evolution of problem solving methods

8/8/2019 Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

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Evolution of Problem Solving Methods

Azizah Safie (2009111435)

Masters of Science in Information Technology (CS770)

Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences

Universiti Teknologi Mara

This discourse will provide a brief overview of the Problem Solving Methods and the

evolution of this methods related to Information Technology (IT). This section will provide

an explanation for each step in the process. Then I will discuss the past, present and future of

this methods.This will explore the importance of the method in solving any problems that

may occured in IT industries.

Brief Overview of the Problem Solving Methods

The mere formulation of a problem is far more essential than its solution, which may be

merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skills. To raise new questions, new

possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle require creative imagination and

marks real advances in science.

--Albert Einstein--

Quote from Albert Einstein about problem solving, briefly explain about the evolution, not

only the method of solving problems but also the problem itself. Some people might not been

taught on how to solve the problems while others are been afraid to make mistake while

solving one. So, people would often refer to several methods on how to solve a problem, by

making assumption that, it just might had work. And yet, they complete one or more of the

steps in the methods inadequately. Problem would never be solved in straightforward solution

as some can only be solved with a series of actions. Which are called as algorithmic

solutions, whereby the best among several alternatives was choosen as steps and completion

of the steps would make the solution appear. But for solution that cannot be reached through

a direct steps are called heuristic solutions (Sprankle & Hubbard, 2009). Psychologists for

ages have use several methods in order to study human problem solving methods such as;

introspection, behaviorism, simulation, computer modeling and experiment. (Amsel, Langer,

& Loutzenhiser, 1991)


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Problem solving methods was beginning since the early 30s and 40s when the experimental

work of the Gestaltist in Germany (Duncker, 1935). The Gestalt laws are used in user

interface design or visual perception which is used the law of similarity, law of proximity,

law of figure-ground, law of symmetry and law of closure. They may also be used in

designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the designand layout of a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns. Gestalt psychology also has

applications in computer vision for trying to make computers "see" the same things as

humans do.

Problem solving methods continuing through 1960s and early 1970s where the researchers

conducted relatively simple, laboratory tasks; disk problem also known as Tower of Hanoi:

Mathematical puzzle. The puzzle was invented by the French mathematician douard Lucas

in 1883. Various reasons account for the choice of simple novel tasks: they had clearly

defined optimal solutions, they were solvable within a relatively short time frame, and

researchers could trace participants' problem-solving steps, and so on. The researchers made

the underlying assumption, of course, that simple tasks such as the Tower of Hanoi captured

the main properties of "real world" problems, and that the cognitive processes underlying

participants' attempts to solve simple problems were representative of the processes engaged

in when solving "real world" problems. Thus researchers used simple problems for reasons of

convenience, and thought generalizations to more complex problems would become possible.

In 1982, DZurilla and Nezu wrote that simple laboratory-based tasks that was very useful in

explicating the steps of logic and reasoning that underlie problem solving; but the study

neglect the complexity and emotional valence of "real-world" problems. In clinical

psychology, researchers have focused on the role of emotions in problem solving (D'Zurilla

& Goldfried, 1971; D'Zurilla & Nezu, 1982), demonstrating that poor emotional control can

interrupt focus on the target task and slow down problem resolution (Rath, Langenbahn,Simon, Sherr, & Diller, 2004). According to this conceptualization, human problem solving

consists of two related processes: problem orientation, the motivational or affective approach

to problematic situations and problem-solving skills, the actual cognitive-behavioural steps,

which is, if successfully implemented, it will lead to effective problem resolution. Working

with individuals with frontal lobe injuries, neuropsychologists have discovered that deficits in

emotional control and reasoning can be remediated, improving the capacity of injured

persons to resolve everyday problems successfully (Rath, Simon, Langenbahn, Sherr, &Diller, 2003).


