hawassa university office of vice president for research ... · pdf filethe office of vice...

Hawassa University

Office of Vice President for Research and

Technology Transfer

Proceeding of the 36th

Annual Research Review

Workshop: College of Agriculture (No 1)

May 2015

Hawassa, Ethiopia

Hawassa University

Office of the Vice President for Research and

Technology Transfer

Proceeding of the 36th

Annual Research Review

Workshop: College of Agriculture (No 1)

Compiled and Reviewed by

1. Dr. Girma Abera

2. Dr. Mohammed Beyan

3. Mr. Zenebe Worku

Edited by

Dr. Alemayehu Regassa

Foreword

As you all know, Research and Technology Transfer are two of the three major

mandates of Universities. Hawassa University has rich research experiences which

resulted in the generation of some technologies and the production of numerous

scientific publications. At present, over 300 different research activities are being

undertaken by the staff of the University with funds obtained from the government

and collaborative projects.

We are encouraged to see that the number of staff involved in research is increasing

from year to year. Almost all schools and departments in the university engage in

research, although not at an equal pace. The number of collaborative research

projects undertaken with partners from international and national organizations is

also increasing a result of the staff’s efforts in developing new proposals.

Currently, Hawassa University has over forty different collaborative research and

development projects activities. For instance, this year the HU has won six

Norwegian supported NORHED projects in different disciplines, that include

Agriculture, Health, Natural sciences, Social Sciences and Governance. These

projects provide not only research fund to staff and graduate students, but also

contribute to manpower development of the university.

The Office of Vice President for Research and Technology Transfer attempts to

integrate research with its Technology Transfer programs. For this reason, most of

our researches are conducted in our target Technology Villages, on problems

identified by the communities. The office of Technology Transfer and Community

Services are taking up the technologies generated from research for evaluation and

demonstration. Promising technologies are recommended for pre-scaling and

scaling up after validation. These processes are participatory in which the

communities and relevant stakeholders involve in all stages of technology

development and evaluation.

In these research proceedings, numerous completed research papers composed of

different disciplines are presented. We do hope that some of the research results

will be translated into action and contribute towards livelihood improvement in our

country.

Tesfaye Abebe, Ph.D.

V/President for Research and Technology transfer

Hawassa University

Proceedings of the Annual Research Review Workshop, College of Agriculture, 2015

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE EFFECT OF FEEDING GRADED LEVELS OF MORINGA STENOPETALA

LEAF MEAL ON FEED INTAKE, GROWTH, CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS

AND MEAT QUALITY TRAITS OF ARSI-BALE GOATS

ABERRA MELESSE AND SANDIP BANERJEE .......................................................................... 1

EFFECT OF FEEDING DIFFERENT LEVELS OF FURFURAME ON GROWTH

PERFORMANCE AND CARCASS TRAITS OF HUBBARD CHICKENS

ASTER ABEBE AND AJEBU NURFETA ................................................................................ 13

EVALUATION OF REPLACEMENT VALUE OF KOCHO WITH MAIZE ON THE

GROWTH PERFORMANCE AND CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS OF BROILER

CHICKENS

AJEBU NURFETA AND ASTER ABEBE ................................................................................ 28

ASSESSMENT OF MICROBIAL QUALITY AND SAFETY OF TRADITIONAL

FERMENTED MILK- ‘IRGO’ COLLECTED FROM HAWASSA CITY, SOUTH

ETHIOPIA

SINTAYEHU YIGREM AND HAILE W/AREGAY ..................................................................... 42

THE EFFECT OF FEEDING STINGING NETTLE (URTICA SIMENSIS S.) LEAF MEAL

ON THE FEED INTAKE, GROWTH PERFORMANCE AND CARCASS

CHARACTERISTICS OF HUBBARD BROILER CHICKENS

ABERRA MELESSE, MOHAMMED BEYAN AND KEFYALEW BERIHUN ......................................... 55

ENRICHMENT OF MAIZE AND WHEAT GRAINS WITH ZINC: AN INVESTMENT FOR

HUMANITY AND CROP PRODUCTION

MOLLA ASSEFA AND SHELEME BEYENE ............................................................................ 72

THE EFFECT OF WATERLOGGING AT DIFFERENT PHASES ON GOWTH,

PODUCTIVITY AND NODULATION OF DESI AND KABULI CHICKPEA (CICER

ARIETINUM)

WALELIGN WORKU..................................................................................................... 79

ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY-BASED IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT IN

WONDOGENET WOREDA OF SIDAMA ZONE, ETHIOPIA

KINFE ASAYEHEGN AND DAWIT DANIEL ........................................................................... 83

EFFECT OF SUBSTITUTING WHEAT BRAN FOR GREEN POD OF MORINGA

STENOPETALA ON FEED INTAKE, DIGESTIBILITY AND GROWTH PERFORMANCE

OF ADILO SHEEP FED NATURAL GRASS HAY AS A BASAL DIET

ABERRA MELESSE AND AJEBU NURFETA........................................................................... 96

INTERNAL MARKETING-A TOOL TO QUALITY EDUCATION IN HAWASSA

UNIVERSITY

BERHANU BORJI AND DEMEKE AFEWORK ....................................................................... 113


1

The Effect of Feeding Graded Levels of Moringa stenopetala Leaf Meal on

Feed Intake, Growth, Carcass Characteristics and Meat Quality Traits of

Arsi-Bale Goats

Aberra Melesse* and Sandip Banerjee

School of Animal and Range Sciences (*e-mail [email protected])

ABSTRACT A study was conducted to assess the intake, growth, carcass and meat quality parameters

of Arsi Bale bucks reared on different levels of Moringa stenopetala leaf meal (MSLM).

The bucks were divided into four treatments based on their initial body weight. The rate of

supplements offered was calculated @ 2.5% of the body weight on dry matter basis, MSLM

was provided @0 (T1), 35 (T2), 50 (T3) and 65% (T4) of the offered supplement. Hay and

water was provided at lib. The amount of hay offered was so calculated that at the end of

the day there was atleast 15% refusal. The results indicate that the crude protein intake

dray matter intake (DMI) organic matter intake (OMI), NDF=neutral detergent fiber

intake (NDFI) and acid detergent fiber intake (ADFI) increased with the inclusion levels of

MSLM with no significant difference between the bucks reared on T3 and T4 diets and

those reared on T1 and T2 diets, however significant difference was observed between the

two groups (T1; T2 and T3, T4). The body weight gain was observed to be higher among

the bucks reared in T4 diet. The average daily weight gain, final body weight and total

weight gain too showed similar pattern i.e the bucks receiving T3 and T4 diets had higher

values for the parameters. The carcass traits indicated that the bucks receiving T3 and T4

diets had higher values for all the slaughter cuts (neck, thorax, rack and lumber) besides

the dressing percentages and rib eye area besides the weights of the stomach, kidney and

the large intestines, The meat quality parameters too indicated that the values for protein

and ether extract too was higher among the bucks reared on T3 and T4 diets when

compared to the other two treatments. Hence, it can be concluded that Moringa

stenopetala leaf meal if affordable has a beneficial effect on weight gain, carcass traits

and important meat quality parameters of bucks

Keywords: Moringa stenopetala leaf meal, weight gain, carcass traits, Arsi Bale goats

INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa and endowed with different agro ecological zones suitable for goat production (Farm Africa, 1996). The present estimated population of goats in Ethiopia is 23.4 million (CSA, 2013). They play important roles in improving the livelihood of resource challenged farmers of the country by creating alternative employment opportunities, enhancing family income by sale of live animals, skin, manure etc. The goats also contribute in form of meat and milk, goats reduce risk of erratic climatic changes (Rumosa et al.,

2009). Regardless of their attributes, the productivity of goats remains low in the


2

country which is mainly due to prevalence of diseases, management and nutrition (Simela and Merkel, 2008). One of the most important nutritional constraints in goat production in the tropics is underfeeding in both quantity and quality. The situation is exacerbated especially during the dry season when natural pastures have dried out and are low in protein and available energy. As a result, large flocks of productive livestock cannot be maintained on such feeds which hardly meet even the basic maintenance requirement of animals. Thus, it becomes important to supplement the meager fodder available with some amount of concentrates in order to improve intake and digestibility of such poor quality feed with alternative protein sources that farmers can produce at their own farm without incurring additional costs (Manaye, 2009). One of such trees for commercial importance is Moringa spp. Leaves of this tree are promising sources of feed for both humans and livestock alike. The tree is unique as it does not shed its leaves even during the dry season when other sources of fodder are scarce (Fahey, 2005). It is a multipurpose tree that is cultivated both for human food and animal feed in Southern Ethiopia. Recent studies conducted by Aberra et al. (2009; 2011) and Tegene et al. (2009) have indicated that the leaves of M. stenopetalaa re rich in protein (28.2 - 36.1%) and contain substantial amounts of essential amino acids besides macro and trace minerals (Aberra et al. 2012). Moringa stenopetala leaves can also be dried and used in the form of leaf meal for feeding livestock. Promising results have been obtained from inclusion of Moringa stenopetala leaf meal (MSLM) to the diet of sheep (Murro, 2003), growing chicken (Kakengi, 2007; Aberra et al., 2011, 2012) and cross-bred dairy cows (Sarwatt, 2004). However, information on the effects of feeding of MSLM on the growth performance of goats is still scanty. Thus, the present study was conducted to assess the effect of feeding graded levels of Moringa stenopetla leaf meal on feed intake, body weight changes and carcass traits of Arsi-Bale goats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted at Goat and sheep farm at Hawassa College of Agriculture, The leaves of Moring astenopetla were collected from villages around Arba Minch area. The leaves were then shade dried and packed in polythene bags. Twenty four yearling bucks of Arsi Bale breed were procured from the nearby livestock markets. The bucks were acclimatized for a fortnight, during the process they were also provided with appropriate antihelmenthics and also sprayed with acaricides (both provided according to the recommendation of the manufacturers). Thereafter, the goats were blocked according to their body weights and the blocked goats were then randomly assigned to the treatment diets. During the course of the experiment the body weights of the goats were recorded fortnightly and the amount of the leaf meal was adjusted accordingly. At the end of


3

the experiment all the goats were slaughtered according to the methods suggested by Banerjee (2005). The weights of the edible and non edible offal’s were assessed individually. The meat quality traits were assessed from the taking a sample of the Longissormus dorsii muscle. The pH, cooking loss, dry matter, ash, ether extract and protein of the chevon was assessed according to the methods suggested by AOAC (1995). The rib eye area was assessed using a portable planimeter (model LI 3000A).

Table 1: Treatment diets

Treatments Number of bucks

Hay MSLM Maize Wheat bran

Noug cake

Salt

T1 6 Ad libitum 0% 35% 50% 14% 1% T2 6 “ 35%1 35% 50% 14% 1% T3 6 “ 50%1 35% 50% 14% 1% T4 6 “ 65%1 35% 50% 14% 1%

MSLM = Moringa stenopetala leaf meal,1 calculated on % Dry matter intake (@2.5% of the live weight). The dry matter, ash, crude protein and ether extract values were assessed according to the procedures suggested by AOAC (1995). The acid detergent fiber and neutral detergent fiber of the feed stuffs were estimated according to the methods suggested by Van Soest et al.(1991) with an ANKOM® 200 Fiber Analyzer (ANKOM Technology Corp., Fairport, NY, USA). The data was assessed statistically using SPSS v 12 for Windows and the means were compared using Duncan's multiple range test, the values were considered significant at P<0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results from the study (Table 2) indicate that the crude protein (CP) content was higher among the bucks receiving T4 diet and was lowest among those reared on T1 diets. The dry matter (DM ) content of the feed were more or less similar among all the treatments while the organic matter (OM) and ether extract (EE) values were highest among the bucks reared on T4 diets and lowest among those receiving T1 diets, while the reverse was true for ash, ADF and NDF contents. The feed intake as presented in Table 3, indicate there is significant different in intake of DM, OM and CP content across the bucks reared across the treatments. The values of feed intake increased (P<0.05) with increasing inclusion level of MSLM. This is consistent with the report of Sánchez et al., (2006) who observed increased feed intake in cows supplemented with M. oleifera leaves to a basal diet of grass hay. Similar results have also been reported by Foster et al., (2009) and Feleke et al. (2011) who reported that supplementation of sheep fed a basal diet of grass hay with M stenopetala improved DM, OM and CP intake.


4

The increased DM, OM and CP intake with increasing levels of M.stenopetala supplementation may possibly be due to the lower fiber and higher CP contents of the leaves. This could lead to an increase in microbial population and efficiency in the rumen, thereby facilitating the rate of breakdown of the digesta which eventually leads to increment in feed intake. The low total feed intake found in the control group animals might be most likely due to the low level of CP in the hay due to absences of M. stenopetala. The high protein content in the leaf indicates that it can serve as a cheap protein substitute especially during the dry season when there is fodder scarcity. Table 2: The average nutrient composition of dietary treatments

CP =crude protein, DM=dray matter, OM=organic matter, EE=ether extract, NDF=neutral detergent fiber, ADF=acid detergent fiber; T1=0% MSLM, T2=30% MSLM, T3=50% and T4=65% MSLM,calculated on % Dry matter intake (@2.5% of the live weight)

The results as presented in Table 4, indicated that there was improvement in final body weight gain, total weight gain, average daily weight gain and feed conversion efficiency across all treatments where MSLM was included in the diet. The findings are in consonance with the findings of Manaye et al. (2009) and Feleke et

al. (2011) who reported that there was improvement in body weights of sheep receiving supplement containing Moringa stenopetala leaf meals. Studies by Mpairwe et al. (1998) also reported increase in body weight of sheep who received supplementation of MSLM and Gliricdia sepium leaf meal supplementation with a basal diet of elephant grass and Rhodes grass. The average daily weight gain as were observed among the bucks reared on T3 and T4 diets were in range of values reported by Nurfeta (2010) in sheep fed a basal diet of Rhodes grass hay and was also in consonance with the values reported by Agnihotri (2006) where Moringa

oleifera was used as a supplementary feed for goats.

