologi kognitif
Cognitive psychologists have suggested that input becomes intake if there is a depth of processing.
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cognitive strategies
strategi kognitif, cara berpikir untuk memecahkan masalah
Other cognitive strategies can be observed when learners try to establish an unfamiliar word.
cohesive device
Alat atau kata untuk mempererat makna antar kalimat
Cohesive devices include such things as reference items.
collaborative classroom
kelas yang kolaboratif, siswa bekerja bersama
Clarke's procedure suggests collaborative classroom work
collective picture
gambaran tugas yang dibuat secara kolektif
Students can work in pairs and build a collective picture of what they have been looking for.
colloquial english
bahasa Inggris sehari-hari
A good deal of listening is to informal colloquial English.
colloquial language
bahasa sehari-hari
A good deal of listening is to informal colloquial language.
colloquial speech
percakapan sehari-hari
This implies familiarizing students with colloquial speech.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |13
combined approach
pendekatan mengajar yang dipadukan, digabungkan
The combined approach was more effective than the keyword method alone.
common derivatives
kata jadian yang umum
It has some 2,000 headwords, together with a list of common derivatives and compounds.
communication strategies
strategi komunikasi
Communication strategies can be strong indicators of gaps and uncertainties in language knowledge.
communicative act
tindakan komunikatif
The communicative act is not in reception of the communicative content.
communicative activity
aktivitas yang komunikatif
In designing communicative activities, teachers need to create opportunities for interaction.
communicative approaches
pendekatan komunikatif
This has been a focus of substantial discussion in our profession especially with the increasing use of communicative approaches.
communicative aspects
aspek komunikatif
The tests focus on language form rather than its communicative aspects.
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communicative content
konten komunikatif
The end of the communicative act is not in reception of the communicative content.
communicative events
aktivitas, kegiatan yang bersifat komunikatif
Swales (1990) defines genre as a class of communicative events
communicative function
fungsi komunikatif
Controlled activities can focus on a number of things, for example communicative function.
communicative interaction
interaksi komunikatif
Communicative interaction has value for negotiating comprehensible input.
communicative tasks
tugas yang komunikatif
Teacher needs to provide a listening situation for communicative tasks.
communicative test
tes yang komunikatif
The criteria below are taken from the upper intermediate level of a communicative test of speaking
communicative textbooks
buku yang komunikatif
The tasks were chosen from communicative textbooks.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |15
completed charts
grafik yang sudah lengkap
In your groups, please compare and discuss your completed charts.
complex contributions
kontribusi yang kompleks
They must be capable of making lengthy and complex contributions as appropriate.
complex endeavour
usaha yang kompleks
They communicate a sense of awareness that language teaching is a complex endeavour.
complex phenomenon
fenomena yang kompleks
It is now clear that motivation is a highly complex phenomenon.
comprehension questions
pertanyaan untuk pemahaman bacaan
Learners would be required to answer comprehension questions.
comprehension strategies
strategi untuk memahami bacaan
Top-down comprehension strategies involve knowledge that a listener brings to a text.
comprehensible output
ucapan, tulisan yang dapat dipahami
Learners need practice in producing comprehensible output.
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compulsory subject
mata pelajaran wajib
English is a compulsory subject for all students.
conceptual category
kategori konseptual
A simple definition of prototype is that it is the foremost example of a particular conceptual category.
conceptual system
sistem konseptual
This relates to the points about the conceptual system embodied in the language.
confidence uncertainties
keraguan terhadap rasa percaya diri
One of the individual differences in learners is the confidence uncertainty that exists.
confirm expectations
memastikan terpenuhinya keinginan, harapan
Students can be given activities which require them to confirm expectations.
connecting devices
alat, kata penghubung
The absence of connecting devices can sometimes create ambiguity.
conscious attention
perhatian dengan kesadaran
It makes a distinction between acquiring a language through conscious attention to language study.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |17
conscious efforts
usaha secara sadar
It facilitates learning by actively involving the learner in conscious efforts.
conscious focus
fokus secara sadar
What they have in common is a conscious focus on language.
consciousness raising
membangun kesadaran, perhatian
This early training may involve both consciousness raising and practice.
considerable flexibility
fleksibilitas yang cukup besar
It allows for considerable flexibility in choice of personality and interests.
considerable learning effort
usaha belajar yang cukup besar
Despite sometimes considerable learning effort, they are quickly forgotten again.
considerable methodological responsibilities
tanggung jawab metodologis yang cukup besar
There has been useful discussion about the considerable methodological responsibilities.
considerable task
tugas yang cukup besar
It assists learners with the very considerable task of acquiring vocabulary.
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considerable value
nilai yang cukup besar
It can be of considerable value to develop different types of resources for vocabulary teaching.
considerable variation
variasi yang cukup besar
It will also differ according to the preferred style of the considerable variation.
consolidate meaning
memperkuat pemahaman makna kata
'Word networks', for example, can be used to establish and consolidate meaning.
consonant clusters
kelompok konsonan
A very wide range of features could receive attention: for example consonant clusters.
constant interplay
interaksi yang terus-menerus
We need to keep in mind that the processes are in constant interplay.
constant review
pengkajian yang terus-menerus
A constant review has been done by researchers into second language acquisition.
constraining factor
faktor penghambat
The examination system, for example, is usually a heavily constraining factor.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |19
construction process
proses konstruksi, memahami bahasa
Adults are thought to be capable of this same creative construction process.
constructive mix
kelompok yang konstruktif, bersifat membangun
The teacher should be the one to do this in order to achieve a constructive mix.
constructive process
proses memahami bahasa yang terus berjalan
Detailed structure is retained and stored in the long-term memory Memory, as an 'active' and 'constructive' process.
contemporary approaches
pendekatan modern pembelajaran bahasa
It suggests criteria for the evaluation of the vocabulary component of coursebooks from the contemporary approaches.
contemporary society
masyarakat modern
Contemporary society exhibits a shift away from listening to printed media and towards sound.
contemporary textbooks
buku teks modern
Those information should be provided in the contemporary textbooks.
contemporary writing
pelajaran menulis dengan pendekatan modern
What are the features of the contemporary writing classroom?
content information
isi Informasi
Learners were asked to read and recall four versions of a text which contained the same content information
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content schemata
pengetahuan tentang sesuatu hal
Content schemata includes world knowledge, sociocultural knowledge, and topic knowledge.
contextual appropriacy
kesesuaian bahasa dalam konteks tertentu
The development of fluency and contextualappropriacy are equally important goals.
contextual clues
petunjuk-petunjuk dalam konteks
Research tends to suggest that if inferencing is easy because the text is rich in contextual clues.
contextual cues
isyarat dalam konteks
Contextual cues are used for inferencing meaning.
contextual factor
faktor yang ada dalam konteks
Many practical suggestions are addressed for dealing with the issues arising from contextual factor.
contextual information
informasi yang ada dalam konteks
The setting can be partly predicted from the picture and contextual information from the written text.
contextual knowledge
pemahaman tentang konteks
Speakers who have a high degree of contextual knowledge can be comprehensible.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |21
contextual use
penggunaan kata dalam konteks
A monolingual dictionary has advantages over a small bilingual one in providing examples of contextual use.
contextualization activities
kegiatan yang dirancang sesuai dengan konteks
It also provides the context of the listening so that contextualization activities become less necessary.
contextualized practice
Kegiatan yang sesuai dengan konteks
Contextualized practice aims to make clear the link between linguistic form and communicative function.
contextualized tasks
tugas yang sesuai dengan konteks
Contextualized tasks aim to develop a sense of audience
continuing focus
fokus yang berkelanjutan
Learners can do choral practice for continuing focus on pronunciation.
contracted forms
bentuk kata yang disingkat, disederhanakan
Spoken language also contains a higher proportion of colloquial language, for example contracted forms.
contrast markers
kata sebagai penanda kontras
A second version was then designed using contrast markers such as “both”.