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Evolution of Problem Solving Method Related to IT

This study is focus on evolution of problem solving methods and how its work. Problem

solving is a process and is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding

and problem shaping. Measured the most complex of all logical functions, problem solvinghas been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control

of more routine or fundamental skills. Problem solving occurs when a person or an artificial

intelligence system needs to move from a given state to a desired goal state. This paper will

briefly describe a several methods of problem solving that will focus on information

technology field.

1. Eight Disciplines Problem SolvingAn evolvement of problem solving method started with eight disciplines problem solving

which is typically employed by quality engineers or other professionals. This method was

implemented during the Second World War by US Government as Military Standard 1520

'Corrective Action and Disposition System for Nonconforming Material'. This military

standard focused on nonconforming material and the disposition of the material. This method

consist eight (8) disciplines, refer to Table 1 below.

Dis. No. Name Description

D1 Use a TeamEstablish a team of people with product/process

knowledge.

D2 Define the Problem

Specify the problem by identifying in quantifiable

terms; who, what, where, when, why, how and how

many (5W2H) for the problem.

D3

Implement and verify Interim

Actions

Define and implement containment actions to

isolate the problem from any customer.

D4 Identify and Verify Root Causes

Identify all potential causes that could explain why

the problem occurred. Also identify why the

problem has not been noticed at the time it

occurred. All causes shall be verified or proved, not

determined by fuzzy brainstorming.

D5Choose and verify Permanent

Corrective Actions (PCAs)

Through pre-production programs quantitatively

confirm that the selected corrective actions will


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resolve the problem for the customer.

D6 Implement and validate PCAs Define and Implement the best corrective actions.

D7 Prevent recurrence

Modify the management systems, operation

systems, practices and procedures to prevent

recurrence of this and all similar problems.

D8 Congratulate your Team

Recognize the collective efforts of the team. The

team needs to be formally thanked by the

organization.

Table 1: Eight Disciplines Problem Solving

The eight disciplines problem process is used to identify the accurate problem and solution

and to get rid of frequent problems. The methodology is useful in product and processimprovement. This method establishes a permanent corrective action based on statistical

analysis of the problem and it focuses on the origin of the problem by determining root

causes.

In 1986, the assignment was given to develop a manual and a subsequent course that would

achieve a new approach to solving tough engineering design and manufacturing problems.

The manual for this methodology was documented and defined in "Team Oriented Problem

Solving"(TOPS), first published in 1987. This 'Determine a Root Cause' step is a part of the

military usage of the eight disciplines problem solving but was not an allusion in the

development of the eight disciplines problem solving methodology and it also not

incorporated in the TOPS manual or course.

Nowadays, the eight disciplines problem solving methodology process has been engaged

significantly outside the auto industry. As part of lean initiatives and continuous

improvement processes it is employed extensively within food manufacturing, health careindustries and also technologically advanced industry.

2. GROW Model

The GROW model (or process) is one of procedure for problem solving or goal setting. It

was developed in the UK and used extensively in the corporate coaching market in the late

1980s and 1990s. There have been many claims to authorship of GROW as a way of

achieving goals and solving problems. While no one person can be clearly identified as the


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originator Graham Alexander, Alan Fine and Sir John Whitmore, who are well known in the

world of coaching, made significant contributions. Max Landsberg also describes GROW in

his book The Tao of Coaching. GROW is very well known in the business arena but it also

has many applications in everyday life. The particular value of GROW is that it provides an

effective, structured methodology which both helps set goals effectively and is a problemsolving process.

This approach of problem solving methodology can be used by anyone without special

training. While there are many methodologies that can be used to deal with problems, the

value of GROW is that it is easily understood, straightforward to apply and very thorough.

Furthermore it is possible to apply GROW model to a large variety of issues in a very

effective way. There are a number of different versions of the GROW model. This versionpresents one view of the stages but there are others ways which are not includes in this report.

The 'O' in this version has two meanings. For more detail please refer Table 2 below.

No. Stage Description

G Goal This is the end point, where the client wants to be. The goal has to be

defined in such a way that it is very clear to the client when they have

achieved it.