Treatments DM CP OM Ash EE NDF ADF

T1 92.3 16 88 12 5.7 69.3 56.1 T2 92.7 16.7 92 8 6.1 45.5 38.3

T3 93.6 17.2 92.9 7.1 8.7 36.5 23.8 T4 94.8 18.7 93.8 6.2 9.5 33.6 22.5


5

Table 3: The Effects of dietary treatments containing various levels of M. stenopetala leaf meal on nutrient intakes of Arsi-Bale goats

Parameters (g/kgDM)

T1 T2 T3 T4 SE LS

Hay Intake

DMI 290.03 b 250.2 b 374.6a 403.5 a 60.8 *

OMI 262.8 b 299.9 b 370.2a 401.3a 56.7 *

CPI 22.3 b 23.2 b 24.8a 25.51 a 1.3 * NDFI 172.2 b 147.1 b 222.8 a 242.4 a 38.4 * ADFI 68.3 b 53.9 b 97.3 a 108.45 a 21.9 * Supplement Intake DMI 276.9c 277.5c 281.0b 283.5a 0.6 *** OMI 264.0 d 278.4c 278.7b 282.0 a 0 *** CPI 48.12d 49.50c 51.60b 56.10a 0 *** NDFI 207.9a 136.5 b 109.5c 100.8d 0 *** ADFI 168.3a 114.9b 88.5c 71.4d 0 *** Total Intake DMI OMI CPI NDFI ADFI

544.7b 527.7 b 71.3c 380.1a 236.6a

566.9b 563.9b 71.8c 343.17a 196.9b

653.3a 651.2a 76.4b 332.3a 168.8b

684.7a 681.9a 81.6a 283.5b 168.6b

60.8 56.7 1.3 38.4 21.9

*** * * * *

a,bMean values within the same row bearing different superscript letters are significantly different

(p<0.05); DMI = dry matter intake; CPI = crude protein intake; NDFI=neural detergent fiber;

ADF=acid detergent fiber T1=0% MSLM, T2=30% MSLM,T3=50% and T4=65% MSLM

Table 4: The Effects of dietary treatments containing various levels of M. stenopetala leaf

meal on the growth performance of Arsi-Bale goats

Growth performance T1 T2 T3 T4 SE LS

Initial body weight (kg) 13.50 13.75 13.58 13.65 0.25 NS Final Body weight (kg) 15.76 b 16.48 b 18.23 a 18.45 a 1.07 *

Total weight gain (kg) 2.26 b 2.73 b 4.65 a 4.80 a 1.05 * ADG (g) 30.22 b 37.44 b 61.99 a 64.00 a 14.60 *

FCE (g ADG/g DMI) 0.054b 0.073ab 0.095a 0.093 a 0.075 * a,bMean values within the same row bearing different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05); FCE=feed conversion efficiency; ADG=average daily gain; NS = Not significantly different (p>0.05) T1=0% MSLM, T2=30% MSLM,T3=50% and T4=65% MSLM

The average daily weight gains in the bucks receiving MSLM supplementation are also in accordance with the reports of Asaolu et al. (2014), the results indicated that the supplemented group had improved body weight of goats vis -a-vis those reared on hay alone. Similar results were also reported by Tilahun et al. (2013) who observed that body weight gain in goats receiving cassava leaf meal was higher than those reared on grass hay alone. However, higher body weight gain (as was observed in the present study) was reported by Felekeet al. (2012) in goats


6

receiving Rhodes grass supplemented with MSLM. The difference in feed conversion efficiency (FCE) as observed in the study too is in accordance with the observations of Nuhu (2010) who reported difference (P<0.05) in FCE of rabbit receiving M. oleifera leaf meal vis-a-vis those on control diet. The improvement in FCE was also reported by Sandip et al. (2013) in rams reared on Millitia ferruginea leaf meal when compared to those reared on a basal diet alone. Thus improvement in body weight as observed in the study implies that MSLM can be a potential feed source for small ruminants in the area where the plants are abundant. The results as presented in Table 5 indicate that the slaughter weight and dressing percentage (DP) values were significantly different across treatments with higher values observed among those receiving T3 and T4 diets; the observations are in accordance with the findings of Busani et al. (2011) who observed higher slaughter weights and DP in goats reared on diet supplemented with M oleifera leaf meal. The improved body weight among the goats reared on supplemented diet have also been reported by Fehr et al. (1976),Oman et al. (1999), Mourad et al. (2001) and Nuhu (2010). This may be attributed to nutrient bio-availability due to supplementation. The average dressing percentage values (irrespective of all the treatments) indicate that the values are lower than those reported by Tesfaye et al. (2008), Kefelew et

al. (2013) for Arsi-Bale goats and Sebsibe et al. (2007) for Central Highland, Afar and long eared Somali goats. The difference as observed may be because the goats in the present study were young and were growing but may be also because of management differences as the goats in the tropics are usually not accustomed to stall feeding conditions. The rib-eye area values as as observed among the bucks reared on T2, T3 and T4 treatments are in accordance with the observations of Tesfaye et al. (2008) and Sebsibe et al. (2007). The effect of supplementation on rib eye area was also reported by Matiwos (2007) and Sebsibe and Mathur, (2000) who reported higher values for the trait among the goats receiving supplementary feed. The values pertaining to the weights of the neck, rack and lumber areas had higher (P<0.05) values among the goats reared on T3 and T4 diets; the observations are in accordance with the reports of Tesfaye et al. (2008) for Arsi-Bale goats reared on diets containing sweet potato vines. The difference in neck and rack weight may be attributed to the difference in weight of the muscles around the region. The difference between the weights of the large intestine as observed in the current study has been reported by Mesfin (2007). The weights of the kidneys and liver as assessed in the study are also in accordance with the observations of Sebsibe et al. (2007) and Mesfin (2007). The weight of the skin, blood, testes, trachea, and gallbladder (Table 6) did not vary across treatments and these findings and the values are similar with the


7

observations of Haliu et al. (2005), Sebsibe et al. (2007), Mesfin (2007) and Tesfaye et al. (2008). The weight of the heart as observed in the study is higher than those reported by Haliu et al. (2005), Sebsibe et al. (2007), Mesfin, (2007) and Tesfaye et al (2008). However, the differences in weights of the organs as observed between the treatments are in close accordance with the findings of Sebsibe et al. (2007), who also reported that goats reared on supplemented diet had higher weight of the heart when compared to those of the non supplemented group. The head weight of goats indicated differences between treatments in which the values for T1 and T2 groups are lower than those reported by Sebsibe et al. (2007). The weight of the lungs as observed among the bucks reared on T1 and T2 diets are lower than the results of Sebsibe et al. (2007) and Tesfayeet al. (2008) while the values for T3 and T4 are higher than those reported by the same authors. The weights of the trotters were lower than the values reported by Tesfaye et al. (2008). The values obtained in this study for heart, lung, head and trotters weights were higher among the bucks receiving the MSLM which may be a fallout of better physiological activities. The chemical composition of the chevon (Table 7) indicate the values for CP are consistent with those reported by Kadim et al. (2004) for the Omani goat, Kannan et al. (2001) for the Spanish goat, Babiker and Bello (1986) for the Desert goat, Agnihotri et al. (2006) and for Barbari goats . The CP values were lower than those reported by Ebrahimi et al. (2013) for the Boer goat. The values are however higher than those reported by Lee et al, (2008) for the Boer x Spanish goat. The ether extract (EE) content of chevon for the bucks reared on T1 and T2 was similar to those reported by Agnihotri et al. (2006). The meat pH values are in consonance with the findings of Kannan et al. (2001) for Spanish goat and Kadimet al. (2004) for the Omani goat but lower than those reported by Marinova et al. (2001)for Bulgarian White goat. The differences between breeds, treatment diet and also the muscle fiber proportion might explain these differences (Kannanet al. 2001).


8

Table 5: The Effects of dietary treatments containing various levels of M. stenopetala leaf on edible carcass yield of Aris-Bale goats

Carcass parts (kg) T1 T2 T3 T4 SE LS

Slaughter weight 15.66b 15.76b 18.23a 18.45a 1.30 *

Hot carcass weight 4.83c 5.26c 6.40b 7.30a 0.37 *** Dressing % 30.83b 32.50 b 35.09a b 39.67a 4.50 *

Rib-eye area(cm2) 4.65c 5.96b 6.63a 7.26 a 0.51 *** Neck 0.413b 0.438b 0.490 ab 0.581a 0.096 *

Thorax 1.34c 1.35c 1.37b 1.43a 0.01 *** Rack 0.108 b 0.188b 0.213 b 0.302 a 0.07 * Weight of lumber 0.440 b 0.574 a 0.615 a 0.675 a 0.10 * Large intestine 0.208 b 0.286b 0.315b 0.502 a 0.13 * Small intestine 0.253 0.310 0.321 0.363 0.13 NS Weight of the stomach 0.573 b 0.574b 0.653 ab 0.72 a 0.08 *

Liver 0.308 0.314 0.363 0.365 0.15 NS Kidney 0.026b 0.045ab 0.053ab 0.066a 0.025 * a,bMean values within the same row bearing different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05); NS = Not significantly different (p>0.05) T1=0% MSLM, T2=30% MSLM,T3=50% and T4=65% MSLM. Table 6: The effects of dietary treatments containing various levels of M. stenopetala leaf on

non-edible portions of carcass from Arsi-Bale goats

Non-edible carcasses

T1 T2 T3 T4 SE LS

Skin (kg) 1.62 1.64 1.65 1.75 0.22 NS Blood (kg) 0.520 0.534 0.566 0.595 0.13 NS

Testis (kg) 0.090 0.102 0.111 0.183 0.15 NS Heart (kg) 0.073 b 0.078 b 0.130 ab 0.18a 0.06 * Head (kg) 0.650 b 0.860ab 1.050ab 1.250 a 0.30 * Trachea (kg) 0.115 0.116 0.148 0.151 0.08 Ns Lung (kg) 0.126b 0.148 b 0.221 b 0.378 a 0.08 * Spleen (kg) 0.010b 0.018b 0.046a 0.048a 0.015 * Gallbladder (kg) 0.021 0.025 0.034 0.09 0.054 NS Trotters (kg) 0.53 b 0.72 a 0.798 a 0.816a 0.20 * a,b,c ,* = significantly different (p<0.05) T1=0% MSLM, T2=30% MSLM,T3=50% and T4=65% MSLM

The cooking loss percentage values did not vary significantly across the treatments and are within the normal range for chevon and are in agreement with the reports of Babikeret al. (1990). However, Kannan et al. (2001) and Schonfeldt et al. (1993) reported lower values for the parameters which may be attributed to the age of the goats themselves. The ash values of meat did not vary across the treatments and are comparable with the results obtained by Agnihotri et al. (2006).


9

Table 7: Chemical composition, pH value and cooking loss of Arsi-Bale goats’ meat fed different levels of M. stenopetala leaf meal

Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 SE LS

Ash 1.15 1.06 1.76 1.35 0.76 NS Moisture 68.96 70.43 71.82 72.89 4.06 NS

Protein 19.05 b 20.06 b 24.01a 26.50 a 2.12 * Ether extract 4.66 b 5.10 b 6.41 a 7.6 a 1.03 *

pH of meat 5.56 5.48 5.45 5.42 0.01 NS Cooking loss 39.11 39.06 38.91 36.68 29.58 NS a,bMean values within the same row bearing different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05); NS = Not significantly different (p>0.05) T1=0% MSLM, T2=30% MSLM, T3=50% and T4=65% MSLM

SUMMARY

The inclusion of M. stenopetala leaf meal improved the feed intake and growth performances of Aris-Bale goats. The inclusion of M. stenopetala leaf meal also improved many of carcass traits such as un eviscerated carcass weights, dressing percentage, meat protein, rib-eye area, weights of large intestine, heart, neck, rack, empty stomach, lumber; lung, trotters and head vis-a-vis the goats reared on the control diet. Moreover, the supplementation of M. stenopetala leaf meal enhanced the protein and ether extract content of the chevon indicating better retention of nutrients.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the financial support received from the office of the Vice President Research and Technology Transfer. Furthermore, we acknowledge for the encouragement by the Head and staff Members School of Animal and Range Sciences, Hawassa University too is highly acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Aberra M, Bulang M, Kluth, H. 2009. Evaluating the nutritive values and in vitro

degradability characteristics of leaves, seeds and seedpods from Moringastenopetala. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 8:

281-87.

Aberra M, Steingass H, Boguhn J, Schollenberger M, Rodehutscord M. 2012.Effects of elevation and season on nutrient composition of leaves and green pods of Moringa stenopetala and Moringa oleifera. Agroforestry

Systems, 86: 505-518. Aberra M, Workinesh T, Tegene N. 2011. Effects of feeding Moringa stenopetala

leaf meal on nutrient intake and growth performance of Rhode Island Red


10

chicks under tropical climate. Tropical and Subtropical Agro ecosystem,

14:485-92. Agnihotri MK, Rajkumar V, Dutta TK. 2006. Effect of Feeding Complete Rations

with variable protein and energy levels prepared using by-products of pulses and oilseeds on carcass characteristics, meat and meat ball quality of goats. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci.

19 (10), 1437-1449.

Ameha S, Casey NH, van Niekerk WA, Azage T, Coertze R. 2007. Growth performance and carcass characteristics of three Ethiopian goat breeds fed grainless diets varying in concentrate to roughage ratios. South African Journal of Animal Science, 37 (4), 221-232.