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contrasting opinion
pendapat yang berbeda
The function of the phrase or clause in which the word occurs, for example, aims to give a contrasting opinion.
contrasting texts
teks yang berbeda
A wide range of activities focusing either on the content of the text can be undertaken, for example, reading of contrasting texts.
contrastive link
tautan, hubungan yang bertentangan
It indicates a contrastive link with the next part of the discourse
contrastive studies
studi, penelitian perbandingan (dua) bahasa
It may be sufficient to use the information available from contrastive
studies.
contributory factor
faktor yang mendukung
The extensive reading programme may well have been a contributory
factor.
controlled activities
aktivitas, kegiatan belajar yang terkontrol
Controlled activities can focus on a number of things, for example: a grammatical structure.
controlled dialogues
dialog, percakapan terbimbing
It will need to move well beyond the controlled dialogues.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |23
controlled language-focused activities
kegiatan belajar terbimbing yang menekankan aspek-aspek bahasa
Students are able to transfer the strategies they practise in more controlled language-focused activity
controlled practice
latihan terbimbing
Controlled practice can be exploited usefully.
conversation interaction
interaksi dalam percakapan
The candidate must be able to evidence of the ability to 'turn-take' in a conversation interaction appropriately.
conversational ability
kemampuan bercakap-cakap
Activities are designed to develop conversational ability.
conversational fillers
ungkapan-ungkapan untuk melancarkan percakapan
Learners should know how to use conversational fillers and small talk.
conversational formulae
Ungkapan-ungkapan dalam percakapan
They need to know how to use appropriate conversational formulae.
conversational gambit
Ungkapan umum dalam percakapan
Controlled activities can focus on a number of things, for example a conversational gambit.
conversational routines
kebiasaan-kebiasaan dalam percakapan
Learners need to know about conversational routines.
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conversational setting
Pengaturan ruang kelas untuk latihan percakapan
Does the activity keep students in the conversational setting of their own classroom?
conversational strategies
strategi dalam percakapan
The success of an indirect approach will depend on such factors as whether input provides examples of conversational strategies.
core skills
keterampilan inti, utama
Learners will need core skills in the mechanics of word processing.
core vocabulary
kosakata inti, utama
It looks at the notion of core vocabulary in discourse.
correction strategies
strategi untuk memperbaiki kesalahan
This review of the questions form the framework of any policy on error treatment that exist for correction strategies.
correction techniques
teknik untuk memperbaiki kesalahan
In the use of correction techniques a balance is needed between accuracy and fluency.
corrective influence
pengaruh karena adanya perbaikan kesalahan
Students need to have exposure to the corrective influence of authentic spoken English.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |25
counter productive
kontra produktif
Methodology which encourages students to plan in detail before writing and to keep to that plan, is possibly counter-productive.
create ambiguity
menciptakan ambiguitas, pemahaman yang tidak jelas
The absence of connecting devices can sometimes create ambiguity.
creative construction process
proses memahami bahasa secara kreatif
The acquisition process is often called a creative construction process.
creative resource book
buku sumber yang kreatif
It is a creative resource book based on a set of assumptions.
critical perspective
perspektif, pandangan kritis
It will help students to develop a critical perspective on texts.
critical awareness
kesadaran kritis
It will help students to develop critical awareness.
critical procedures
prosedur kritis saat mengajar
Teachers who wish to explore critical procedures can apply text comparison as a basis for critical reading.
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critical process
proses membaca kritis
In what ways is reading a critical process?
critical questions
pertanyaan kritis
Silberstein (1979) suggest the kind of critical questions which can be built
into reading material.
critical reading
membaca kritis
Critical reading views reading as a social process.
critical stance
sikap kritis
Taking a critical stance to the content of texts is the goal for teaching reading.
cultural clash
benturan budaya
The Anglo-American teacher of Egyptian students could well experience a cultural clash of learning styles.
cultural competence
kompetensi, pemahaman tentang budaya
They also need relevant cultural competence to know what is an appropriate response.
cultural content
konten, unsur budaya
This is the question of cultural content in materials, and the values and attitudes inherent in this
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |27
cultural conventions
kebiasaan-kebiasaan dalam suatu budaya
The cultural conventions will need to be learned.
cultural expectations
harapan, keinginan berdasarkan budaya
There is a tension between the requirements of the learning task for teacher behaviour and cultural expectations.
cultural notions
gagasan, pandangan, pendapat berdasarkan budaya
Teachers’ work will be influenced by cultural notions of authority.
cultural stereotyping
pandangan terhadap sesuatu berdasarkan ciri-ciri budayanya
It is equally important to be aware of the dangers of cultural stereotyping.
cultural values
nilai-nilai budaya
One of the purposes of using a text like this to introduce them to unfamiliar
cultural values.
current approaches
pendekatan mengajar saat ini
This has substantially influenced current approaches to task design.
current research
penelitian saat ini
This is demonstrated by current research into the reading process.
current textbook
buku yang dipakai saat ini
There are numerous useful examples in the current textbooks which illustrate good practice.
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current trends
trend saat ini
Using authentic materials and is representative of current trends in teaching.
current view
pandangan atau pendapat saat ini
The current view of teaching is to create a balance between holistic and atomistic approaches.
curriculum objective
tujuan kurikulum
Teachers have to keep to the curriculum objectives set our by the educational authorities.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |29
D
denotative meaning
makna denotatif, makna utama, bukan arti kiasan suatu kata
Besides denotative meaning, learners have to learn the complexities of word meanings
design activities
merancang kegiatan atau aktivitas
The teacher's role is to provide materials, design activities, and then step back.
design materials
merancang materi pembelajaran
A teacher can give students ideas for how they might design materials for learning.
detailed criteria
kriteria yang rinci
Detailed criteria for selecting and evaluating textbooks are discussed in Chapter 10.
detailed response
respon yang rinci
A monologue with simple language could require a more detailed response.
detailed structure
struktur yang rinci
It is the gist of the spoken message rather than its detailed structure that is retained and stored in the long-term memory.
develop awareness
mengembangkan kesadaran
An English language course should also develop awareness of the structure of written texts such as rhetorical structure, discourse features, and cohesive devices.
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develop confidence
mengembangakan rasa percaya diri
The intention of the book is to develop confidence and independence in listening.
develop fluency
mengembangkan kelancaran berbicara atau membaca
The book has the following aims: to build confidence through controlled practice; to build awareness of how conversation works; to develop fluency; and to equip students with tools for assessing their own performance.
develop listening
mengembangkan keterampilan menyimak
What kinds of classroom procedures will develop listening ability?
develop preferences
mengembangkan keterampilan untuk memilih sesuatu
Many idioms carry quite subtle nuances in meaning and learners need to develop preferences, and make choices which they feel are appropriate for themselves.
develop strategies
mengembangkan strategi
A major strategy in helping students to build vocabulary for reading is to encourage them to develop strategies for guessing word meanings from contextual clues and background knowledge.
developing competence
mengembangkan kompetensi
The reading lesson should aim to build learners' ability to engage in purposeful reading. This implies developing competence in the foreign language, awareness of the structure of written texts, and knowledge about the world.
developing efficiency
mengembangkan efisiensi
A distinction needs to be made between classroom writing aimed at developing efficiency and exam preparation which aims at demonstrating that efficiency.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |31
developing knowledge
pengetahuan yang sedang berkembang
Getting feedback from the teacher and from other students in the class enables learners to test hypotheses and refine their developing knowledge of the language system.
developing resources
mengembangkan sumber-sumber pembelajaran
Developing resources for vocabulary teaching can be of considerable value to learning.
developing skimming
mengembangkan keterampilan membaca skimming, memahami isi bacaan secara umum
The first step in reading is aimed at developing skimming in order to preview the contents of the text.
developing speech
mengembangkan keterampilan menyampaikan gagasan secara lisan
At this time, the students’ practice aims at developing speech within a set time limit.
dialectal differences
perbedaan dialek
It is the dialectal differences that caused misinterpretation in communication.
diary accounts
catatan harian, lisan maupun tertulis
Block (1994) collected oral diary accounts from six students and from their teacher in an EFL class which met daily for two-and-a-half hours over a period of a month.
diary entries
catatan di buku harian
Even with elementary students it is possible to set up the writing of whole texts such as short descriptions, diary entries, and postcards.