R Reality This is how far the client is away from their goal. If the client were to look at

all the steps they need to take in order to achieve the goal, the Reality would

be the number of those steps they have completed so far.

O

Obstacles There will be Obstacles stopping the client getting from where they are now

to where they want to go. If there were no Obstacles the client would already

have reached their goal.

Options Once Obstacles have been identified the client need to find ways of dealing

with them if they are to make progress. These are the Options.

W Way Forward The Options then need to be converted into action steps which will take the

client to their goal. These are the Way Forward.

Table 2: Stages of GROW

As for the researcher, the GROW model is one of the convenience approach to solve the

difficulty and it also will not take much time to understand the methods that involved in this

methodology.


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3. How to Solve ItThis method was introduced by George Polya in 1945 which describing methods of problem

solving for mathematical problem (Polya, 1957). Like what Polya said in his journal If you

can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it. There are foursteps in How to Solve Itmethod.

i. Understand the problem.Understand the problem is often neglected as being obvious and is not even

practically done by people as a first step to solve the problem nevertheless people are

often unsuccessful in their efforts to solve problem, simply because they don't

understand it fully, or even in part.

ii. Make a plan.Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at

choosing a suitable strategy is best learned by solving many problems. There are

several lists of strategies:

Guess and check Make an orderly list Eliminate possibilities Use symmetry Consider special cases Use direct reasoning Solve an equation

iii. Carry out the plan.This step is usually easier than make the plan. Basically what need to do is concern

and persistence. If the problem persist with the plan that been have been chosen and it

continues not to work discard the plan that have been chosen and select another ways.

iv. ReviewThere are many advantages that can be gain by taking the time to reflect and review

back at what the approach have been select and made, what have worked and what did


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not work. It enables the problem solver to predict what strategy to use to solve future

problems, if these relate to the original problem.

How to Solve It methodology can be implement in any problem solving field as is

the methodology approach is a basic and core steps that should be taken in order totackle any problem occur. Even though this methodology was established in 40s

(1945) but it is suitable to put into practice in recent days.

4. Kepner Tregoe

This method was founded by Dr. Charles Kepner and Dr. Benjamin Tregoe in 1958, Kepner-Tregoe, Inc., is a global organization providing consulting and training services around

problem solving, decision making and project execution methodologies. The figures 1, 2 and

3 below show the project management structure.


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Figure 1: Project Definition

The first step is project definition which is similar with analyze state in system development

life cycle (SDLC) approach. In this state, we have to analyze in many aspects which are what

the benefits, results, resources, outputs, how much time needed to solve the problem and what

are the requirement needed to assure the problem is solve successfully.


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Figure 2: Project Planning

The second step is project planning where the problem solver must plan the work that should

be done accords to the plan to assure the project is success. Problem solver has to assign the

right people to do each task. Second, the problem solver must affirm the sequence deliverable

suitable with the need of project and make the schedule deliverable to assure the project or

problem can be done smoothly.


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Figure 3: Project Implementation

Third step is project implementation which is the last step in this approach and also the vital

step in this problem solving method. Problem solver has to implement the ways that have

been gain from previous two (2) steps. After implement the plan, problem solver has to

monitor the implementation of the project a perform changes is needed. They also should

evaluate the problem solving method whether the plans that have been implement is success

or not.


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5. Southbeach Notation

Southbeach Notation is differs from other notable visual languages such as UML in that

codification of agents in a system as useful or harmful is defined on an entirely subjective

basis, whereas UML models are intended to be an objective statement about a system. EachSouthbeach diagram is drawn from a certain perspective; this could be the view or belief of

an individual, a role in a process, an organization, a political view, a legal position, an

economic policy or other system of thought.

This method supports the idea that problems may be abstracted into patterns of interactions

between agents that permit generalized problem solving techniques to be applied and to

enable Predictive Analysis of potential interventions that may be considered as ways ofimproving a system.

6. PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act)

PDCA (plan-do-check-act) is an iterative four-step problem-solving process normally applied

in business process improvement. PDCA it also known as the Deming cycle, Shewhart cycle,

Deming wheel, or plan-do-study-act.

It was invented Dr. W. Edwards Deming, who is considered by many to be the father of

modern quality control; however it was always referred to by him as the "Shewhart cycle."

Later in Deming's career, he modified PDCA to "Plan, Do, Study, Act" PDSA so as to better

describe his recommendations. Basically, the concept of PDCA is based on the scientific

method, as developed from the work of Francis Bacon (Shewhart, 1939). The scientific

method can be written as "hypothesis" - "experiment" - "evaluation" or plan, do, and check.

According to Demingduring his lectures in Japan in the early 1950's the Japanese participants

shortened the steps to the now traditional plan, do, check, act. Deming preferred plan, do,

study, and actbecause "study" has connotations in English closer to Shewhart's intent than

"check." (Deming, 1986)


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There are four (4) steps of PDCA method:

PLANEstablish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with

the expected output. By making the expected output the focus, it differs from othertechniques in that the completeness and accuracy of the specification is also part of

the improvement.

DOImplement the new processes.

CHECKMeasure the new processes and compare the results against the expected results to

ascertain any differences.

ACTAnalyze the differences to determine their cause. Each will be part of either one or

more of the P-D-C-A steps. Determine where to apply changes that will include

improvement. When a pass through these four steps does not result in the need to

improve, refine the scope to which PDCA is applied until there is a plan that involves

improvement.

7. RPR (Rapid Problem Resolution) Problem Diagnosis

It is a problem diagnosis method specifically designed to determine the root cause of IT

problems. The method was originally developed by Advance7 in 1990 as the Rapid Problem

Resolution Method, with the first fully documented version produced in 1995. Early versions

included problem management guidance but this was removed over time as the method

became more closely aligned to ITIL. RPR is now focused on Problem Diagnosis based on

Root Cause Identification. Due to the highly practical nature of the Supporting Techniques

and the ever changing IT landscape, Advance7 continues to develop RPR to keep it relevant

to current IT environments.

Until November 2007 Advance7 made the c material available to its employees only,

although a limited number of other IT professionals had been trained in the use of the

method. In late 2007 the company announced its intention to make RPR training and material

more widely available.


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This method is deals with failures, incorrect output and performance issues, and its particular

strengths are in the diagnosis of ongoing & recurring grey problems . The method comprises

core business and supporting techniques.

The Core Process defines a step-by-step approach to problem diagnosis and has three phases:

i. Discover Gather & review existing information Reach an agreed understanding

ii. Investigate Create & execute a diagnostic data capture plan Analyze the results & iterate if necessary Identify Root Cause

iii. Fix Translate diagnostic data Determine & implement fix Confirm Root Cause addressed

RPR is similar to How to Solve It methodology which introduced three (3) vital steps that

should be taken with the aim of assure the problem solving is success.

8. TRIZTRIZ was developed by a Soviet engineer and researcher Genrich Altshuller and his

colleagues starting in 1946. It has been evolving ever since. It meant "The theory of solving

inventor's problems" or "The theory of inventor's problem solving". Today, TRIZ is amethodology, tool set, knowledge base, and model-based technology for generating

innovative ideas and solutions for problem solving. TRIZ provides tools and methods for use

in problem formulation, system analysis, failure analysis, and patterns of system evolution

(both 'as-is' and 'could be'). TRIZ, in contrast to techniques such as brainstorming (which is

based on random idea generation), aims to create an algorithmic approach to the invention of

new systems, and the refinement of old systems.


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There got a quantity of TRIZ is in the public domain and some TRIZ resides in knowledge

bases held by commercial consulting organizations. A complete and open TRIZ development

process is not yet evident. Various camps vie for control of TRIZ and interpretation of its

findings and applications.