AOAC(Association Official Analytical Chemists). 1995. Official Methods of Analysis.16th edition.AOAC.Inc.Inc. Arlington, Virginia, USA. P 1298. Asaolu VO., Odeyinka S. M., kinbamijo OO. and Sodeinde FG .2010.Effects of moringa and bamboo leaves on groundnut hay utilization by West African Dwarf goats. Livestock. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Volume 22, Article #12. Retrieved July 14, 2014, from

http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd22/1/asao22012.htm. Babiker SA, Bello A. 1986. Hot cutting of goat carcass following early post-

mortem temperature ageing. Meat Sci., 17: 111-120. Banerjee S, Kassa D, Aster A. 2013. Some serum biochemical and Carcass traits of

Arsi Bale rams reared on graded levels of Millettia ferruginea leaf meal. World Applied Sciences Journal 28 (4): 532-539.

Busani M, Patrick JM, Voster M. 2011. Effect of supplementing crossbred Xhosa lop-eared goat castrates with Moringa oleifera leaves on growth performance, carcass and non-carcass characteristics. Tropical Animal Health and Production 44(4):801-9.

CSA. 2013. Central Statistics Authority of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Ethiopian Agricultural Sample Enumeration. Result at Country Level. Central Statistics Authority, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 250-350.

Ebrahimi MM, Rajion A, Goh YM, Sazili AQ, Schonewille JT. 2005. “Effect of Linseed” In Fahey JW (2005). Moringa oleifera: A review of the Medical evidence for its nutritional, Therapeutic and prophylactic properties. Part 1.http://www.TFLjournal.org/article.php /20051201124931586.accessed 14/06/2014 .

Fehr PM, Hvrevoll P, Bass P, Colomer RP, Falagan A, Sanzsampelayo MR, Sauvan D, Treacher TT. 1991. The influence of feeding and rearing methods on the quality of young goats carcasses. In: Goat Nutrition. Ed. Fehr, P. M., EAAP publication No.46.

Feleke G, Tegene N, Ajebu N. 2012. Feed intake and utilization in sheep fed graded levels of dried moringa (Moringa stenopetala) leaf as a supplement to Rhodes grass hay. Trop Anim Health Prod. 44:511-517.


11

Foster JL, Adesogan AT, Carter JN, Blount AR, Myer RO, Phata K. 2009. Intake, digestibility and N retention by sheep supplemented with warm-season legume hays or soybean meal. Journal of Animal Science, 87, 2891-2898.

Kadim IT, Mahgoub O, SrikandakumarA, Al-Ajmi DS, Al-Maqbaly RS, Al-Saqri NM, Johnson EH. 2004. Comparative effect of low levels of dietary cobalt and parenteral injection of vitamin B12 on carcass and meat quality characteristics in Omani goats. Meat Sci. 66:837-844.

Kakengi AMV, Kaijage JT, Sarwatt SV, Mutayoba SK, Shem MN, Fujihara T. 2007. Effect of Moringa oleifera leaf meal as a substitute for sunflower seed meal on performanceof laying hens in Tanzania. Liv. Res. for Rural Dev. 19 (8).

Kannan, G, Kouakou B, Gelaye S. 2001. Color changes reflecting myoglobin and lipid oxidation in chevon cuts during refrigerated display. Small Rumin. Res. 42:67-75.

Kefyalew B, Sandip B, Yigrem S. 2013. Carcass traits of Arsi-Bale sheep and goat reared under farmers’ management system in Sidama region of Southern Ethiopia. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 13 (11): 1465-1470.

Manaye T, Tolera A, Zewdu T. 2009. Feed intake, digestibility and body weight gain of sheep fed Napier grass mixed with different levels of Sesbania

sesban. Livestock Science, 122, 24-29. Marinova P; Banskalieva V, Alexandrov S. 2001. Carcass composition and meat

quality of kids fed sunflower oil supplemented diet. Small Ruminant Research, v.42, p.219-227.

Matiwos S. 2007. The effect of different levels of cotton seed meal supplementation on feed intake, digestibility, live weight changes and carcass parameters of Sidama goats.An MSc. thesis Presented to the School of Graduate Studies of Alemaya University of Agriculture, Alemaya Ethiopia. pp. 19-34.

Mesfin T. 2007. The influence of age and feeding regimen on the carcass traits of Arsi-Bale goats. Livestock Research for Rural Development 19 (4):

(http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd19/4/tade19047.htm). Mourad M, Gbanamou G, Balde IB. 2001. Carcass characteristics of West African

dwarf goats under extensive system. Small Ruminant Research 42: 81-8. Mpairwe DR, Sabiiti EN, Mugerwa JS. 1998. Effect of dried Gliricidia sepium leaf

supplement on feed intake, digestibility and nitrogen retention in sheep fed dried KW4 Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) ad libitum, Agroforestry Systems. 41: 139-150.

Murro JK, Muhikambele VRM, Sarwatt SV. 2003. Moringa oleifera leaf meal can replace cottonseed cake in the concentrate mix fed with Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) hay for growing sheep. Livestock Research for Rural Development 15 (11). Retrieved July 14, 2014, from http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd15/11/murr1511.htm

Nuhu F. 2010. Effect of Moringa leaf meal (MOLM) on nutrient digestibility, growth, carcass and blood indices of weaner rabbits. A thesis submitted to


12

the School of Graduate studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.

Nurfeta A. 2010. Feed intake, digestibility, nitrogen utilization and body weight change of sheep consuming wheat straw supplemented with local agricultural and agro-industrial by-products. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 42, 815–824.

Oman JS, Waldron DF, Griffin DB, Savell JW. 1999. Effect of breed-type and feeding regimen on goat carcass traits. Journal of Animal Science 77: 3215-3218.

Rumosa-Gwaze F.G, Chimonyo M, Dzama K .2009. Communal goat production in Southern Africa: A review. Trop. Anim. Health. Prod. 41:1157-1168.

Sánchez R, Spröndly E, Ledin I. 2006. Effect of feeding different level of foliage of Moringa olieferato Creole dairy cows on intake, digestibility, milk production and composition. Livestock Science, 101: 24-31.

Sarwatt SV, Kapange SS, Kakengi AMV. 2002. Substituting sunflower seed-cake with Moringa oleifera leaves as a supplemental goat feed in Tanzania. Agroforestry Systems, 56: 241-247.

Schönfeldt HC, Naudéb RT, Bok W, van Heerden SM, Smit R. 1993. Flavour-and tenderness-related quality characteristics of goat and sheep meat. Meat Sci. 34:363-79.

Sebsibe A, Mathur MM. 2000. Growth and carcass characteristics of Barbari kids as influenced by concentrate supplementation. In: R.C. Merkel, G. Abebe and A.L. Goetsch (eds.) The Opportunities and Challenges of Enhancing Goat Production in East Africa. Proceedings of a conference held in Debub University, Awassa, Ethiopia from November 10 to 12,2000. E. (Kika) de la Garza Institute for Goat Research, Langston University, Langston, OK pp.144-150.

Simela L, Merkel R. 2008. The contribution of chevon from Africa to global meat production. Meat Sci. 80, 101-109.

Tegene N, Makkar HPS, Becker K. 2009. Nutritive value of some non-conventional feed resources of Ethiopia determined by chemical analyses and an in vitro gas method. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. 154: 204-17.

Tesfaye K, Tesfaye L, Hunduma D, Mieso G, Amsalu S. 2008. Growth performance and carcass characteristics of Arsi-Bale Goats castrated at different ages. World Applied Sciences Journal 4 (4): 545-55.

Tilahun S, Animut G, Urge M. 2013. Effects of supplementing cassava leaf meal, brewers’ dried grain and their mixture on body weight change and carcass traits of local goats fed urea treated teff straw. Livestock Sci. 4:31-43 .

Van Soest P J. 1994. Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant, 2nd Edition, (Cornell University Press, Ithaca).


13

Effect of Feeding Different Levels of Furfurame on Growth Performance and

Carcass Traits of Hubbard Chickens

Aster Abebe*and Ajebu Nurfeta School of Animal and Range Sciences (*e-mail: [email protected])

ABSTARCT

A study was conducted to investigate the potential of furfurame in a concentrate mix on

feed intake, growth performance and carcass traits of Hubbard chickens at Hawassa

University. Furfurame is by-product obtained from kocho in a process of preparing

Sidama cultural dish. It was collected from the hotels and restaurants in and around

Hawassa and dried under sun to remove excess moisture. Maize, soybean, noug cake,

wheat bran were purchased from local markets and vitamin premix and amino acids

purchased from Addis Ababa. Furfurame substituted maize at four levels in the diet; T1

(100% maize); T2(33% furfurame);T3(66% furfurame); and T4 (100% furfurame). The

house and equipments were cleaned and disinfected before arrival of chicks. After the

brooding period, chicks were randomly allocated to 12 pens each with 10 chicks, making

four treatments. The feeding experiment lasted for 56 days. Feed intake and body weight

were measured daily and weekly, respectively. For nutrient retention and carcass trait

evaluation six chickens per treatment were randomly selected, kept off feed overnight,

weighed and slaughtered. Data were analyzed by the general linear model procedure of

SAS (version 9.1). There was significantly higher (p<0.05) dry matter (DM) intake for T3

and T4 (152 g and 158 g, respectively) compared to T1 and T2 (137 g and 143 g,

respectively). The daily weight gain and final body weight of T1 (43 g, 2811 g) was similar

to T2 but significantly higher than T3 and T4 (38 g, 2554; 33 g, 2284 g). Birds in T1 had

significantly (p<0.05) higher weight for slaughter (3216 g vs 2266 g), carcass components

(2114 g vs 1553g) and edible offal (198 g vs 121g) compared to T4. However, dressing

percentages were non-significant between treatments. It was concluded that furfurame can

be used as energy source at lower level without compromising weight gain of birds.

Keywords: Carcass, Chicken, Furfurame, Growth, Nutrient retention

INTRODUCTION

The chicken population of Ethiopia is mainly comprised of indigenous population raised under the traditional management system although several exotic breeds have been introduced to the country by various organizations. Chicken are raised by almost all of the rural families in Ethiopia (Tadelle and Ogle, 2003), and are source of income, food and have cultural values, and can be raised in wide range of climates with limited resources, feed and housing (Kondombo, 2005). Chicken meat and egg are very good sources of high quality protein in terms of amino acid profile (FAO, 2010).


14

The current production status of indigenous chicken in terms of egg and meat is very low despite the large population. The egg production of village hen per year is reported as low as 30 to 80 under purely traditional and improved management, respectively while males reach weight of 1.5 kg at age of six months. Hence, contribution is far below expectation which is attributed to various factors particularly inadequate and low quality feed due to high prices of the conventional protein and energy sources (Aberra et al., 2011). Chicken like other farm animals need adequate feed to maintain their body and produce meat and egg. The conventional feed ingredients such as maize grain used in rations of chickens are also major food for humans. This phenomenon creates competition and as a result prices become high and unaffordable for livestock keepers. Maize is a single feed ingredient that contributes about half in poultry rations and thus any attempt to find out cheap and readily available feed materials that could replace it partially or fully will bring significant improvement in small scale poultry enterprises. The use of non-conventional feeds in ration preparations will significantly reduce the cost of production (Okah, 2004) and as a result improves profitability of the enterprise. The growing demand for animal source foods by the ever increasing population and the high prices associated with poultry rations calls for search of alternative feed ingredients which are locally available and less costly to small scale producers in the region. In southern part of the country one such alternative non-conventional ingredient is furfurame, which is obtained as by-product from preparation popular Sidama traditional dish (bursame) using kocho.

Kocho is a product obtained from enset and known to be high in its energy content and a staple food in southern part of the country (George, 2004; Tsegay, 2002). Enset (Ensete ventricosum), is a large banana like perennial plant and widely grown in southern and south-western parts of Ethiopia (Nurfeta et al., 2007, 2008). Enset plant has several uses which include: food for human, feed for livestock, medicine, ornamental uses and others. Several studies (e.g. Nurfeta, 2008; Meseret, 2013) have investigated the nutritional value of enset parts and kocho in ruminant feeding. However, there is no information regarding potential of furfurame in livestock feeding. Thus, this study was designed to investigate the nutritional value of furfurame as a substitute for maize in ration of Hubbard chickens. The objectives were:

1. To evaluate the effect of feeding furfurame on feed intake and growth performance of Hubbard chicken

2. To evaluate the effect of feeding furfurame on carcass traits of Hubbard chicken


15


Description of the study area

The experiment was conducted at poultry farm of School of Animal and range Sciences, Hawassa University, located at 7° 4' N latitude and 38° 31' E longitudes. The average monthly minimum and maximum temperature is 13.3 °C and 27.5 °C, respectively and the annual average rainfall is 1110 mm. The area has an altitude of about 1650 m above sea level.

Experimental feed

In the present study furfurame was used to replace maize as energy source. It was collected in a clean bag lined with plastic from hotels and restaurants specialized in preparation of bursame in and around Hawassa. Since furfurame has high moisture content the drying was achieved by evenly spreading on plastic sheets for two to three days. Then ground by hand mortar for sake of ensuring uniform mixing with other ingredients. Other feed ingredients were purchased from Hawassa (maize and soybean), Addis Ababa (vitamin premix and amino acids methionine and lysine) and Holeta (noug-cake). Soybean was roasted for about five minutes before grinding to inactivate trypsin inhibitor. All feed ingredients were ground and proportionally mixed to achieve the treatment diets according to the plan.

Experimental animals

Two hundred day-old Hubbard chicks were purchased from Debre Zeit Poultry Multiplication and Distribution Centre. Chicks were acclimatized for 18 days to diets and management. Chicks were leg tagged and individual initial body weights were taken and randomly allocated to one of the 12 pens. Similarly pens were randomly allocated to four treatment diets. Each treatment had three replications.