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dictionary entries
daftar kosakata di kamus
One way to find word meaning would be to check it in a dictionary entry, or with a teacher or native speaker.
different perspectives
perspektif atau pemahaman yang berbeda
Learner-centred ELT is a concept which has been defined from several different perspectives.
different speeds
kecepatan yang berbeda
Now, it is common to find activities which encourage different speeds of reading.
different strengths
kekuatan yang berbeda
Each learner will have different strengths to build on and different weaknesses to
overcome. Therefore, there can be no single, set, rigid methodology for reading.
difficult circumstances
suatu kondisi yang sulit
Mistakes may be caused by inability to perform because of factors to do with carelessness, tiredness, distractions, or difficult circumstances such as talking on a faulty telephone line and having to respond to partly heard messages.
difficult experience
pengalaman yang sulit
Some learners have previous difficult experiences. It is an issue which teachers will need to take into account when considering the individual needs.
direct appeal
permintaan langsung
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |33
A direct appeal for help from a learner is: what is this colour?
direct approach
pendekatan langsung
The success of a direct approach will depend on whether students are able to transfer the strategies they practise in more controlled language-focused activity to fluency activities.
direct evidence
bukti langsung
The data from research provide direct evidence from the writer's mind; that they can provide very rich data and allow us to explore many possibilities.
direct instruction
instruksi, petunjuk langsung
Vocabulary learning activities should include direct instruction which aims to shape the associations learners make.
direct teaching
pengajaran langsung
Teachers can facilitate the process of vocabulary learning through direct teaching.
direct vocabulary instruction
pengajaran kosakata secara langsung
It is evidently the view of many current textbook writers that, as well as indirect learning through handling the language in classroom activities, direct vocabulary instruction is useful.
teacher-directed ethos
cara mengajar yang berpusat pada guru
The early twentieth century school classroom is characterized by formal and teacher-directed ethos of teaching.
disadvantage students
merugikan siswa
The physical constraints of the classroom may disadvantage students during learning.
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disambiguating information
informasi, penjelasan yang tidak membingungkan
Some learners can tolerate ambiguity better than others and wait for disambiguating information. This might well advantage beginners dealing with the presentation of simplified grammatical rules.
discernible needs
kebutuhan yang jelas, nyata
Adult learners can specify discernible needs for learning English. They can be asked to contribute to the overall design of course content and the selection of learning procedures.
discernible shapes
bentuk, model yang jelas
Other genres, such as farewell speeches, business presentations of new products, appraisal interviews, and presentations of a problem and its potential solutions at a scientific conference, also have discernible shapes, and a study of these might facilitate ways of practising them.
discipline problems
masalah disiplin
Learners know what they need to do and why they are doing it, are motivated to work actively, are monitored and guided when help is needed, and can work undisturbed by discipline problems.
discourse community
komunitas wacana, sekelompok orang yang memiliki tujuan dan cara komunikasi yang sama
It becomes important for learners to understand the shapes of the written genres they have to produce within the discourse community, for example those of medical research, company law.
discourse organization
susunan sebuah wacana, bagaimana sebuah wacana atau teks disusun
Many writing materials now attempt to follow a syllabus in which students explore various types of discourse organization, for example, cause—effect, problem—solution, contrast—comparison, or process description.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |35
discourse signals
sinyal wacana
A reader may also use discourse signals of various kinds to get through a text. These may be connectives such as 'moreover', which signals addition, or 'whereas', which signals contrast.
discussion tasks
tugas untuk didiskusikan
The students were given a given a discussion task in which they were told they had been made redundant, were given several possible courses of action, and had to achieve consensus on which course to follow.
distracting activity
mengganggu kegiatan
Many handbooks for teachers stress the importance of not impeding or distracting activities of the learners to communicate during fluency practice.
dominant role
peran yang dominan
The teacher commented on his enjoyment of project work as one kind of learner-based teaching which allowed him to stand back a little and take on a less dominant role while his pupils organized themselves in collaborative work.
draw conclusions
mengambil kesimpulan
Unfortunately, it would be mistaken to draw conclusions from this discussion of three activity types that their use will ensure that students practise the skills and strategies they try to encourage.
drawing attention
mengarahkan perhatian
It becomes the task of the teacher to help students develop inferencing strategies, drawing attention to the guidance available and applying it through careful and repeated work.
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dynamic relationship
hubungan yang dinamis
In recent years the term "interactive” has been used to describe the second language reading process. The term can be interpreted in two ways. First, it describes a dynamic relationship with a text as the reader 'struggles' to make sense of it.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |37
E
educational authorities
pejabat dalam bidang pendidikan
Teachers have a good deal of flexibility in deciding how to use these hours as long as we keep to the curriculum objectives set out by the educational authorities.
educational concerns
masalah yang menjadi perhatian dalam pendidikan
There may be wider educational concerns involved in setting goals for activities.
educational context
kontek pendidikan
Writing about a different educational context, Clark discusses the problems her overseas students face when studying international relations.
educational factors
faktor pendidikan
For ease of discussion, the students divided it into social factors and educational factors.
educational goal
tujuan pendidikan
One reason for promoting group work in some school classrooms is that an educational goal within the general curriculum is to encourage cooperative learning.
educational hierarchy
hierarki pendidikan
The teachers in his school are not merely agents in an educational hierarchy, applying specified methods, but have the creative responsibility of building links between externally imposed curriculum objectives and their own course planning, activity design, materials development, and management of learning procedures.
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educational ideas
ide, gagasan pendidikan
One can see immediately how well these educational ideas fit with insights from second language acquisition research about the kind of tasks which promote negotiation of meaning.
educational management
manajemen pendidikan
The field of educational management has much to say about planning and what are considered to be the characteristics of an effective plan.
educational setting
lingkungan pendidikan
Similar issues arise in the use of group work, and particular difficulty can be experienced when students come from an educational setting in which a competitive or individualistic goal structure is the norm.
educational system
sistem pendidikan
The educational system in which teachers work will be influenced by cultural notions of authority which affect the potential roles of teachers and learners
effective listening
menyimak secara efektif
As well as these external problems, first language listeners will experience the same internal pressures and problems which interfere with effective listening such as lack of motivation towards the topic, negative reactions to the speaker or to the event.
effective methodology
metodologi yang efektif
The issue to which we now turn is how to develop an effective methodology for the teaching of listening, one which deals with the points and pitfalls raised so far.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |39
effective revision
revisi yang efektif
Any classroom activities devised to encourage effective revision will need to help student writers in English to see how it relates to all aspects of writing.
effectively organized
terorganisir secara efektif
They can help us build an understanding of how lessons can be effectively organized.
elicit ideas
menggali ide
Elicit ideas from the students as they suggest things, and make a collective mind map on the blackboard as the ideas are suggested, so that they can see how you draw out aspects of the topic and subgroup items.
elicit responses
menggali tanggapan
Teachers can elicit responses through a range of careful questions, sufficiently open-ended to provoke attempts at putting ideas together, for example: Where does the story take place? Who are the main characters? Did you like the story?
elicitation procedure
prosedur, cara menggali jawaban
She suggests an elicitation procedure with focusing questions such as 'Who are you writing to?' and 'Flow have you organized your points?'
elicited ideas
menggali ide
There was a phase of work with the whole class in which the teacher elicited ideas from the students about writing a review of the play they had been reading
emotional dispositions
kecenderungan-kecenderungan tertentu yang berhubungan dengan emosi
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There are certain attitudes, personality characteristics, emotional dispositions, and learning strategies that somehow create the generically 'good language learner'.
emotional reactions
reaksi emosional
It was an emotional reaction to other students.
emotional response
respon emosional
This is a representation of the way in which affective factors such as attitude, anxiety,
competitiveness, and other emotional responses can help or hinder language learning.
empirical evidence
bukti empiris, berdasarkan penelitian
There is little empirical evidence to support the idea that remembering a word depends on depth of processing.
employing strategies
menggunakan strategi
The process view of writing sees it as thinking, as discovery. Writing is the result of employing strategies to manage the composing process, which is one of gradually developing a text.
encourage negotiation of meaning
mendorong negosiasi makna, misalnya bertanya, memberi penjelasan dll.