Su-Field Analysis (structural substance-field analysis) produces a structural model of the

initial technological system, exposes its characteristics, and with the help of special laws,

transforms the model of the problem. Through this transformation the structure of the

solution that eliminates the shortcomings of the initial problem is revealed. Su-Field Analysis

is a special language of formulas with which it is possible to easily describe any

technological system in terms of a specific (structural) model. A model produced in this

manner is transformed according to special laws and regularities, thereby revealing the

structural solution of the problem.

Figure 4: Structural diagram of TRIZ

A system of laws for the development of technology, a system of standards for the solution of

inventive problems, and Su-Field Analysis are used to forecast the development of

technology, to search for and select problems, and to evaluate the received solution. For the

development of a creative imagination, all elements of TRIZ can be used, although particular

stress is given to methods for developing a creative imagination. The solution of inventive


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problems is realized with the help of laws for the development of technological systems, the

knowledge base, Su-Field Analysis, ARIZ, and, in part, with the help of methods for the

development of a creative imagination.

Nowadays, computer programs have been developed on the basis of TRIZ that try to provideintellectual assistance to engineers and inventors during the solution of technological

problems. These programs also try to reveal and forecast emergency situations and

undesirable occurrences.


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Past, Present and future of Problem Solving Method

The conventional problem-solving model begins by determining what the problem is. However, if

sufficient data is not known about the problem, an accurate definition cannot be determined.

Beginning the process by defining the problem is similar to a police officer declaring a murder victim

committed suicide without gathering evidence. People must be motivated and intention to solve the

problem solving often got persistence and involves risks.

Starting the process with defining the problem can cause the solver to jump to conclusions. One of

the solutions worked and the problem is solved, but which solution was it because the approach taken

is difficult to document, and without documentation, the solution remains non-structured. Starting the

process by gathering data helps to reduce assumptions and prejudices about the cause of the problem

and avoids the shotgun approach.

Some common stumbling blocks in problem solving are fear of failure and unwillingness to take

ownership. Fear of failure may be accompanied by fear of being associated with the problem.

According to Rooney & Hopen, some people may not want to do to solve a problem because dont

think that the problem is belong to them, example once the programmer owns the problem, the

problem is identified with the programmer problem (Bowman, 2006).

In practice, there are several methods that the problem solver can choose and work on theoverall design even as development teams begin building modules and tools to solve the

problem.

To sum up, researchers' realize that problem-solving processes differ across knowledge

domains and across levels of expertise.


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Conclusion

This paper has reviewed evolvement of different approaches and methods in problem solving

that are use manage risk or problem. The method emphasizes a complete plan and proposes

that can be implementing in problem solving state.

The researcher also noticed there are many methodology approaches were changed to suit

with the evolvement of time but there are several steps that be a must and a vital steps to

problem solving method, such as comprise phases of define the problem, fine the factor or

cause, determine how to solve the problem, what the impact of method that were chosen and

implementing the method that are chosen. Problem solver should define and recognize the

problem first before taking any solution and there are several methodology approaches that

can be considered to tackle or to solve the problem out.


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References

Amsel, E., Langer, R., & Loutzenhiser, L. (1991). Do lawyers reason differently from psychologists?

A comparative design for studying expertise. In R. J. Sternberg, & P. A. Frensch, Complex problem

solving: Principles and Mechanism (pp. 223-250). Hillsdale, New Jersy: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

Sprankle, M., & Hubbard, J. (2009). Problem Solving and Programming Concepts. Upper Saddle

River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Project Lifecycle Models: How They Differ and When to Use Them. Business Evolution.

http://www.business-esolutions.com/islm.htm

Bots, P. W. G., (2006). Experimental Learning to See Through Strategic Behavior in Large Scale

Projects.

Bowman, D. , (2004), A Study of Ivy Tech State College Computer Information System Faculty and

Advisory Committee Problem-Solving Constructs.

Bowman, D., (2006) Building a better model for technical problem solving: when an organization

develops a practical approach to problem solving IT

evolution of problem solving methods

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