Treatment diets

Treatment diets were formulated considering the nutrient composition ingredients and the nutrient requirement of broiler chicks. Maize was proportionally replaced by furfurame at four levels; 0%, 33.33%, 66.67%, and 100% for T1, T2, T3 and T4

diets, respectively. The diets were formulated to contain 21% and 13.2 MJ/kg DM CP and Metabolizable energy, respectively as per the recommendation of Eekeren et al. (1997). Diets were fortified with vitamin premixes, lysine (1%) and methionine (0.75%) to meet requirements.


16

Table 1: Proportions of ingredient feeds used to formulate treatment diets

Ingredients (%) Treatments

T1 T2 T3 T4

Maize Furfurame Soybean Noug cake Limestone Salt methionine Lysine

51 0 30 16 1.2 0.50 0.75 1

33 16 30 18 1.2 0.50 0.75 1

16 33 30 18 1.2 0.50 0.75 1

0 50 30 17 1.2 0.50 0.75 1

T1= control (100%maize + 0% furfurame); T2= 66.67 maize + 33.33% of furfurame; T3= 33.33% of maize + 66.67% furfurame; T4= 0% maize + 100% furfurame in the concentrate. Table 2.Chemical composition and energy content of experimental diets

Nutrients Treatments

T1 T2 T3 T4 DM % 90 93 94 95 % DM CP 20 20 20 20 CF 5.2 6.3 7.3 8.0 EE 10 11 13 13 Ash 4.5 4.6 2.7 1.7 ME (MJ/kg DM) 13.2 13.3 13.5 13.8

DM = dry matter, CP = crude protein, CF = crude fiber, EE = ether extract, ME = metabolizable energy MJ= Mega joule

Management of experimental animals

The house and equipments were cleaned and disinfected with 37% formalin, fumigated with potassium permanganate and electrically heated with 2 * 100 watt bulbs. The concrete floor was covered with sawdust with sawdust at a depth of 5 cm. Vaccination was given against Gumburo, Lasota, HB1 and fowl pox on day 7, 21, 28, and 60, respectively. Also anticoccidiostat (20-40 g/100 l of water), Oxtetracycline (20 g/100 l of water) and multivitamin tablets were given with drinking water. Clean water was provided ad libitum throughout the experimental period.

Study methodology

The study was based on experiment set using day-old Hubbard chicks to investigate the nutritional quality of furfurame as substitute for maize at varying levels in a ration. There were four diets formulated by substituting maize at 0%, 33%, 66% and 100% with furfurame. The parameters evaluated were feed intake, body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, nutrient retention and carcass traits. The detailed procedure for each parameter is explained below.


17

Feed intake and body weight

Chickens were feed ad-libitum (at 20% refusal) twice a day at 8:00 and 14:00 h using round feeders during the feeding trial which lasted for 56-days. The refusal was collected every morning before offering feed to the chicks. Bodyweight of individual chicks was taken at weekly interval in the morning between 7:00 and 8:00 h until the end of the feeding trial. Body weight gain was calculated as the difference between the final and initial body weight during the trial. Daily feed intake was measured as the difference between feed offered and feed refused. Samples of offered and refused feeds were collected throughout the experimental period for chemical analysis. Nutrient conversion efficiency ratio was measured by dividing mean body weight gain of the chicks by mean nutrient consumed. Carcass traits

After feeding trial, 24 chickens were selected (male and female per pen) randomly for carcass trait evaluation. All chickens were starved over night and weighed immediately just before slaughtering. Slaughtering was done by severing the jugular vein was allowed to bleed completely. Then dry de-feathered by hand plucking and weighed to determine blood and feather weight. Pre-slaughter live weight, eviscerated weight, weight of shank and claws, skin, neck, head, breast, drumsticks, thighs, gastro-intestinal and reproductive organs, the visceral organs which included heart, kidney, spleen, lung and liver were weighted and recorded. The carcass weight was calculated by subtracting weight of non-edible offal (blood, shank, spleen, feather, pancreas, head, respiratory and reproductive organs and digestive tract) from the slaughter body weight. Dressing percentage was calculated as: Dressing % = Carcass weight/Slaughter weight *100.

Nutrient retention

Comparative slaughtering method was employed to determine nutrient retained in the whole body of chicks. At the start of the feeding trial six unsexed chicks which selected, starved overnight and were killed by cervical dislocation. The whole bodies of chicks were placed in plastic bags and stored in deep freezer. The frozen bodies of chicks were thawed, cut into pieces using machetes, ground and mixed by using meat mincer. Then dried at 650C for 80 h and ground to pass two mm sieve size and stored in a plastic bag pending chemical analysis. Nutrient retention was determined from all body parts of the chicks being used for carcass trait evaluation. The percent of nutrients retained in the whole body during the experimental period and CP intake were calculated according to Sevier et al. (2000).

Chemical analysis

Samples of feed, refusals and minced meat of whole body of birds of each treatment were analyzed for dry matter (DM), ash, ether extract (EE) and crude fiber (CF; not for meat) according to AOAC (1995). Total nitrogen content was determined by micro-kjeldahl method and the crude protein (CP) was calculated as


18

nitrogen (N)*6.25. Calcium was determined by atomic absorption spectrometer methods as described by AOAC (1995). Nitrogen free extracts (NFE) was calculated as difference. The metabolizable energy (ME) of the feed was estimated according to Wiseman (1987): ME (kcal/kg DM) =3951+54.4EE-88.7CF-40.8Ash.

Data analysis

Data were analyzed by one way ANOVA using SAS software and the model was; Yij = µ + Ti + Eij Where, Yij= individual value of the dependant variable µ= over all mean of response variable Ti= the effect of ith treatment on the dependant variable Eij= random error in the response of individual chicks Duncan mean range test was used for comparison of means. Statistically, differences were compared at a significant level of P≤0.05. RESULTS

Chemical composition

Chemical composition of feed ingredients and treatment diets are presented in Table 3 and 4. Furfurame has the lowest CP among the ingredients but comparable energy (13.2 MJ/kg DM) content to maize. Treatment diets had comparable values in CP and energy contents although there is decreasing trend as level of furfurame increased in the diets. Table 3: Chemical composition and energy content of feed ingredients

Nutrients Feed ingredients

Furfurame Maize soybean Noug cake

DM (%) 92 93 94 95 % DM Ash 5.3 18 9 13 CP 3.2 9.4 31 26 CF 10 3.4 13 19 EE 4.1 7.3 12 8.5 NFE 71 57 29 29 Ca 0.5 0.8 1.7 0.8 ME (MJ/kg DM) 13 14 13 9.2

DM: dry matter, CP: crude protein, CF: crude fiber, EE: ether extract, NFE: nitrogen free extract, ME: Metabolizable energy, MJ mega joules, Ca calcium, NFE= DM-(CP + CF + EE + Ash); Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg DM) = 3951+ 54.4crude fat +88.7 CF – 40.8 ash (Wiseman, 1987).


19

Table 4: Chemical composition and energy content of experimental diets

Nutrients Treatments

T1 T2 T3 T4

DM (%) 91.5 92.6 93.4 94 % DM Ash 13.8 11.9 10.1 9.3 CP 17.7 17.2 16.2 15.2 CF 8.7 9.6 11.2 12.4 EE 8.7 9.6 11.2 12.4 NFE 42.5 45.4 48.5 50.5 Ca 11 10 10 9.4 ME (MJ/kg DM) 12.9 12.8 12.4 12.1

DM: dry matter, CP: crude protein, CF: crude fiber, EE ether extract, NFE: nitrogen free extract, ME: metabolizable energy, MJ: mega joules, Ca: calcium, NFE= DM-(CP + CF + EE + Ash), Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg DM) = 3951+ 54.4crude fat +88.7 CF – 40.8 ash (Wiseman, 1987)

Feed intake

Dry matter and nutrient intake of chickens are presented in Table 5. There were significant (p<0.05) difference in DM and nutrient intakes among treatments. The chicks fed on T3 and T4 diet had significantly (p<0.05) higher daily DM intake compared with chicks fed T1 and T2 diet. Average daily OM, CF and NFE intakes were highest (p<0.05) chickens fed T4 diet while chicks fed T1 diet had the lowest intakes. An increasing a trend of daily OM, CF and NFE intake was observed as the level of furfurame in the diet increased. Despite significant differences in DM intake the daily CP and ME intakes among the chicks fed different treatment diets were similar. Table 5: Dry matter and nutrient intake of chickens fed different levels of furfurame in the diet (g/chick/day or MJ/kg feed)

Treatment DM OM CF CP EE NFE ME(MJ) Ca Ash

T1 137b 105d 12d 28 12.93a 54d 1.8 1.1b 20a T2 143b 115c 14c 27 12.85ab 61c 1.8 0.83ab 18b T3 152a 126b 17b 26 12.42ab 71b 1.9 0.75a 16c T4 158a 134a 20a 25 12.1b 78a 1.9 0.73a 14d Mean 148 120 16 26 13 66 1.9 0.84 17 SEM 3 2.1 0.32 0.57 0.27 1.3 0.04 0.13 0.4 abc: Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly different (p<0.05). DM: dry natter, CP: crude protein, EE: ether extract, NFE: nitrogen free extract, ME: Metabolizable energy, SEM: standard error mean, T1: 0% furfurame and 100% maize, T2: 33.33% furfurame and 66.66% maize, T3: 66.66% furfurame and 33.33% maize and T4: 100% furfurame and 0% maize in concentrate mixture.


20

Nutrient efficiency

Table 6 presents daily nutrient efficiency ratio of chicks. Significant differences in nutrient efficiency among treatment were observed. Birds fed on T1, T2 and T3 diets had significantly (P<0.05) higher CP and EE efficiency ratio compared to those fed T4 diet. The ME efficiency ratio was similar between T1 and T2 and significantly (p<0.05) higher than T3 and T4 diet. Efficiency ratio for OM, CF and NFE were highest (P<0.05) for T1 compared to other treatments Table 6: Nutrient efficiency ratio of chicks fed different levels furfurame in diet

Treatment diets

OM CP CF EE NFE ME(MJ) Ca Ash DMER

T1 0.41a 1.6a 3.6a 3.3a 0.8a 24a 39c 2.1b 0.34a T2 0.36b 1.5a 2.9b 3.2a 0.7b 22a 49ab 2.3ab 0.29b T3 0.3c 1.5a 2.2c 2.9a 0.5c 20b 50a 2.4ab 0.25c T4 0.25d 1.3b 1.7d 2.7b 0.4d 17c 45b 2.4a 0.21d Mean 0.33 1.5 2.6 3.1 0.61 21 46 2.3 0.27 SEM 0.01 0.48 0.1 0.1 0.02 0.7 1.5 0.1 0.01 abc: Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly (p<0.05) different. DM: dry matter, CP: crude protein, EE: ether extract, NFE: nitrogen free extract, ME: Metabolizable energy, SEM: standard error mean, T1: 0% furfurame and 100% maize, T2: 33.33% furfurame and 66.66% maize, T3: 66.66% furfurame and 33.33% maize and T4: 100% furfurame and 0% maize in concentrate mixture.

Nutrient retention

The average nutrient retention of the chickens fed different levels furfurame in the diet is presented in Table 7. Crude protein retention of T1, T2 and T3 were significantly (P<0.05) higher than that of T4. Also significantly highest (P<0.05) retentions were recorded for T1 in respect to EE, NFE, ME and ash. But T2, T3 and T4 were had similar retention for EE and energy. Table 7: Nutrient retention of the chicks fed different levels of furfuram in the diet (g/chick/day or MJ/chick/day)

Treatment CP EE NFE ME(MJ) ash

T1 13.3a 4.3a 1.2b 17.5a 0.4a T2 12.6ab 2.5b 1.6a 17b 0.2b T3 11.7b 2.3b 1.2ab 17b 0.2b T4 10c 2b 1b 17b 0.1c Mean 12 7.4 3.7 17 0.22 SEM 0.5 0.23 1.2 0.11 0.01 a bc: Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly different (p<0.05), DM: dry matter, CP: crude protein, EE: ether extract, NFE: nitrogen free extract, ME: Metabolizable energy, SEM: standard error mean, T1: 0% furfurame and 100% maize, T2: 33.33% furfurame and 66.66% maize, T3: 66.66% furfurame and 33.33% maize and T4: 100% furfurame and 0% maize in concentrate mixture.


21

Bodyweight changes

The average daily weight gain is presented in Table 8. There was similar trend in final body weight, total gain and average daily weight gain of chickens. In all, T1 and T2 were similar and significantly (P<0.05) higher than T4 while T3 was similar to T2. The average daily gain was 43 g in T1 and the lowest was for T4 (33 g). Table 8: Body weight changes (g) of chickens fed different levels of furfurame in the diet

Treatment diets Initial BW Final BW BW gain BW gain/ day

T1 429±14 2811±74a 2393±72a 43±1.3a

T2 426±14 2719±76ab 2299±74ab 41±1.3ab

T3 422±14 2554±71b 2111±70b 38±1.3b

T4 423±14 2284±71c 1854±70c 33±1.3c

abc: Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly different (p<0.05). DM: dry natter, CP: crude protein, EE: ether extract, NFE: nitrogen free extract, ME: Metabolizable energy, SEM: standard error mean, T1: 0% furfurame and 100% maize, T2: 33.33% furfurame and 66.66% maize, T3: 66.66% furfurame and 33.33% maize and T4: 100% furfurame and 0% maize in concentrate mixture

Carcass traits

The carcass traits of chickens are presents in Table 9. There was a significant (P<0.05) difference in slaughter weight which ranged from 3216 (T1) to 2266 (T4) g. Slaughter weight was similar for T2 and T3 diets and falling between the two extremes. The most important commercial components were significantly higher for T1 whereas T4 had lowest with T2 and T3 being intermediate. Also TEO, carcass and total edible weights showed similar trend with that of commercial components. However, the dressing percentage was not significant between treatments. The non-edible offal parts of chickens are presented in Table 10. Chickens on T1 diet had the highest (p<0.05) total non-edible offal weight whereas T4 had the lowest. This was similar for T2 and T3 and intermediate between T1 and T4 diet. The trend recorded for most parts of the TNEO are similar to that of carcass components in which T1 had highest and T4 lowest except few which did not show significant differences.