A more recent study has also shown the difficulty involved in designing tasks which might encourage negotiation of meaning.
encourage participation
mendorong partisipasi
Which activities encourage participation from all students, and to ensure that they all get practice opportunities?
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |41
encourage strategies
mendorong munculnya strategi
Group discussion may encourage strategies for negotiation of meaning. it also provides practice in the 'reporting' style of monologue.
encourage students
mendorong siswa
How far teachers should encourage students to decide on their own goals and targets.
encouraging responses
mengundang, memancing tanggapan
Students can practise the strategies required in interpersonal communication, for example, taking and holding turns, introducing a topic or shifting to a new topic, and encouraging responses and other contributions.
engage learners
mengaktifkan siswa
Meaningful input will engage learners in working with language at a level which is slightly above their competence.
enhance motivation
meningkatkan motivasi
Perhaps the most useful perspective for the teacher to take is to consider what aspects of motivation can be changed and to focus on creating successful teaching and learning experiences which will enhance motivation.
ensure equality of opportunity
memastikan adanya kesempatan yang sama
A third kind of support comes from structuring interactions with suggestions for group roles, such as chair or secretary though the teacher will need to monitor the choice of spokesperson from one activity to another to ensure equality of opportunity for public monologue.
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ensure participation
menjamin adanya partisipasi
Free discussion, even if it takes place in small groups, does not ensure participation from all members. For these reasons discussion usually needs support or structure of some kind.
episodic planning
perencanaan yang runtut dan rinci
If indeed episodic planning allows for an interplay between writing and thinking, a methodology which encourages students to plan in detail before writing and to keep to that plan, is naïve and possibly counter productive, a more flexible approach is required.
equip learners
membekali, melengkapi siswa
A preparatory stage is needed to equip learners with the resources they need before engaging in a freer communicatively oriented activity.
error correction
memperbaiki kesalahan siswa
In recent years have seen a debate about the value of error correction in the classroom
essential criterion
kriteria yang penting
Achieving a balance between accuracy- and fluency-based tasks is a further essential criterion in developing a programme.
essential element
elemen, aspek penting
The essential element in the techniques described above—conferencing, revisions with the help of a checklist, and reformulation---is that they all provide feedback to the writer.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |43
essential features
fitur penting
The third need is to build awareness of the social use of language and to practise essential features of this.
essential information
informasi penting
Writing materials now seek ways of helping students to organize their ideas: through planning in groups, guided note-making, strategic questions by the teacher, organizing points in a hierarchy of importance for presentation, highlighting essential information, sequencing given information, and sorting and matching ideas
essential role
peran penting
Insights from the analysis of written texts have an essential role in writing classes. They can help us build an understanding of how texts can be effectively organized.
established lexicon
daftar kosakata yang sudah mapan, sudah diterima secara luas
An evaluation checklist for the teacher could include these questions: Does the book explain its selection of vocabulary? Has the selection been made in relation to an established lexicon such as Threshold Level, COBUILD, or the Cambridge English Lexicon?
establishing goals
menentukan tujuan akhir
Teachers need to realize what is gained and what is lost if they suggest the appointment of roles such as chairperson. A fourth kind of support comes from establishing goals for the discussion.
evaluation checklist
daftar pertanyaan untuk evaluasi
An evaluation checklist for the teacher could include these questions: I Does the book explain its selection of vocabulary?
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eventual acquisition
penguasaan bahasa yang diinginkan
By reading what they choose and (more or less) enjoying their homework, students' motivation to learn will increase, which will in turn benefit their eventual acquisition of the target language.
eventual needs
kebutuhan akhir
This is not to suggest that 'needs' should be rigidly interpreted in terms of immediate or eventual needs in the real world.
excessive degree
tingkat yang berlebihan
However, there will only be equality of opportunity for practice where roles have equal significance and 'key roles' do not hold the floor to an excessive degree.
excessive pausing
jeda, berhenti sejanak yang terlalu sering, berlebihan
It is important how to maintain fluency in conversation, through avoiding excessive pausing, breakdowns, and errors of grammar or pronunciation.
exchange drafts
tukar menukar draf
Other types of checklist can be used when students exchange drafts for comment and can focus on a recent teaching point.
exchange information
tukar menukar informasi
Galvin (1985), for example, suggests that there are five general reasons for listening (1) to engage in social rituals; (2) to exchange information; (3) to exert control; (4) to share feelings; and (5) to enjoy yourself.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |45
existing experience
pengalaman yang ada, yang dimiliki
They also fail to appreciate that we integrate linguistic knowledge with our existing experience and knowledge of such things as topic and culture.
existing knowledge
pengetahuan yang ada, yang dimiliki
Craik and Lockhart (1972) suggested, as a learner moves from surface-level activity based on the sound and visual image of a word to a deeper level of meaning, and at the same time relates the word to existing knowledge, then memory traces become more permanent.
explicit instruction
instruksi yang jelas dalam mengajar
It could be argued that the last two meanings are inevitable elements in ELT materials, but decisions could be taken as to how explicit instruction should be when conventions differ between cultures.
explicit reference
referensi, penjelasan, petunjuk yang eksplisit, jelas
Perhaps these difficulties are one reason why so many textbooks produced for the international market avoid explicit reference of phonology and leave it to the teacher's discretion and knowledge of local needs.
exploiting texts
memanfaatkan, menggunakan teks
Awareness of this distinction will guide the teacher into exploiting texts both for reading strategy development and for vocabulary acquisition.
exploratory study
penelitian eksplorasi, penelitian pendahuluan
Nobuyoshi and Ellis (1996) report on a small-scale exploratory study which investigated the effect of using requests for clarification when students produce errors in a form-focused communication activity, rather than making corrections.
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expository essays
esei ekspositori yang menjelaskan perbandingan, perbedaan, atau masalah tentang suatu topik
University students should be able to produce a range of expository essays in English, for example comparing and contrasting systems, discussing problems and alternative solutions, or critically reviewing an argument.
extensive exposure
pajanan yang luas melalui bacaan, media audio visual
A global learner is believed to prefer learning through global extensive exposure while an analytic learner likes to analyse elements in detail.
extract information
memilah informasi
Underwood's (1989) list of listening situations seems to fall into six major categories, relates to non-participatory listening. She includes: (1) listening to live conversations in which one takes no part and where the purpose is curious eavesdropping; (2) listening to announcements, news items, and weather forecasts where the purpose is to extract information.
extrovert learners
siswa ekstrovert
Extrovert learners are likely to be more successful than introverted learners, possibly because they are more assertive, more willing to experiment and take risks, and more able to make the social contacts they need to practise language.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |47
F
Face-to-face encounters
Pertemuan langsung, tatap muka
Face-to-face encounters involve evaluation and negotiation. If, for example, a friend is escribing a complex and distressing financial situation.
facilitate comprehension
membantu pemahaman
Traditionally, the language of audio recordings for ELT has been fairly slow, restricted in various ways, and often repetitive, in order to facilitate comprehension.
facilitate development
membantu perkembangan
The component of an English language course could include vocabulary, structure which will facilitate development of greater reading ability.
facilitates intake
membantu pemahaman terhadap apa yang dipelajari
If we are persuaded by Krashen’s view that learners need to be exposed to large amounts of comprehensible input which is meaningful, relevant, and interesting, in a stress-free environment, then clearly individual extensive reading outside class time has value. It can be seen as an input-enabling activity, whether extensive reading facilitates intake is another matter.
feedback session
sesi feedback
In a feedback session, the teacher and students check and discuss the responses to the while-listening task. The teacher's role is to help students see how successful they have been in doing the task.
figurative meanings
arti kiasan
Students need to be able to distinguish between literal and figurative meanings distinguish between facts and opinions.