22

Table 9: Effect of different levels of furfurame on carcass components of the chicks

Carcass component(g) T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM

Slaughter weight 3216a 2785b 2770b 2266c 92 Carcass parts Neck 105.7a 95b 95b 83c 3.2 Wing 146a 128b 127b 95c 4.1 Back 188a 167b 169b 137c 4.8 Breast 715a 655b 655b 590c 14 Thigh 397a 334b 332b 262c 14 Drumstick 369a 315b 314b 248c 12 Skin 194a 153b 151b 102c 10 Edible offal Gizzard 90a 76b 75b 55c 3.9 Liver 107a 90b 88b 67c 4.3 TEO weight 198a 165b 163b 121c 13 Carcass weight 2114a 1847b 1842b 1553c 52 Total edible weight 2311a 2013b 2005b 1674c 69 Dressing percentage 71.8 72.2 72.7 72.7 0.3 a b c Means within rows with different superscript letters are significantly(p<0.05) different. EM: standard error of means *TEO: Total Edible Offal-it is the summation of gizzard and liver; Carcass weight: it is the summation of all commercial carcass parts; *Total edible: the summation of carcass parts and edible offal;

Table 10: Effect of different levels of furfurame on non-edible offal parts of the chickens

Non-edible offal T1 T2 T3 T4 SEM

Weight (g) De-feathered 2874a 2471b 2454b 1987c 81 Eviscerated 3086a 2657b 2653b 2172a 85 Blood 130a 117b 117b 94c 3 Feather 213a 197b 198b 18c 3 Shank 137a 129b 129b 120c 2 Shank 6.7a 6.5b 6.5b 6.1c 01 Head 85a 76b 76b 67c 2 Crop 38a 34b 33b 24c 1 Lung 20a 15b 15b 9c 1 Kidney 32a 27b 26b 9c 1 Pancreas 20a 15b 15b 9c 1 Spleen 13a 9b 9b 5c 1 Small intestine 83a 63b 63b 44c 4 Large intestine 25a 21b 20b 14c 1 Proventriculus 26 21 21 14 1 Cloacae 27 21 21 13 1 TNEO 887a 758b 750b 624c 21 Length (cm) Small intestine 223 200 200 163 5 Large intestine 48 41 40 33 1 Neck length 18 17 17 16 0.2


23

a b c Means within rows with different superscript letters are significantly(p<0.05) different, SEM: standard error of means, TNEO: total non edible offal, it included blood, head, feather, esophagus, crop, shank, claw, proventriclus, spleen, pancreas, kidney, heart, lung, small intestine, large intestine and abdominal fat

DISCUSSION

Chemical and energy content

Furfurame had higher CF and NFE but low ash, CP, EE, ME and Ca compared to maize. Due to its comparable energy content to maize it can be regarded as a potential feedstuff to supply energy. The CP content of furfurame (32 g/kg DM) in the present study was higher than values (27 g/kg DM, 26 g/kg DM, 17.8 g/kg DM; 15 g/kg DM) reported by previous workers (e.g. Meseret, 2013; Tsegaye, 2010; Kalekristos, 2010; Yewlsew et al., 2006) but slightly lower than that reported (38 g/kg DM) by Abebash (2014). The diets formulated met the minimum CP (16.2–17.7%) as suggested by NRC (1994) except T4 (15.2%) which was slightly below the minimum (16%) for broiler breed. This could be attributed to the low crude protein content of furfurame. However, all diets fail to meet requirements for growers according to the recommendation (CP 20%) of Scanes et al. (2004). The ME density of diets ranged from 12 to 12.9 MJ/kg DM and safely above the minimum ME requirement (11.72 MJ/kg DM) for broiler breeds as recommended by NRC (1994). The fat content of treatment diets (0.73 to 0.87%) was below the fat requirement (1%) of broiler breeds as suggested by NRC (1994). However, Ca content of the treatment diets was (0.94 to 1%) within the range recommended (0.8 to1%) for broiler breeds by NRC (1994). When compared with cassava peel meal, furfurame has similar CP and ash, low CF but higher EE, ME and NFE (Ojebiyio et

al., 2010).

Feed intake and conversion efficiency

Birds ate more feed as the amount of furfurame in the diet increased. This phenomenon can be explained partly by relatively less energy density with increasing furfurame in the diets. Similar observation was reported by Esoonu et al. (1997) who reported increased DM intake for chickens fed on diets having less available nutrients. Contrary to T4, those fed on T1 and T2 diet eat less feed but obtained similar energy. The proportion of maize was higher in T1 and T2 than T3 and T4 had no maize (100% replaced by furfurame) and this explains the similar energy intake despite less feed intake for T1 and T2. Birds eat primarily to meet their energy requirement (Veldkamp et al., 2005; Nahashon et al., 2005). Previous findings (Plavinik et al., (1997); Nahashon et al., 2006) confirmed that dietary energy concentration is crucial to determine amount of feed to be consumed by birds. In agreement with the above, Veldkamp et al. (2005) reported decline in feed intake as dietary energy density increases. Also Etalem et al. (2013) observed


24

significant lower DM intake from birds fed on higher level of cassava root chips in their diet. Efficiency of feed conversion (g weight gain/g feed) is an important parameter to evaluate the performance of birds. High ratio of feed conversion efficiency indicates that nutrients in feed have been used better to produce body mass. In present work birds fed on T1 and T2 diet had better ability to convert nutrients to body weight gain than birds fed on T3 and T4 diets which had less efficiency. It has been reported that inclusion of high levels of non-conventional feed ingredients in diets may have an impact on bioavailability of nutrients, texture, color, taste and odor of diets (Odensi et al., 1996). In contrast Etalem et al. (2013) did not find significant difference in DM efficiency ratio of birds.

Body weight gain

The comparison on body weight between treatments showed that final body weight, total gain and average daily gain were higher for T1 and lowest for T4 and intermediate weight gain for the two middle levels of furfurame level. Treatments diet particularly one with highest furfurame had relatively low CP content but high CF which might have affected its performance in terms depositing nutrients in the body. Such low efficiency in conversion of nutrients to body mass may be attributed to the effect of nutrient imbalance and poor metabolism on mono-gastric animals fed high level of unconventional feed ingredients (Esoonu et al., 2006). Contrary to current findings, Etalem et al. (2013) reported non-significant differences in final body weight and average daily gain among treatments in which maize was replaced by cassava root chips at varying levels in diets of Hubbard chickens.

Nutrient retention

The nutrients retained determine body composition chickens which also influenced by several factors such as sex, age, nutrition and others. Birds on T1 and T2 had better retention which may be due to the nutrient content of the diets they were fed. Higher DM intake alone may not be sufficient for increased nutrient retention but also nutrient quality. This is evident from the performance of chickens in T3 and T4 which had higher feed intake but low nutrient retention.

Carcass traits

The low yield observed for T4 on important commercial parts for T4 birds could be attributed to low CP and relatively higher fiber content of the diet due to increased furfurame in the diet which resulted in the poor nutrient utilization. However, there were similarities in dressing percentage between the treatments which agrees with the result reported by previous workers (Scanes et al., 2004; Maigualema and Gernat, 2003) on broiler breeds regardless of diet. Dana (1999) also observed


25

comparable dressing percentage (63%) for RIR hens in the central highlands of Ethiopia.

CONCLUSION

Body weight gain and commercial carcass yield were low when maize was replaced by furfurame. However, its availability and low cost may provide tremendous opportunity for smallholder farmers in enset growing areas.

REFERENCES

Aberra M, Workenesh T, Tegen, N. 2012. Nutrient composition and effects of feeding different levels of Moringa stenopetala leaf meal on carcass traits of Rhode Island Red Dual-purpose grower chickens. Eth. J. Anim. Prod. 12(1)-2012: 37-50

Ajebu N. 2008. Evaluation of the nutritive value of enset (Ensete ventricosume) as livestock feed in Southern Ethiopia. PhD Thesis. Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Animal and Aquaculture Sciences.

Ajebu N, Adugna T, Eik LO, Sundstøl F. 2008. Chemical composition and in sacco dry matter degradability of different morphological fraction of 10 enset (Ensete ventricosume) varieties. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech., 146: 55-73.

AOAC 1995. Association of Analytical Chemist. Official Methods of analysis. 15th Edition. Washigton D.C.

CSA (Central Statistical Agency). 2013. Agricultural sample survey Vol. II. Statistical ulletin No. 505. CSA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Corless AB, Sell JL. 1999. The effects of delayed access to feed and water on the physical and functional development of the digestive system of young turkeys. Poult. Sci., 78: 1158 – 1169.

Dana T. 1999. Choice feeding of energy or protein feeds of RIR chickens under intensive and semi-intensive management conditions in the central high land of Ethiopia. Poult Sci., 65: 1857–1864.

Desta H, Oba G. 2004. Scarcity and livestock mortality in enset farming system in the Bale highlands of Southern Ethiopia. Outlook on Agric. 33: 277-280.

Eekeren NV, Mass A, Saatkamp HW, Verschuur M. 1997. Small production in the tropics. (Agrodok 4, Agromissa. (CTA). pp 70.

Essonu BO, Etuk EB, Ezeigbo OC. 1997. Determination of optimal dietary level of soybean (Glycine max. (1) Merill) hulls for broilers. J of Tech. Education in Nigeria. 2(1and 2): 76-82.

Etalem T, Getachew A, Mengistu U, Tadelle D. 2013. Cassava Root Chips as an Alternative Energy Feed Ingredient in Broiler Ration. International Journal of Poultry Science 12 (5): 298-306

FAO. 2010. Food and Agriculture Organization. Agribusiness Handbook: Poultry meat and eggs. Director of Investment Centre Division, FAO, Rome, Italy, pp. 7-33.


26

Kondombo SR. 2005. Improvement of village chicken production in a mixed (chicken–ram) farming system in Burkina Faso. PhD Thesis. Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands. 208pp.

Maigualema MA, Gernat AG. 2003. The effect of feeding elevated levels of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) byproduct meal on broiler performance and carcass characterstics. Internat. J. Poult. Sci., 2:195-199.

Nahashon SN, Adefope N, Amenyenu A, Wright D. 2005. Effect of dietary metabolizable energy and crude protein concentrations on growth performance and carcass characteristics of French guinea broilers. Poult Sci., 85: 1847-1854.

Nahashon SN, Adefope N, Amenyehu A, Wright D. 2006. Effect of dietary metabolizable energy and crude protein concentrations in diets of pear gray guinea fowl pullets growth performance. Poult Sci., 85: 1847-1854.

National Research Council (NRC). 1994. Nutrition requirements of poultry. National Research Council. National Academy Press. Washington D.C. 33-34.

Odensi AA, Farinu GO, Akinola JO. 1996. Influence of dietary wild sunflower (Tithonia diversefolia Helms A Gray) leaf meal on layers performance and egg quality. Nigerian J. Anim. Prod. 23:28-32.

Ojebiyio FG, Oke MO, Oke DB. 2010. Effect of methionine and hysine supplementation on the carcass quality of finisher broiler fed dried layers dropping meals as replacement for fish meal. Proceedings of 35th Conference of Nigerian Society for Animal Production. pp14–17.

Okah U. 2004. Effect of dietary replacement of maize with maize processing waste on the performance of broiler starter. Proceeding of Annual Conference of Animal Society of Nigeria. pp 2-3.

Oleforuh-Okoleh VU, Adeolu AI, Egbhelu CO. 2010. Growth performance and economic benefits of cockerel fed diets containing graded level of cassava peel meal. Proceeding of 35th Conference of Nigeria Society for Animal Production. pp. 324-326.

Onifade AA, Babatunde GM. 1997. Comparative utilization of the tropical by-products feed resources supplemented with or without molasses by broiler chicks. Archives 200, 46:137-145.

Paul SK, Sigh H. 1997. Inheritance of wing feather development rate in guinea fowl. (Numida meleagris). Br. Poult. Sci., 28: 245-248.

Pijals P, Ddeyanju SA, Adegbola AA. 1995. The effect of graded levels of fermented cassava meal on broilers. Poult. Sci. 58: 427-431.

Plavnik I, Wax E, Sklan D, Bartov I, Hurrwitz S. 1997. The response of broiler chickens and turkey poults to dietary energy supplies either by fat or carbohydrates. Poult. Sci., 76: 1000 – 1005.

Prassed et al. 2006. Chemical Composition and In vitro dry matter digestibility of some fruit wastes, pp. 218. Press Inc., California pp. 111-115.

Ravindran V, Blair R. 1991 Feed resources for poultry production in Asia and the


27

Pacific Region. Energy sources. World’s Poult. Sci J., 47: 214-231. Scanes CG. 2007. Contribution of Poultry Quality of Life and Economic

development in the Developing World. Poult. Sci. 86(11): 2289-2290. Tadelle D, Ogle B. 2003. Village poultry production system in the central

highlands of Ethiopia. Trop. Anim health prod., 33:521-537. Tsegaye A. 2002. On indigenous production, genetic diversity and crop ecology of

enset (Ensete ventricosum), (Welw) Cheesman, Ph.D. Thesis: Wageningen University.

Veldkamp T, Kwakkel RP, Ferket PR, Verstegen MWA. 2005. Growth response to dietary energy and lysine at high and low ambient temperature in male turkeys. Poult. Sci., 84: 273-282.

Wilson RP. 1989. Amino Acids and Protein. In: Fish Nutrition (J.E Halver. Ed). McGraw-Hills, New York, Chicago, San francisco, Lisbone.

Wiseman J. 1987. Meeting nutritional requirements from available resources. In: Wiseman (Ed). Feeding of non-ruminant animals. Butterworth. London. pp. 132

Zand N, Foroudi F. 2011. Effect of feeding levels of corn snack waste on broiler performance. Afr. J biotech.10 (7); 1260- 1264.