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first encounter
pertama kali menemukan
Other cognitive strategies can be observed when learners first encounter an unfamiliar word and engage in lexical inferencing in order to try to establish meaning.
flexible learning
pembelajaran yang fleksibel
This is a real problem that many teachers face and the issues of mixed ability teaching deserve far greater professional attention in ELT. At the very least it supports arguments for rich, varied, and flexible learning resources.
flood learners
memberi bahan bacaan yang banyak kepada siswa
The aim of extensive reading is usefully described by Hafiz and Tudor (1989) as: ... to 'flood' learners with large quantities of L2 input with few or possibly no specific tasks to perform on this material.
fluency activities
kegiatan untuk meningkatkan kelancaran berbicara atau membaca
Perhaps the most important implication for the teacher is simply to appreciate and understand what is happening when students use communication strategies, as they are likely to do in fluency activities which push them to the limits of their language resources.
fluent readers
pembaca yang sudah lancar
Fluent readers reach automaticity in their reading and do not consciously control the process in the way demanded by the text above.
fluent reading
membaca dengan lancar disertai pemahaman yang benar
It is also useful to remember the distinction between inferencing for the purpose of fluent reading and inferencing as a strategy in vocabulary acquisition.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |49
language-focused activities
kegiatan belajar untuk memahami aspek-aspek kebahasaan seperti tata bahasa, kosa-kata dll.
During language-focused activities the teacher might well assume the more traditional role of instructor, but when it comes to the reading itself, the teacher's role will be to provide materials, design activities, and then step back.
formal conventions
aturan-aturan baku
The letter of complaint would follow formal conventions of layout and style. The letter to friends would be informal, expressive, probably colloquial, and a mixture of description and comment.
formal practice
latihan pola-pola kalimat
The methodology involves analysis of model texts in order to raise awareness of how they are structured. It also involves formal practice of such features as the use of passives in descriptions of processes, the use of relative clauses in descriptions of people and places.
formal schema
pengetahuan tentang struktur, bagian-bagian dari teks, bacaan
One of the findings suggested by the study is that: if ESL readers possess the appropriate formal schema of the text and if they utilize that formal schema to organize their thoughts, more information is retrieved from the text.
formal structure
struktur, bagian-bagian dari teks
The second group is to do with the content of the text and includes language factors, the formal structure of the text, and the prior knowledge required to infer meaning.
formulate hypotheses
membuat hipotesa, menebak-nebak aturan pemakaian bahasa
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A study of children's errors suggests that they use operating' strategies, such as paying attention to the ends of words, to formulate hypotheses about rules in the language, and that these hypotheses are tested out in their own attempts to produce language and gradually revised as they receive feedback on their attempts.
formulate principles
membuat, merumuskan prinsip atau rencana
Teachers who wish to provide direct instruction can find many useful ideas for task types in both coursebooks and supplementary materials but they will need to formulate principles for their own classroom practice in this area.
formulating opinions
merumuskan pendapat
Teachers often worry about less structured fluency activities because there are problems to overcome if the advantages are to be enjoyed: for example, students anxiety in formulating opinions or ideas about topics which may be unfamiliar and which they may never have discussed in their first language.
teacher-fronted classroom
kegiatan belajar di kelas yang berpusat pada guru
The activities are focused on language forms and the teacher takes a dominant role in what is a largely teacher-fronted classroom.
functional language
bahasa yang memiliki fungsi, misalnya untuk menyapa, memberi informasi dll
Learners need to develop at the same time a knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, functional language and communicative skills. Attention to the systems of language is crucial, but the development of fluency and contextual appropriacy are equally important goals.
functional relationships
hubungan fungsional, makna antar kalimat
Inability to understand the cohesive devices in a text will impede understanding of the functional relationships of sentences. Cohesive
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |51
devices include such things as reference items, for example, 'they', 'these matters', 'the latter’, and so on.
functional roles
peran siswa dalam percakapan misalnya untuk minta maaf, memberi bantuan, dsb
Functional roles do not present a great problem as all speakers need to apologize or offer help, for example.
professional role
peran siswa dalam percakapan sebagai seorang profesional
However, professional roles may begin to present difficulty as many role-plays involving transactional language assign one student of a pair a role such as 'doctor' or 'travel agent' and students can find this alien and not very useful.
further insights
wawasan, pemahaman lebih mendalam
It is undoubtedly the case that protocol analysis has uncovered a great deal that is of interest to teachers and, while we wanted further insights into how strategies might vary across a range of tasks.
further meaning associations
asosiasi makna yang lebih mendalam
Teachers need to be aware that there will be gaps in students' understanding of nuance and find ways of helping them to fill the gaps with further meaning associations.
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G
general recursiveness
proses menulis yang memerlukan revisi berulang-ulang
The findings suggested that a teaching methodology which tries to guide students into a linear sequence of planning, drafting, and revising, might be mistaken. It needs to take into account both the general recursiveness of the process and the individual strategies of writers.
generalizable findings
hasil penelitian yang berlaku umum
It is noteworthy that all three studies cited above were small-scale. We need many more such studies before we have generalizable findings that can provide useful insights for teachers about the efficacy of different activity types.
genre knowledge
pengetahuan tentang jenis teks
It is likely that you used at least six types of knowledge to help you make sense of the text. One of them is genre knowledge, e.g. the information given that the text is from a science fantasy novel might help a reader to realize that the setting is the future
genuine classroom interaction
interaksi belajar di kelas yang muncul secara alami
Clearly the logistics of this procedure require careful management, but reading syndicates usefully combine the motivation of self-chosen books, genuine classroom interaction among changing groups of learners, and potential student recommendation of books to their peers.
genuine reading habit
kebiasaan membaca yang muncul secara alami
The point of the reading class must be reading... not the reinforcement of oral skills, nor grammatical or discourse analysis and not the acquisition of new vocabulary. Improvement in any of these areas can make reading easier but none of them is reading and none contributes directly to the one
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |53
legitimate goal of such a class ... the development of genuine reading habit in the language.
giving feedback
memberi balikan, umpan balik
Planning, managing interactions, monitoring learning, giving instructions, and giving feedback are the teacher's main responsibilities.
global errors
kesalahan global, menyebabkan salah pengertian
Global errors cause misunderstanding by the listener while local errors tend not to as they relate only to part of what is said. For example, 'They ate smoked worm' is not immediately apparent as 'They are smoked beef'
global improvement
perkembangan keterampilan menulis secara global, menyeluruh
We know that poorer writers focus on sentence-level revision at the expense of more global improvement. Rather than encouraging them to work on individual sentences, we need to help learners to use the cut and paste facility to move parts of the text around and to delete other parts in order to gain overall improvement.
goal structure
cara, kebiasaan untuk mencapai tujuan belajar
Similar issues arise in the use of group work, and particular difficulty can be experienced when students come from an educational setting in which a competitive or individualistic goal structure is the norm and are not familiar with working cooperatively
graded material
materi yang memiliki tingkat kesulitan bertingkat, dari yang mudah sampai yang sukar
Clearly authentic reading texts will provide an authentic reading challenge but graded material can also be useful. For example, a series of graded readers provides unfamiliar vocabulary at each level to practise inferencing strategies and dictionary skills.
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graded readers
bacaan yang tingkat kesulitannya bertingkat
Clearly authentic reading texts will provide an authentic reading challenge but graded material can also be useful. For example, a series of graded readers provides unfamiliar vocabulary at each level to practise inferencing strategies and dictionary skills.
grammatical function
fungsi gramatikal, kata benda, kata kerja, kata keterangan, dsb
The test has a set of grammatical sensitivity to the first language which asks students to identify words in two sentences which have the same grammatical function. Example: Can you decide which word underlined in the second sentence has the same function as 'London' in the first sentence?
1. Jakarta is the capital of Indonesia.
2. He liked to go fishing in Cirebon.
grammatical relations
hubungan gramatikal
Richards (1990) offers a list of what learners need to be able to do in order to listen effectively. One is to recognize grammatical relations between key elements in sentences.
grammatical sensitivity
kepekaan terhadap unsur tata bahasa
Language aptitude comprises four components: auditory ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and memory. Each of these components is tested in order to predict whether a student is likely to be successful in learning a foreign language.
grammatical syllabus
silabus yang berisi unsur-unsur tata bahasa
There was a grammatical syllabus in the map of the book and I think this fitted with their expectations of learning a language.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |55
group composition
menulis dalam kelompok
Our group is working on a group composition.
group discussion
diskusi kelompok
Our group discussion went well.
group dynamics
dinamika kelompok di kelas
Group dynamics in a classroom may increase a learner's motivation, but it can also decrease motivation.
group interaction
interaksi dalam kelompok
Group interaction can happen smoothly if every member appreciates one another.
guided writing
menulis terbimbing
The lowest level of writing in a foreign language is usually guided writing.
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H
highly motivated
memiliki motivasi tinggi
These students are highly motivated to learn English.
highly motivating
sangat memotivasi
Getting feedback from a teacher can be highly motivating or demotivating.
holistic approach
pendekatan holistik, secara menyeluruh
A holistic approach is needed to overcome problems of poverty in this area.
humanistic approaches
pendekatan yang humanis
Humanistic approach helps psychologists to handle patients with psychological problems.
hypothesis testing
mengetes, membuktikan sebuah hipotesa
Hypothesis testing can be one of the most confusing parts in statistics for students.
hypothesis making
membuat hipotesa
Do you find difficulties making a hypothesis?
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |57
I
idiomatic expressions
ungkapan idiomatik
When learning a language, it is not easy to understand its idiomatic expressions.
inappropriate teaching
pengajaran yang tidak tepat
In the remote area, online teaching can be inappropriate teaching because internet connection is not so good there.
inappropriate transfer
transfer yang tidak tepat dalam berbahasa
Because of a lack of vocabulary in English, many students made inappropriate transfers from Indonesian to English.
increase input
memperbanyak masukan dalam belajar
Language learners need to increase inputs needed during their learning.
increased understanding
pemahaman yang meningkat
As language learners learn a language more deeply, they will have increased understanding of the language.
increasing ability
kemampuan yang terus meningkat
Nindya's increasing ability in speaking impressed everybody.
increasing awareness
kesadaran yang semakin meningkat
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A language learner's awareness will increase as he/she learns the language more deeply.
increasing interest
minat yang makin meningkat
After watching a series of Korean dramas, Caroline's interest in Korean language is increasing.
independent learning
belajar mandiri.
In some cases, a second language learner is successful through independent learning.
independent reading
kegiatan membaca mandiri
Many language learners can be successful because of independent reading.
indirect learning
belajar secara tidak langsung.
Indirect learning can sometimes be effective.
indirect strategies
strategi belajar tidak langsung.
Indirect strategies can sometimes be more effective than direct strategies because the learning is fun and free from anxiety.
individual brainstorming
mencari ide secara individual.
Individual brainstorming can be more effective than collaborative brainstorming for students who do not like to work in groups.
individual characteristics
karakteristik individu
Students with their individual characteristics are unique.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |59
individual differences
perbedaan individu
Individual learner differences make every single learner unique and special.
individual personalities
kepribadian individu
Every language learner has individual personalities which are special.
individual reflection
renungan, refleksi pribadi
Every language learner had better make individual reflections along with the progresses she/he makes.
individual strategies
strategi belajar individu
Individual strategies of language learners vary depending on many factors.
individual style
gaya belajar individu
A language learner's individual style reflects the way she/he studies and copes with the difficulties she/ he faces.
infer meaning
menyimpulkan makna (saat membaca)
From the facts provided in the previous paragraphs, we can infer meanings of new words.
inferencing strategy
strategi belajar untuk mengambil kesimpulan
Inferencing strategy is really needed in the language learning process.
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information sequencing
proses menyusun informasi
A language learner's information sequencing is similar to first language speech production.
information-gap activities
aktivitas yang memiliki gap informasi
The 'information gap' activity in particular has been studied. This involves each learner in a pair or group possessing information which the other learners do nor have.
information-gap tasks
tugas yang memiliki gap informasi
Another value of this kind of task is the motivation stimulated by bridging the information gap to solve a problem. Information-gap tasks have their own advantages and limitations. They assist language acquisition, but they do not necessarily involve students in conversational strategies in the same way as role-play or discussion.
inhibited learning
pembelajaran yang mengalami hambatan atau halangan.
Lorna seems to have some inhibitions in her French language learning.
inhibition embarrassment
perasaan malu yang menghambat
One of the inhibitions in learning a second language is embarrassment.
inner circle
'inner circle' adalah istilah untuk negara-negara yang memakai Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa pertama, seperti Amerika, Australia, dan Inggris
Do you know what is meant by 'inner circle' , 'outer circle' , and 'expanding circle?
input hypothesis
teori input pembelajaran bahasa yang diciptakan oleh Krashen.
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If a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'.
interlanguage development
perkembangan bahasa siswa yang mengandung unsur-unsur bahasa pertama dan bahasa yang sedang dipelajari
How is his interlanguage development? Near proficiency or far from proficiency?
instrumental motivation
motivasi instrumental, berasal dari lingkungan
Sherly has very strong instrumental motivation because her parents want her to be a Stewardess.
integrative motivation
motivasi integratif, berasal dari dalam diri siswa
Dino has high integrative motivation.
intended meaning
makna yang tidak terungkap, yang ingin disampaikan
To state our intended meaning is sometimes not easy.
interference theory
teori interferensi, pengaruh bahasa pertama dalam belajar bahasa asing
Interference theory deals with the negative influence from a learner's mother tongue on his/her second language acquisition.
internal pressures
tekanan dari dalam
One type of internal pressure is lack of self-confidence.
interpersonal communication
komunikasi antara dua orang
Interpersonal communication can go on well if two parties share the same concepts.
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interpersonal skills
keterampilan, kemampuan interpersonal
Lea is a very smart girl, but she does not have good interpersonal skills.
introverted learners
siswa yang introvert, tertutup
Jean is an introverted language learner.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |63
L
language acquisition
pemerolehan bahasa secara alami
Language acquisition is different from language learning.
language aptitude
bakat dalam bidang bahasa
Denny has good language aptitude.
language awareness
kesadaran akan bentuk-bentuk bahasa
As a language learner goes more deeply in language learning, his/ her language awareness will get better.
language backgrounds
latar belakang bahasa
My father can speak Dutch because he has various language backgrounds.
language competence
kemampuan berbahasa
The more a language learner is exposed to the second language, the better his/her competence will be.
language confidence
percaya diri dalam berbahasa
Do you think you have good language confidence?
language environment
lingkungan bahasa
One's language environment deeply affects his/her success in learning a second or foreign language.