28

Evaluation of Replacement Value of Kocho with Maize on the Growth

Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Broiler Chickens

Ajebu Nurfeta* and Aster Abebe

School of Animal and Range Sciences (*e-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT A total of 180 day-old Hubbard chicks were purchased from Debre Zeit Agricultural

Research Centre to investigate the potential of kocho as a substitute to maize. Feed

ingredients (kocho, maize, wheat bran, noug cake, vitamin premix) were purchased from

Hawassa, Zeway and Addis Ababa. Kocho (starchy product processed from enset for

human consumption) was sun dried to reduce its moisture content. Treatments were

inclusion of kocho at 0% (T1), 33% (T2), 67% (T3) and 100% (T4) levels substituting

maize in broilers diet. The house and equipments were cleaned and disinfected before

arrival of chicks. After brooding period, chicks were allocated to the four treatments each

with three replications. Feed and water were provided ad libitum. The feeding trial was

conducted for 49 days. Parameters studied include; feed intake, body weight, nutrient

efficiency and retention and carcass traits. Feed intake was recorded as feed offered minus

feed refused. Nutrient retention was determined by comparative study technique. Twenty

four chickens (six/treatment) were randomly selected and killed for evaluation of carcass

traits and nutrient retention following feeding trial. Data were analyzed by general linear

model of Statistical Analysis System. Dry matter intake was similar but significant

differences (p>0.05) were observed in nutrient intakes. Average daily weight gain, final

and slaughter body weights were similar between treatments. Total edible ranged from

1665.0 in T1 to 1363.1 T3 and was significantly (P<0.05) different. Dressing percentage,

however, remained similar despite varying levels of kocho in the diet. The study revealed

potential of kocho to replace maize grain in broilers diet in areas where the product is

available and less costly.

Keywords: Carcass, Chicken, Kocho, Nutrient retention

INTRODUCTION

Chicken are most important avian species which play vital role in the socio-economic aspects of low income families’ in developing world (Kondombo, 2005). Chicken are reared under wide range of circumstances although the main objective is often to obtain maximum benefit with low cost (Van Eekeren (2006). Delgado et al. (1999) estimated the contribution of poultry for animal protein may increase to 40% by the year 2020 which is mainly as result of increase from developing world. In Ethiopia, chickens are reared by almost every rural family and contribute to towards fulfilling family protein needs and also generate income (Tadelle et al., 2003). The majority the chicken population are reared under traditional system with low capital investment (little or no inputs for housing, feeding or health care). Tadelle (1996) reported that the main feed for village chickens is obtained through


29

scavenging, which includes kitchen waste, cereals and their by-products, pulses, roots and tubers, oilseeds, shrubs, fruits and animal proteins. Negussie and Alemu (2005) reported the important challenge of poultry sector to be inadequate supply and poor quality of the feeds. Moreover the prices of feed ingredients are high generally and protein source feeds are even more expensive. As a result contribution of poultry sector is constrained by the high cost and less availability of conventional feed ingredients commonly used in diet formulations (Aberra et al., 2011). Feed cost is the most important cost (65-75%) in commercial poultry production. Although there have been efforts to improve poultry nutrition in the past years there are still challenges in this area to contribute towards solving the current high prices of poultry feeds. Therefore, looking for alternative feed ingredients which are available throughout the year and cheaper is crucial to improve the productivity of the sector. Enset (Ensete ventricosum) is a perennial crop widely cultivated in the southern part of Ethiopia and as staple food (Tsegaye and Struik, 2000). Several previous works indicate use of enset in livestock feeding in these areas (e.g. Tolera, 1990; Fekadu, 1996; Desta and Oba, 2004, Ajebu, 2008). Kocho is a product obtained from enset processing for human consumption and has comparable energy content with maize. It can be used as energy source to substitute conventional ingredients like maize. Its availability and lower price as compared to maize is an important attribute to consider. However, there is scanty information in use of kocho in nutrition of chickens. This work was, therefore, aimed at investigating potential of kocho in feeding broiler chickens with the following objectives. Objectives were:

• To evaluate feed intake and body weight changes of Hubbard chickens fed diets containing different levels of kocho in concentrate mixture

• To evaluate carcass traits of Hubbard chickens fed diets with different levels of kocho in concentrate mixture


Description of study area

The experiment was conducted at Hawassa University, College of Agriculture which is located at 7° 4' N latitude and 38° 31' E longitudes and an altitude of about 1650 m above sea level. Rainfall is bi-modal and in the range of 700 and 1200 mm annually. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures in the area are 13.5 °C and 27.6 °C.


30

Study subject

Experimental animals used in this experiment were Hubbard chicks purchased from Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center poultry farm. Three hundred day-old unsexed chicks were transported to poultry farm, School of Animal and Range Sciences, Hawassa University. Study design

There were four treatment diets which were formulated to contain different levels of kocho to replace maize in a concentrate mixture (Table 1). The chicks were randomly assigned into the four treatment groups of 45 chicks each in a completely randomized design (CRD). There were three replications per treatment each with 15 chicks. The chicks were kept in a house were the floor was covered with sawdust of 4-5 cm depth. The routine management activities were similar across treatments throughout the experiential period. The chicks were vaccinated against Gumboro at 7th and 14th days through eye droplet and drinking water respectively and Newcastle disease vaccine was applied (HB1 and Lasota strain) through ocular route as eye droplet and drinking water at 1st and 21st days of age, respectively. Table 1: Experimental design of the feeding trial with Hubbard chickens

Treatments Kocho (%)1 Replicates Chicks per replicate

Chicks per treatment

T1 0 3 15 45 T2 33 3 15 45 T3 67 3 15 45 T4 100 3 15 45 Total 180 1Proportion of kocho replacing maize in concentrate mixture

Amprolium (20-40 g/100 liters of water) for five consecutive days per week for the first four weeks of age and oxytetracyline-10% (20 g/100 liters) were given with drinking water as required to prevent coccidiosis.

Experimental design

Experimental feeds preparation: Maize, wheat bran and soybean were purchased from Hawassa market. Noug cake was purchased from Zeway while vitamin-mineral premix, lysine, methionine, dicalcium phosphate and limestone were purchased from Addis Ababa. Soybean was roasted to deactivate trypsin inhibitors. Wet kocho was purchased from Tula market and sun dried. The fiber of kocho was removed to reduce the fiber content.

Experimental diets and feeding managements

The feeding trial was undertaken for 49 days. Feed was weighed and offered to each replicate every morning at 8:00 h and refusals were collected and weighed


31

every morning before feed was offered. Clean water was made available at all time. Feed intake was calculated as the difference between feed offered and refused. Feed conversion was calculated as the ratio between feed consumed and body weight gain during the trial (g feed consumed/g weight gain). Body weight measurements: Chicks were weighed individually at the beginning of feeding trial and thereafter at weekly interval during the experimental period. Body weight change was calculated as the difference between the final and initial weights. Protein efficiency ratio (PER) was calculated as a ratio of body weight gain of the chicks per unit of crude protein consumed. Measurements for carcass components: Two chickens from each replicate (six/treatment) were taken at the end of feeding trial for evaluation of carcass components. They were starved over night, weighed and slaughtered by severing the jugular vein and allowed to bleed completely. Blood was collected and weight recorded. The feather was then plucked by hand, and weight was calculated as difference between weight of body with and without feather. Then eviscerated and carcass parts were separated. Carcass part includes breast muscle, drum stick, thigh, wing and back while the total non-edible offal (TNEO) includes: blood, shank, neck, head, gastrointestinal and reproductive organs, heart, spleen, and pancreas. The total edible offal (TEO) included skin, liver and gizzard. Dressing percentage was calculated: Dressing % = Carcass weight/Slaughter weight *100. Table 2: Proportion of feed ingredients (%, fed basis) of the finisher diets

Feed Ingredients T1 T2 T3 T4

White Maize 35 21 14 0 Kocho 0 14 21 35 Noug cake 23 29 32 41.5 Wheat bran 14 10 9 3 Soybean 24 22 20 16.5 Limestone 1 1 1 1 Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Dicalcium phosphate 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Vitamin-mineral premix** 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Lysine 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 Methionine 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 Total CP (% DM) ME (Kcal/Kg DM)

100 20.8 2956

100 20.4 3065

100 20.1 3168

100 20.2 3189

**Company: Top Mix, Medion, Bandung, Indonesia; providing the following per kg diet basis: vit A (12000 iU), vit D3 (2000 iU), vit E (8 iU), vit K (2 mg),vit B1 (2 mg), vit B2 (5 mg), vit B6 (0.5 mg), vit B12 (0.12 mg), vit C (25 mg), Ca-D pantothenate (6 mg), niacin (40 mg), choline chloride (10 mg), lysine (30 mg), methionine (30 mg), manganese (120 mg), iron (20 mg), iodine (0.2 mg), zinc (100 mg), cobalt (0.2mg), copper (4 mg), santoquin (antioxidant, 10 mg) and zinc bacitracin (21 mg), CP = crude protein and ME = metabolizable energy


32

Determination of nutrient retention

Comparative slaughtering technique was employed to determine the nutrient retention in the whole body of chicks during the experimental period. Chemical analysis

Feed offered, refusals and minced whole body of birds were analyzed for dry matter (DM), ash, ether extract (EE) and crude fiber (CF) according to AOAC (1990) while nitrogen free extract (NFE) was calculated by difference. Nitrogen was analyzed by micro-Kjeldahl procedure and the crude protein (CP) was calculated as nitrogen content x 6.25. Calcium was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer and phosphorus calorimetrically as recommended by AOAC (1995). The metabolizable energy (ME) was obtained following Wiseman (1987): ME (Kcal/kg DM) = 3951 + 54.4EE - 88.7CF - 40.8Ash

Data analysis

Data were subjected to Analysis of Variance, using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS version 9.1). The statistical model was: Yij = µ + Ti + Eij Where, Yij = individual values of the dependent variables µ = over all mean of response variable Ti = the effect of treatment Eijk = random error in the response of individual chicks Duncan multiple range test (Duncan, 1955) were carried out for mean comparison.

RESULTS

Chemical composition

Chemical composition and metabolizable energy value of feed ingredients and treatment diets are presented in Table 3 and 4, respectively. Kocho had lowest value for CP (3.8%) and EE (5.8%) while its NFE value was high (81.4) compared with other feed ingredients. The highest value for CP was obtained for soybean followed by noug seed cake. The metabolizable energy value was highest in maize followed by wheat bran and kocho whereas noug cake had lowest value. The treatment diets had similar CP content except for T1 which had slightly higher value. Metabolizable energy values of treatment diets were comparable although that of T4 was slightly low.


33

Table 3: Chemical composition (% DM) and energy content of feed ingredients used to formulate experimental diets

Nutrients Feed ingredients

Maize Soybean Noug seed cake

Wheat bran

Kocho

DM, % 94.7 95.6 94.5 93.7 96.2 CP 8.1 30.8 29.9 17.0 3.8 CF 2.0 13.1 19.4 5.2 4.1 EE 8.7 16.6 12.1 9.4 5.8 Ash 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.0 NFE 75.0 34.1 32.2 61.1 81.4 Ca 0.86 1.8 0.84 0.95 0.81 P 0.32 0.62 0.49 0.54 0.37 ME, (kcal/Kg DM) 4209.7 3650.5 2856.4 3961.9 3857.0

DM dry matter, CF crude fiber, CP crude protein, EE ether extract (crude fat), NFE nitrogen free

extract, ME metabolizable energy, Kcal kilo calories, Ca calcium, P phosphorus, NFE = DM-(CP +CF

+ EE + Ash). Metabolizable energy (Kcal/Kg DM) = 3951+ 54.40 Crude fat – 88.70 Crude fiber –

40.80 Ash (Wiseman, 1987).

Table 4: Chemical composition (% DM, unless specified) metabolizable energy content of treatment diets

Chemical component Treatments

T1 T2 T3 T4

DM (%) 97.7 96.0 95.0 93.4 CP 23.0 18.7 18.0 18.0 CF 7.2 7.5 7.1 8.5 EE 10.8 13.0 12.4 10.4 NFE 55.7 55.9 56.5 55.5 Ash 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1

Ca 0.64 0.65 0.67 0.69 P 0.23 0.21 0.24 0.26

ME (kcal/kg DM) 3864.0 3953.0 3957.0 3722.0

DM = dry matter; CF = crude fiber; CP = crude protein; EE = crude fat (ether extract); NFE = nitrogen free extract; ME = metabolizable energy; Kcal = kilo calories; Ca = calcium; P = phosphorus; NFE= DM-(CP + CF + EE + Ash). Metabolizable energy (Kcal/Kg DM) = 3951+ 54.40 Crude fat – 88.70 Crude fiber – 40.80 Ash (Wiseman, 1987). T1= 0 %kocho: 100% maize, T2= 33% kocho:67% maize, T3= 67% kocho:33% maize, T4= 100% kocho: 0% maize in concentrate mixture

Nutrient intake

The daily nutrient intake of chickens is presented in Table 5. DM intake was not significantly different (P>0.05) among treatments, however, there was tendency of increasing with increasing level of kocho in diet. The crude protein (CP) intake of chicks fed T1 diet were highest (P<0.05) whereas T2 had the lowest intake. The CF intake was highest in T4 and lowest for T1. There was an increasing trend with increasing levels of kocho in diet. Chicks fed T3 diets had the highest (P<0.05)


34

metabolizable energy intake followed by T2 while those fed T4 had the lowest intake. Table 5: Daily Nutrient intake (g/day) of chicks fed different levels of kocho in concentrate mixture

Treat. Intake

DM CP CF EE NEF ME (kcal) Ash Ca P

T1 160 37.7a 11.5c 16.9c 88.0b 3761c 2.17b 1.67b 0.80b T2 155 29.0c 12.8b 22.6b 87.6b 3950b 2.20b 1.70b 0.87ab T3 167 32.3b 13.1b 23.9a 96.8a 3999a 2.30a 2.03a 0.93a

T4 161 32.7b 16.2a 17.1c 92.1ab 3348d 2.27a 2.00a 0.97a Mean 161 32.9 13.4 20.1 91.1 3765 2.26 1.85 0.89 SEM 4.45 0.87 0.29 0.49 2.49 5.53 0.04 0.04 0.06 abc: Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly different at(p< 0.05) DM dry matter, CF crude fiber, CP crude protein, EE (ether extract), NFE nitrogen free extract, ME metabolizable energy, Kcal kilo calories, Ca calcium, P phosphorus, SEM standard mean error, T1= 0% kocho: 100% maize, T2= 33% kocho:67% maize, T3= 67% kocho:33% maize, T4= 100% kocho: 0% maize in concentrate mixture. NFE = DM - (CP + CF + EE + Ash). Metabolizable energy (Kcal/Kg DM) = 3951+ 54.40 Crude fat – 88.70 Crude fiber – 40.80 Ash (Wiseman, 1987).

Nutrient efficiency ratio The DM and nutrient efficiency ratio of chickens is shown in Table 6. The DM conversion ratio was not significantly different (P>0.05) among treatments although there was slight increase with increasing proportion of kocho in the diet. The highest (P<0.05) CP efficiency ratio was for T2 while the lowest was for T1. The highest (P<0.05) ME efficiency ratio was recorded for T4 while others had similar values. Table 6: Nutrient efficiency ratio of chicks fed different levels of kocho and maize in concentrate mixture

Treat. Nutrients

DM EE CP Ca P NFE Ash ME

T1 0.30 2.86a 1.30d 1.93a 4.0a 0.53 0.10a 0.012b T2 0.33 2.23b 1.70a 1.83a 3.66b 0.56 0.10a 0.011b T3 0.33 2.13b 1.60b 1.53b 3.50b 0.50 0.10a 0.011b T4 0.26 2.76a 1.46c 1.46b 3.13c 0.50 0.08b 0.013a Mean 0.30 2.50 1.51 1.69 3.57 0.52 0.09 0.012 SEM 0.03 0.12 0.05 0.07 0.11 0.03 0.003 0.0003 abc: Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly different at (p< 0.05), T treatment, DM dry matter, CF crude fiber, CP crude protein, EE ether extract, NFE nitrogen free extract, ME metabolizable energy, Kcal kilo calories, Ca calcium, P phosphorus, g gram, SEM standard mean error, T1= 0% kocho: 100% maize, T2= 33% kocho:67% maize, T3= 67%kocho:33% maize, T4= 100% kocho: 0% maize in concentrate mixture %. NFE = DM-(CP + CF + EE + Ash).


35

Nutrient retention

The nutrient retention of chickens fed different levels of kocho in concentrate mixture is shown in Table 7. The DM and ash retention for T1 and T2 was significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of T3 whereas T4 had an intermediate value. The CP retention was similar between treatments. The ME retention for T1 was higher (P<0.05) than that of T3 and T4 while T2 had an intermediate value. There was an increasing trend in P retention with increasing levels of kocho in the diet. Table 7: Nutrient retention (g/day) of chicks fed different levels of kocho and maize in concentrate mixture

Treatment

Nutrient

DM CP EE NFE ME (Kcal) Ash Ca P

T1 T2 T3 T4 Means SEM

39.33a 36.61a 32.46b 32.98ab 36.35 4.99

22.60 25.31 23.00 23.16 23.53 3.44

7.26a 3.91b 3.46b 4.10b 4.68 1.39

9.10a 7.05a 5.91b

5.85b

6.97 1.79

1957a 1660ab 1465b 1537b

1655 252

0.41a 0.36a 0.33b 0.36ab 0.37 0.04

0.75 0.69 0.72

0.80 0.74 0.08

0.29b 0.33ab 0.36a 0.38a 0.34 0.04

abc : Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly different (P< 0.05), DM dry

matter, CP crude protein, EE ether extract NFE nitrogen free extract, ME metabolizable energy, Ca calcium, P phosphorus, SEM standard mean error, T1= 0%kocho: 100% maize, T2= 33%kocho:67% maize, T3= 67%kocho:33% maize, T4= 100% kocho: 0%maize in concentrate mixture.

Body weight change

The change in body weight of chickens is presented in Table 8. There was no significant (P>0.05) difference among treatments in daily average body weight gain, total gain and final weights. Table 8: Body weight change (g) of chicks fed different levels of kocho in concentrate mixture

Treatments Initial weight Final weight Total weight gain

Average daily weight

T1 T2 T3 T4 Means SEM

247.06 247.33 251.16 253.90 249.86 8.57

2442.2 2370.4 2301.6 2338.6 2363.2 162.2

2195.1 2123.0 2050.4 2084.8 2113.31 158.45

44.80 43.33 41.13 42.56 43.13 3.21

abc: Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly different at (p< 0.05), SEM standard mean error, T1= 0%kocho: 100% maize, T2= 33%kocho: 67% maize, T3= 67%kocho:33% maize, T4= 100% kocho: 0%maize in concentrate mixture.

Carcass characteristics

Table 9 shows carcass characteristics of birds fed different levels of kocho in concentrate mixture. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) among treatments on slaughter weight but significant differences were observed for


36

carcass components. The T1 had highest value for neck, wing, thigh, and breast muscle while T1, T3 and T4 had similar value for breast bone. Similarly, significant (P<0.05) differences were recorded for TE between treatments with the highest value obtained from T1 (1665.0 g) while lowest was for T3 (1363.1 g). The other two treatments had similar and intermediate values. The TNEO ranged from 581.7 to 492.0 and significantly different between treatments. Dressing percentage was significantly (P<0.05) higher in T4 (75.4) but lower in T2 (72.7) while T1 and T3 had an intermediate values. Table 9: Carcass characteristics of chicks fed different levels of kocho in concentrate mixture

Parameters (g) Treatments Means SEM

T1 T2 T3 T4

Slaughter weight 2230.9 2062.3 1978.2 2019.4 2072.68 196.77

Commercial carcass components Neck 80.4a 69.5b 58.2c 67.7b 69.0 5.5 Wing 102.40a 82.71b 80.26b 82.11b 86.87 6.39 Drumstick 230.55a 210.81b 204.51bc 186.86c 208.4 15.7 Thigh 256.2a 217.3b 210.1b 231.1b 228.7 17.6 Breast muscle 396.4a 338.5b 268.0c 337.1b 335.0 39.5 Breast bone 195.9a 172.2b 181.2ab 180.2ab 182.39 12.36 Back bone 150.1ab 159.8a 136.9b 144.0ab 147.7 16.59 Edible offal Liver 47.5b 53.2a 58.0a 53.2a 53.0 4.37 Gizzard 56.1ab 55.3bc 60.3a 51.4b 55.82 5.22 Skin 149.1a 110.5abc 105.4c 123.0b 122.0 12.1 TE 1665.0a 1470.1b 1363.1c 1450.4b 1487.18 71.03 TNEO 581.7a 561.5a 502.8b 492.0b 534.53 26.09 Dressing percentage 73.8ab 72.7b 74.3ab 75.4a 74.08 20.5 abc

: Means within the same category with different superscripts across the row are significantly different (P<0.05), T1=0% kocho: 100% maize, T2= 33% kocho:67% maize, T3= 67% kocho:33% maize, T4= 100% kocho: 0% maize in concentrate mixture %, number of observation (N) = 24, SEM standard mean error, TE = total edible = (skin, gizzard and liver plus carcass cuts), Dressing % = (Weight of carcass/slaughter weight)*100.

DISCUSSION

Nutrient and energy contents of the ingredients and experimental diets The chemical composition of kocho indicates that it is rich in energy (3857.0 kcal/kg DM), Ca (0.81%) and P (0.37%). The CP content of kocho (38 g/kg DM) in the present study was higher than values (27 g/kg DM, 26 g/kg DM, 17.8 g/kg DM; 15 g/kg DM) reported by previous workers (e.g. Meseret, 2013; Tsegaye, 2010; Kalekristos, 2010; Yewlsew et al., 2006). This difference may be due to the variation of enset varieties from which kocho was produced. Varietal differences in CP content of unprocessed corm and pseudostem has been reported by Ajebu et al. (2008).


37

The CP content of the kocho is lower (38 g/kg DM) compared with maize (81 g/kg DM) and in agreement with report of Meseret (2013).The high energy concentration of kocho indicates its potential to replace conventional energy sources such as maize in the diet of chickens. The low CP value of kocho needs to be compensated by ingredients with high CP content. The EE (5.8%) and CF (4.1%) contents of kocho reported in this study were different from that of furfurame (4.1%, 10%, respectively). The CP content of the noug cake (299 g/kg DM) used in this study was similar to the value (301 g/kg DM) reported by Meseret (2013) but higher than the value (253 g/kg DM) reported by Abebe (2011). Method of extraction of oil from oilseeds may be cause of variation (Tolera, 2008). The CP content of wheat bran recorded in the present study (170 g/kg DM) was slightly lower than that (180 g/kg DM) reported by Abebe (2011) but higher than the value (128 g/kg DM) reported by Meseret (2013). The CP values of all treatment diets were comparable except the control diet which was slightly higher. The CP content of diets (except T1) used in this study fail to meet requirements for growers according to the recommendation (20%) by Scanes et al. (2004) but meets the minimum requirements of 16% CP based on NRC (1994). The ME concentration of treatment diets ranged from 3722-3957 kcal/kg DM and these values are higher than the minimum ME requirement (2801 kcal/kg DM) recommended by NRC (1994). The energy content of diets is dependent on the proportion of the ingredients used since concentration of nutrients varies. Thus T4 which had slightly higher CF had less ME value than the rest of the diets. Generally the CF content of the experimental diets was slightly above the maximum limit of 6% for broilers. Despite high fiber content birds were observed to eat more and their intake was not negatively affected. This again suggests potential of kocho to be included in diets of commercial breeds of birds.

Nutrient and energy intakes

Dry matter and nutrient intake of birds were similar across treatments although maize was substituted with kocho at varying levels. This is an important indication that kocho is a potential energy source for smallholder poultry keepers in enset growing areas. In agreement with present work, Etalem et al. (2013) reported similar finding in which cassava root chips was used to replace maize in chicken diets.

Body weight gain of chickens

Similar body weight changes were recorded for birds in all treatment diets. This is expected since DM intake and conversion efficiency was also similar between treatments. This was in agreement with previous finding (Etalem et al., 2013) who reported similarity among treatments in average daily body weight gain and DM


38

conversion ratio. Etalem et al. (2013) indicated that the replacement of maize with cassava root chips at different levels did not influence daily weight gain and final body weight in broiler chickens. These unconventional feedstuffs could be an alternative energy source to substitute for maize in the future.

Nutrient retention

Various factors affect body composition of the chickens and nutrition is one of them. Proteins nutrition is particularly important in deposition of muscle tissue. Although CP intake for T1 was high retention was lower compared to the other treatments which could be attributed to lower PER of the group. High energy intake is known to result in excessive deposition of body fat (Saleh et al., 2004) and this was clearly seen from T3 and T4. Carcass characteristics

Carcass yield is an important to evaluate the efficiency by which feed is utilized (Bambgbose and Niba, 1998). Slaughter weights were unaffected due to substitution of maize with kocho although there was a decreasing trend in slaughter weights as proportion of kocho increased. The weight of commercial carcass components was slightly higher for T1 than other treatments. High carcass yield is an indication of bioavailability more nutrient for synthesis and particularly important in protein synthesis as muscel is composed of more protein than other nutrients (Tegene and Asrat, 2010). This is evident from the carcass yields of T1 and T4 which fed on diets were kocho replaced maize at 0% and 100%, respectively. The amount and quality of nutrients are determining factors for improved yield of carcass. Similarly when individual carcass components are considered there is decreasing weight with increasing proportion of kocho in diets. The dressing percentage obtained in the current experiment is in agreement with values (70%) reported by by Scanes et al. (2004) and Maigualema and Gernat (2003) for broiler breeds regardless of diets. Increased liver weight of chicks could be related to an increase liver activities which can be due to the effect of bulkiness feeds at higher levels of kocho, which resulted in liver overload that brought about possible hypertrophy of the organ (Togun et al., 2006). The current result showed that the length and weight of gastrointestinal tract in T2, T3 and T4 diet reflected that substitution of maize with kocho would result in relatively increased fiber content of the diets with increased levels of kocho that could have been accumulated in the GIT to increase its lengths and weight. This result agreed with IJI (1999) who reported that fibrous diets increase the weight of the gut, length of the esophagus, the small intestine and ceca.


39

CONCLUSION

Chickens fed varying levels of kocho in their diet had similar dry matter intake and weight gain although there were differences in total edible weights. This reveals potential of kocho as source of energy source formulating chicken rations in areas where it is available. REFERENCES

Abebe B. 2011. Feeding Effect of Tagasaste (Chamaencytisus palmensis) Leaf

Meal on the Growth Performance and Carcass characteristics of Rhode Island Red chickens, MSc Thesis, Hawassa University, Ethiopia.

Aberra M, Workinesh T, Tegene N. 2011. Effect of feeding Moringa stenopetela

leaf meal on nutrient intake and growth performance of Rhode Island Red chicks under tropical climate. Trop. Subtrop. Agroeco. 14: 485- 492.

Agbede JO, Aletor VA. 1997. The performance, nutrient utilization and cost implications of feeding broiler finishers conventional or under-utilized resources. Applied Trop. J. 2: 57-62.

Ajebu N. 2008. Evaluation of the nutritive value of enset (Ensete ventricosume) as livestock feed in Southern Ethiopia. PhD Thesis. Norwegian University of Life Sciences, department of Animal and Aquaculture science.