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language system
sistem, struktur bahasa
The language system in this computer is difficult to understand.
language input
Input atau masukan bahasa
If an English language leaner lives in an English-speaking country, it can be interpreted that she/he gets adequate language input.
language pedagogy
ilmu pengajaran bahasa
Language pedagogy from one language is different from one another.
language production
luaran dalam pembelajaran bahasa, berupa tulisan atau ucapan
One's language production is affected by many factors.
language proficiency
kemampuan bahasa
Daniel's language proficiency has been good since he was in primary school.
learner strategies
strategi siswa dalam belajar bahasa
Do you know that a learner's strategies can be unique and different from one another?
learners ability
kemampuan siswa
Learners' ability can be measured.
language awareness
kesadaran berbahasa
Lourie is well known for her good language awareness.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |65
learners expectations
harapan, keinginan siswa
What are learners' expectations in general?
learners memory
daya ingat siswa
According to the theory of SLA or LL, the younger a learner is, the better his/her memory will be.
learners variations
variasi, perbedaan antar siswa
Learner variations are a special feature in second language acquisition.
learning conditions
situasi, kondisi belajar
One's learning condition also takes part in his/ her success.
learning resources
sumber-sumber belajar
Learning resources include text books, videos, software, and some others.
learning strategies
strategi belajar
Learning strategies vary from one learner to another.
learning style
gaya belajar siswa
There are several kinds of learning styles that a learner has, like auditory, visual, and kinesthetic.
lexical accuracy
ketepatan dalam menggunakan kata
One's lexical accuracy can be seen from the use of words in his/her writing.
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lexical competence
kompetensi, pengetahuan kosakata
A learner's lexical competence will influence the success of his/ her communicative competence.
lexical errors
kesalahan penggunaan kata
One's lexical knowledge can help him/ her overcome lexical errors.
lexical inferencing ability
kemampuan untuk memahami arti suatu kata.
Do you have good lexical inferencing ability?
lexical knowledge
pengetahuan kosakata
The more someone reads, the better his/her lexical knowledge will be.
lexical system
sistem pembentukan kata
The example of a lexical system of the word 'plant' is tree, flower, and bush.
linguistic contexts
konteks linguistik
Do you know the linguistic context of the word "desire" in this sentence, Deny has a strong desire to learn English?
linguistic features
unsur-unsur kebahasaan
One of the linguistics features of a narration is the use of past tense.
linguistic knowledge
pengetahuan dalam bidang linguistik
Living in Hungary, Dea has good linguistic knowledge of Hungarian.
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linguistic studies
penelitian linguistik
I am interested in linguistic studies.
listening process
proses mendengar, menyimak
Listening process in a foreign language can be very difficult.
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M
major component
komponen utama
Can you mention the major components in a sentence?
major concern
perhatian utama
What is your major concern in learning speaking?
major features
fitur utama
Please mention one major feature in a language.
major issues
Isu, masalah utama
What major issues can be found in SLA?
major motivations
motivasi utama
A learner's major motivations may come from other people.
major problem
masalah utama
What are your major problems in learning English?
major referential differences
perbedaan referensi utama
This finding demonstrated how students found different solutions to the
problems in an information gap task, one an older and the other a newer
version with some major referential differences.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |69
major resource
sumber utama
Teachers themselves are a major resource.
major response
respon utama
One of the major responses to increasing insights about the role of schematic
knowledge in reading has been the focus in current reading methodology
on a pre-reading stage.
major section
bagian utama
The markers were clues to the overall structure of the lecture and indicated
the major section.
major strategy
strategi utama
A major strategy in helping students to build vocabulary for reading is to
encourage them to develop strategies for guessing word meanings from
contextual clues and background knowledge.
major task
tugas utama
A major task for the teacher in teaching speaking is building students’
confidence.
manage interaction
mengatur interaksi
In teacher-student interactions, the teacher needs to manage the
interaction to ensure turn-taking and other aspects of the conversation
exist.
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management roles
peran manajemen
The study is about teachers’ management roles in the development of
communication skills.
managing classroom
mengatur kelas
Time management is one of the key aspects in managing the classroom.
materials development
pengembangan bahan ajar
Materials development for language teaching and learning play a major role
in second language teaching.
materials design
desain material
Frequency has been accorded a high level of significance in ELT for many
years as a result of the use of word-frequency counting as a procedure
informing syllabus and materials design.
meaning associations
asosiasi makna
Learners develop their vocabulary knowledge as words that they have learnt
are met in different contexts and eventually a word might have extensive
and complex meaning associations.
meaning relation
hubungan makna
Meaning relation among words involves the sense relations that exist
among words, i.e the way in which lexemes can substitute for another in the
same context.
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meaningful input
masukan yang bermakna, berguna
Second language researchers confirm the need for meaningful input which
will engage learners in working with language at a level which is slightly
above their competence.
meaningful language practice
latihan bahasa yang bermakna
There is increasing evidence that learners progress faster with meaningful
language practice in a rich linguistic environment.
mental involvement
terlibat secara mental
There appears to be growing evidence to support the experience of teachers
and learners that active mental involvement aids retention.
mental lexicon
kamus mental (mental dictionary) yang berisi informasi tentang arti kata,
ucapan, pola-pola tata bahasa, dsb. Kamus mental juga berfungsi untuk
mengakses, menyimpan, memproses kosakata. Kamus mental seseorang
selalu berkembang sejalan dengan bertambahnya penguasaan kosakata.
The authors suggested that words of different form classes may be
organized differently in learners' mental lexicon.
mental operation
cara berpikir
Metacognitive is not a direct mental operation but indirect strategies which
facilitate learning by actively involving the learner in conscious efforts to
remember new words.
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mental (cognitive) representations
bayangan dalam pikiran
When someone arrives at the belief that his or her floor needs sweeping,
the representational theory of mind states that he or she forms a mental
representation that represents the floor and its state of cleanliness.
metacognitive strategies
strategi metakognitif
Metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that an overarching goal has
been reached.
methodological choice
pilihan metodologi
It is vital that researchers attend carefully to their methodological choices
and the implications of those choices for what can be learned.
methodological responsibilities
tanggung jawab metodologis
In the context of teaching younger learners, there has been useful
discussion about the considerable methodological responsibilities of
bringing together students and provocative texts.
miscomprehension
kesalahpahaman
Most students made only a few attempts to negotiate meaning through
requests for clarification or comprehension checks to make their own
language more comprehensible in response to signals of miscomprehension.
mixed ability classes
kelas dengan kemampuan siswa yang beragam
Topic-based crosswords can be put to good use in mixed ability classes when
some learners complete tasks before others and have time to fill.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |73
monolingual class
kelas yang menggunakan satu bahasa
Monolingual classes facilitate use of the first language in the classroom and
it is useful to work out a personal policy for this which can be explained and
discussed in class.
monolingual dictionaries
kamus monolingual, menggunakan satu bahasa
If a good monolingual dictionary is kept as a class resource, the teacher can
ask a student to look up an unknown word once other strategies have been
tried.
morphological clues
penanda morfologi seperti awalan, akhiran
The sixth and eighth graders were better at combining contextual and
morphological clues than were the fourth graders, showing significant
improvement in identifying unfamiliar word meanings in both strong and
weak contexts.
morphological knowledge
pengetahuan morfologi
In the lowest level of this scale is the morphological knowledge, followed by
the syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic-discursive knowledge.
motivational reasons
alasan untuk memberi motivasi
There may be strong motivational reasons for giving students a range of
purposes for reading and, consequently, for presenting them with a variety
of texts.
multicultural classroom
kelas yang berisi siswa dengan budaya berbeda-beda
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With regard to the multicultural classroom, insights into culture and
learning style highlight the teacher's need to create a variety of learning
activities to cater for the range of styles.
multidimensional syllabus
silabus multidemensi, terdiri dari beberapa jenis: skill-based syllabus,
structural syllabus, task syllabus, process syllabus
The proposed project is expected to promote access to multilingual learning
resources and address the specific needs of the target population by
developing a multidimensional syllabus
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |75
N
narrative analysis
analisis naratif
The study combines narrative analysis of the change with a philosophical
inquiry about teacher and learning.
negative feedback
umpan balik untuk kesalahan berbahasa
There is always a need to balance negative feedback on errors with positive
feedback on the student's attempts to produce the language.
negotiate meaning
saling bertanya untuk memahami informasi
Most students made only a few attempts to negotiate meaning through
requests for clarification or comprehension checks.
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O
observed behavior
tingkah laku, perilaku yang nampak
The major problem of research in this area is that data gathered by
introspective methods using questionnaires and self-report often does not
seem to agree with observed behaviour.
oral fluency
kelancaran berbicara
To help improve students' oral fluency, Upper Intermediate material that is
designed contains a variety of activities aimed at encouraging free
expression.
oral skills
keterampilan berbicara
The point of the reading class is not the reinforcement of oral skills, nor
grammatical or discourse analysis.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |77
P
paradigmatic relations
hubungan paradigmatis, seperti lain kata, lawan kata, dsb.
A synonym, for example, 'very tired', has the advantage of making learners
aware of paradigmatic relations in the language.
paralinguistic features
Fitur, aspek paralinguistik, non-verbal
The availability of video cassettes has enabled teachers to point out cultural
differences in paralinguistic features such as the use of facial expression and
gesture.
participatory listening
mendengarkan secara partisipatif, aktif
Participatory listening (as in listening to lectures, radio programmes, or
public announcements) are complex processes but recent research provides
useful insights and suggests ways in which teachers can help learners to
become good listeners through the design of classroom procedures.
pedagogic materials
materi pedagogis
Many teachers prefer a smaller class, in which he can mine the individual
stories of his students for comic or pedagogic material.
pedagogical procedures
prosedur pedagogis, mengajar
A research agenda for the future could usefully include not only further
comparative studies of the effects of intensive and extensive reading but
also studies of the relative merits of a range of pedagogical procedures to
promote extensive reading,
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phonological aspects
aspek-aspek fonologi
It is worth spending some time giving separate consideration to the
phonological aspects of learning English as perspectives on these have
broadened and changed in recent years.
poor intelligibility
ketidak-jelasan
Teachers and learners may face substantial challenges, with poor
intelligibility resulting from interference by the first language.
positive feedback
umpan balik positif, misalnya untuk memuji atau membenarkan jawaban
siswa
It's nice to give some positive feedback.
pronunciation element
elemen, aspek ucapan
Students' needs will vary along a number of dimensions, and these will
affect the teacher's selection of content in the pronunciation element of a
course.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |79
R
raise awareness
menumbuhkan kesadaran
The methodology therefore involves analysis of model texts in order to raise
awareness of how they are structured.
ranking exercise
latihan untuk menentukan peringkat, rangking
Ranking exercises are one of the most popular activities that develop
learners’ language confidence.
reading strategies
strategi membaca
Teachers can train reading strategies through more extensive reading.
reading style
gaya membaca
The reading lesson should aim to build learners' ability to adopt a range of
reading styles necessary for interacting successfully with authentic texts.
reciprocal responsibility
tanggung jawab timbal balik
The teacher's reciprocal responsibility is to ensure that learners have
effective strategies for planning, performing, and monitoring their
independent learning.
rehearsed situations
situasi yang sudah dipersiapkan sebelumnya
Compared to conversation, speaking such as meetings, interviews, and
seminars are more formal and sometimes more rehearsed situations.
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relevant schemata
latar belakang pengetahuan yang relevan
In the absence of video, visuals can contextualize some types of listening
text and activate relevant schemata.
relinquish control
melepaskan kontrol
The teacher here seems to accept a need to relinquish control over the
discourse to the learners.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |81
S
schematic knowledge
pengetahuan tentang bentuk, struktur, lokasi, manfaat suatu hal
The language is not likely to cause problems but a lack of schematic
knowledge may well do so.
semantic field
sekelompok kata yang berhubungan dengan konsep / topik yang sama
The semantic field of 'water' could be divided into a number of subfields.
semantic structure
struktur semantik
Learning English therefore means gradually acquiring a knowledge of
synonyms, antonyms, and other relations in its semantic structure.
sense relations
hubungan makna antar kata
The second aspect of meaning involves the sense relations that exist among
words.
shared knowledge
pengetahuan yang dimiliki bersama
The teacher can explain the meaning of a word like 'famous' by giving some
examples, asking students to confirm by checking in their dictionaries and
drawing on students' shared knowledge of the world.
short turns
giliran pendek
The controlled dialogues are presented with short turns that are
traditionally associated with textbooks.
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social attitudes
sikap sosial
Social attitudes towards English language learning will partly determine how
much effort teachers have to put into motivating students.
social contacts
kontak sosial
There is a sense of social contact with the books and the characters
themselves.
social process
proses sosial
Critical reading views reading as a social process.
sociocultural background
latar belakang sosiokultural
Cultural differences in interaction also become evident and can be
commented on in order to build understanding of sociocultural background.
sociocultural knowledge
pengetahuan sosiokultural
Children construct sociocultural knowledge from and within the sociocultural
communities they live in and experience.
speaking competence
kompetensi berbicara
Improving students’ speaking competence is very important.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |83
spoken discourse
wacana bentuk lisan
In order to help students develop their ability in speaking English we need a
descriptive framework for looking at spoken discourse and a way of
categorizing speaking situations and the demands they make of
participants.
strategic competence
kemampuan strategi komunikasi
Teachers might also consider whether and how to teach strategic
competence.
student output
luaran siswa, lisan atau tulis
I found the discussion on the importance of using students' output to affect
your teaching and their learning quite useful.
suprasegmental aspects
aspek suprasegmental
The development of communicative approaches has been accompanied by
a shift of emphasis in pronunciation teaching to suprasegmental aspects of
connected speech such as sentence stress, rhythm, and intonation.
suprasegmental features
fitur suprasegmental
There are usually ample opportunities to integrate work on both segmental
and suprasegmental features into lessons which focus on speaking.
sustain conversation
melangsungkan percakapan
Free discussion can also encourage students to use the language needed to
sustain conversation over a period of time by drawing in other speakers.
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sustained language
bahasa yang dipakai secara aktif
More sustained language required by these activities will help students to
develop the confidence to make their turns in interaction longer.
syntactic difficulty
kesulitan sintaksis, struktur kalimat
A pretest was conducted to diagnose the students' independent
performance abilities and their main sources of difficulties, i.e syntactic and
lexical difficulties.
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING |85
T
task dependency
tugas yang bergantung satu sama lain
The principle involved in these letter exchanges is that of task dependency
as the success of the exchange depends on the clarity of the letters to their
readers.
teaching competence
kompetensi mengajar
Another aspect of teaching competence is the ability to manage activities
and interactions successfully.
teaching methodology
metodologi pengajaran
If teaching methodology is to support planning, then classroom activities
need to guide students in finding their own effective planning.
teaching objectives
tujuan pengajaran
There is no easy direct relationship between the teaching objectives of our
lessons and the learning outcomes for the students.
teaching procedures
prosedur pengajaran
It would be useful to have information from classroom studies as to which
teaching procedures seem to enhance particular learning strategies.
teaching techniques
teknik pengajaran
There are implications here both for teaching techniques and for learner
strategies in dealing with new words.
86|Gusti Astika, dkk.
turn taking
bergiliran
The games are fun for many children and can reinforce good social skills
such as turn-taking and learning skills such as counting and reading.
V
vocabulary acquisition
pemerolehan kosakata
Contemporary coursebooks vary greatly in the degree to which they show a
concern with vocabulary acquisition.
W
word coinage
pembentukan kata baru
Word coinage is often influenced by the first language.