AOAC. 1995. Official Method of Analysis (16th ed). Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC.

Bamgbose AM, Niba AT. 1998. Performance of broiler chickens fed cotton seed cake in starter and finisher ration. In Ologhobo A.D.and Iyayi E.A. (editors). The Nigerian Livestock in the 21st

century, proceeding of 3rd annual conference of Animal Science Association of Nigeria.

Delgado C, Rosegrant M, Steinfeld H, Ehui S, Courbois,C. 1999. Livestock to 2020: The next food revolution. 2020 Vision Discussion Paper No. 28. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.

Desta HZ, Oba G. 2004. Feed scarcity and livestock mortality in enset farming systems in the Bale highlands of southern Ethiopia. Outlook Agric. 33 (4), 277-280.

Etalem T, Getachew A, Mengistu U, Tadelle D. 2013. Cassava Root Chips as an Alternative Energy Feed Ingredient in Broiler Ration. International Journal of Poultry Science 12 (5): 298-306.

Fekadu D. 1996. Potential of enset (Ensete ventricosum) in ruminant nutrition in Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.

Iji PA. 1999. The impact of cereal non starch polysaccharides on intestinal development and function in broiler chickens. J. world poult. Sci., 55: 59-71.

Ishibashi T, Yonemochi C. 2002. Possibility of amino acid nutrition in broiler nutrition. Anim. Sci. 73(3): 155-165.

Jackson SJ, Summer D, Lesson S .1982. Effect of dietary protein and energy on


40

broiler carcass composition and efficiency of nutrients utilization. Poult. Sci. 61:2224-2231.

Kalekristos Y. 2010. Influence of Baking Time and Temperature on the Quality of kocho Biscuit Enriched with Faba Bean and Wheat: Addis Ababa; Ethiopia.

Kondombo SR. 2005. Improvement of village chicken production in a mixed (chicken–ram) farming system in Burkina Faso. PhD thesis. Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands. 208 pp.

Maigualema MA, Gernat AG. 2003. The effect of feeding elevated levels of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) byproduct meal on broiler performance and carcass characteristics. Internat. J. Poult. Sci., 2:195-199.

Meseret T. 2013. Effect of substituting maize with kocho on intake, digestibility, nitrogen utilization and weight gain in sheep fed a basal diet of Rhodes grass hay. MSc Thesis. College of Agriculture, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia.

Negussie D, Alemu Y. 2005. Characterization and classification of potential poultry feeds in Ethiopia using cluster analyses. Eth. J. Anim. Prod. 5(1): 107-123.

National Research Council (NRC). 1994. Nutrition requirements of poultry. National Research Council. National Academy Press. Washington D.C. 33-34.

Saleh EA, Watkins SE, Waldroup AL, Waldroup PW. 2004. Effects of dietary Nutrient density on performance and carcass quality of male broilers grown for further processing. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 3(1): 1-10.

Scanes CG, Brant G, Ensiminger ME. 2004. Poult. Sci., 4th ed. (Pearson Prentice Hall), 105-106.

Shewangizaw W, Tegene N, Aberra M. 2011. Effect of dietary protein concentration on feed intake, body mass gain and carcass traits of Rhode Island Red

Tadelle D. 2003. Phenotypic and genetic characterization of chicken Ecotypes in Ethiopia. PhD Thesis. Humboldt University, Germany. 208 pp.

Tadelle D. 1996. Studies on village poultry production systems in the central highlands of Ethiopia. MSc. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,Uppsala.

Tegene N, Asrat T. 2010. Effects of feeding different levels of cooked and sun dried fish offal on carcass traits of growing Rhode Island Red chicks. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 42: 45-54.

Tolera A. 1990. Animal production and feed resource constraints in Wolayta Sodo and the supplementary value of Desmodium intortum, Stylosanthes

guianensis and Macrotyloma axillare when fed to growing sheep feeding on a basal diet of maize stover. M.Sc. Thesis. Agricultural University of Norway.

Tolera A. 2008. Feed Resource and Feeding Management. A manual for feed


41

operators and development workers. Ethiopia sanitary and phyto-sanitary standards and livestock and meat marketing program (SPS-LMM). Addis Ababa Ethiopia, Pp:38.

Tsegaye A, Struik PC. 2000. Influence of repetitive transplanting and leaf pruning on dry matter and food production of enset (Ensete ventricosum

Welw.(Cheesman)). Field Crop Research, 68, 61-74. Wiseman J. 1987. Meeting nutritional requirements from available resources. Pp.

132 In: J. Wiseman (Ed). Feeding of non-ruminant animal. Butterworth. London.

Yewelsew A, Barbara S, Margaret H, Gail G. 2006. Nutritive value and sensory acceptability of corn and kocho based foods Supplemented with legumes for infant feeding in Southern Ethiopia. Afr. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 6 (1): 1-13.

Van Eekeren N, Maas A, Saatkamp HW, Verschuur M. 2006. Small-scale chicken production. Agrodoc 4. Agromisa Foundation and CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.


42

Assessment of Microbial Quality and Safety of Traditional Fermented Milk-

‘Irgo’ Collected from Hawassa City, South Ethiopia

Sintayehu Yigrem* and Haile W/Aregay

School of Animal and Range Sciences(*e-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT Milk in Ethiopia is mainly produced under three livetsock production systems, notably the

pastoral, the mixed crop livestock and urban/peri-urban dairy systems. Although proximity

to market favors urban dairy producers, there still exist various challenges among which

are safety and quality issues. The aim of this study was to assess the microbial qualities

and safety of fermented milk– Irgo, which is one of the most prevalent forms of dairy

products produced and marketed by urban dairy producers and intermediate traders in

Hawassa city, southern Ethiopia. A total of 120 samples (raw milk=60 and Irgo=60) were

collected from dairy shops in Hawassa city. Formal interviews on milk and Irgo handling

practices were followed by microbial analysis of the products. The mean aerobic

mesosphilic bacterial count (AMBC), coliform count (CC), Staphylococcus count (Staph.

C) and lactic acid bacterial count (LABC) of the raw milk samples was 6.85, 6.14, 6.13

and 7.19 log cfu ml-1

, respectively. Irgo samples had mean AMBC, CC, Staph.C and LABC

values of 6.79, 5.6, 5.55 and 6.13 log cfu ml-1

, respectively. Although, the counts of

hazardous microbes were lower in Irgo samples than the raw milk, the overall microbial

count in the sampled products is much higher than the minimum standards, which reveals

the poor handling practices of dairy products in the city. This poor handling of dairy

products have consequences to the public health, hence it require due attention in order to

minimize its effect on the health and safety of consumers.

Keywords: Milk handling, Microbial quality, Irgo, Hawassa INTRODUCTION

Milk is one of the major livestock commodities in Ethiopia, which is produced under three major livestock production system; the pastoral, the mixed crop livestock and urban/peri-urban dairy systems. Due to its short shelf-life, milk has to be consumed immediately or processed into shelf stable products. Milk processing is one of the oldest traditional practices in Ethiopia, which is generally based on Irgo (a traditional fermented milk product) (Tamime, 2006). The fermentation process does not require additions of any defined starter culture, rather natural lactic acid bacteria (LAB) spontaneously ferment the milk. Raw milk is either kept at ambient temperature or kept in a warm place to ferment prior to processing (Mogessie, 2002). This Irgo, which is analogues to the commercial yoghurt, can be consumed as it is, or can be further processed into other fermented dairy products, notably cottage cheese and butter (Coppock et al., 1990). The total bacterial count (TBC) of milk samples is indicative of herd health status, farm sanitation, and milk storage temperature operated with. Campylobacter,


43

enterohemorrhagic strains of Escherichia coli, Salmonella and Yersinia are often implicated in milk-borne diseases (Steel et al, 1997). Some of the pathogenic organisms are also found in Ethiopian dairy products including in the fermented product- Irgo (Mogessie, 2002; Zelalem and Faye, 2006). The fates and development trends of microorganisms of some pathogenic microbes in the fermentation process of Irgo, such as Escherichia coli 0157:H7, during fermentation process of Irgo have been documented (Mogessie, 1995 and Mekonen and Mogessie, 2005). The studies indicated the potentials of fermentation process in minimizing the risks of pathogenic organisms in such products. Furthermore, some traditional practices like smoking of milk utensils by fumigation indigenous herbs also minimizes the multiplications of some pathogenic microorganisms (Mogessie and Fekadu, 1993). As indicated in the works of Sintayehu et al. (2008), about 1,470 urban resident households were engaged in urban dairy farming in Hawassa city, one of the major cities in Ethiopia. An estimated 4,257,110 liters of milk is annually produced. The majority (79.2%) of urban milk producers target milk market, while only 14.2% and 6.6% produced for own consumption as raw milk and home processed products, respectively. Hotels, coffee houses, Irgo sellers and other consumers were the main buyers of raw milk. Milk is usually consumed along with coffee, tea or as it is prior or without boiling. Particularly in Hawassa city, quite large number of Irgo selling shops exist, which are owned either by milk producing farms or intermediate traders. During the manufacturing process of industrial/commercial fermented dairy products, such as yogurt, pasteurization of the milk is a prerequisite process-step before inoculation of the milk with fermentative starter cultures. This process destroys pathogenic and spoilage microflora from the products (Tamime, 2006) making the fermented milk safer for consumers. It is unusual to practice pasteurization of milk prior traditional fermentation of milk in Ethiopia, as it may disturb the spontaneous fermentation process. Irgo sellers in Hawassa city in particular, usually buy the raw milk in the morning hours, pour it in a small glass/cups (having a capacity of about 200-250 ml) and keep it in an open air (at an ambient temperature) for about 12-24 hours until it naturally gets fermented. The above mentioned practices in the city, the climatic conditions of the area and the peculiar microbial properties of milk, are suggestive for high risks of microbial quality and safety on the product-Irgo. Therefore, the present study was designed to assess the milk handling practices and quantify the microbial quality and safety of raw milk and Irgo in the city.


44


Description of Study area

This study was conducted in Hawassa city, capital of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples regional state (SNNPRS). The city is located at an altitude of 1750 m.a.s.l at 6o83' to 7o17' N and 38o24' to 38o72’ E, which is 275 km south of the capital Addis Ababa. According to the regional meteorological agency, the data for three decades reveals that this area has annul average rainfall of 955 mm with mean annual temperature of 20oC (SNNPRS-RSA, 2006). The city is the economic and cultural hub of the region, having a total area of about 50 km2 divided into eight sub-cities (kifle ketema) and 32 kebeles (the smallest unit of administration). The total human population of the city during 2008 was estimated at 300,000. About 1,400 urban dairy producers existed during the same year (Sintayehu et al., 2008).

Diagnostic survey

The survey was conducted between December 2011 and July 2013. A formal survey was conducted using open and closed questionnaires. The questioner contained questions on the sources, production process, handling practices, and transportation of Irgo. A total of 73 Irgo producing shops were sampled from a total of 307 shops in the city. Based on their source of milk for Irgo preparations, the Irgo shops comprised three groups: group A were those who take milk from own farms (n=6), group B purchase milk from contact farms usually from single source (n=36) and group C purchase milk from various farms/retailers without prior contractual agreements, usually from multiple sources (n=31).

Sampling of milk and Irgo

Following the survey, a total of 120 (60 raw milk and 60 naturally fermented milk Irgo) samples were aseptically collected from the interviewed Irgo producers/sellers, while 13 farmers refused to give samples. The milk and Irgo samples were labeled by the shop names and stratified according to sources of raw milk, group A-C (see Table 1). Table 1: Sampling layout used for milk and naturally fermented milk Irgo from Irgo shops in Hawassa City

Samples

Source of raw milk Total

Group A Group B Group C

Raw milk 6 27 27 60

Irgo 6 27 27 60

Total 12 54 54 120


45

Laboratory analysis

Acidity test

pH measurement: pH of milk and Irgo samples were determined using a digital pH meter (pH meter 704, Metrohm ion analysis, Metrohm ltd., Herisau, Switzerland) after calibrating it using standard buffers of pH 4 and 7.

Microbial enumeration and isolation

Appropriate decimal dilutions of milk and Irgosamples were plated with separate sterile pipettes after each plate was labeled with the sample numbers. Before removal of the milk samples from storage containers, the content was mixed thoroughly and vigorously with whirl mixer. Finally, test portions were surface plated on respective culture media following recommended standard laboratory protocols. Specific procedures employed for the enumeration of the groups and specific pathogens considered are briefly described: Aerobic mesophilic bacterial count (AMBC): Each of one ml sample were dispensed into sterile test tubes in 0.1% peptone water (Oxid, UK), as 1:9 portion of the peptone water for initial dilution. Duplicate serial dilutions were made by transferring 1ml of the previous dilution in 9 ml of 0.1% peptone water. A plate count agar (PCA) (Oxid, UK) media was used to grow the bacteria at incubation temperature of 32 ± 2oC for 48 hrs. AMBC was made by incubating surface plated duplicate decimal dilutions of milk samples on. After incubations, petridishs with about 30 to 300 per plates were considered for colonies counts (Richardson, 1985). Coliform Count (CC): One ml of milk and Irgo samples were dispensed into sterile test tubes containing 9ml of 0.1% peptone water (Himedia, India) and thoroughly mixed using whirl mixer. Subsequent serial decimal dilutions were prepared in a similar manner using 0.1% peptone water. Duplicate appropriate decimal dilutions were surface plated on Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBA) (Pharma, US) and incubated at 32°C for 24 hours. After complete incubations, typical dark red colonies on uncrowned plates were considered as coliforms for colony counts. This was followed by a confirmatory test by transferring five colonies from each plate to tubes of 2% Brilliant Green Lactose Bile Broth (BGLBB) (Oxoid, UK). Gas production after 24 h of incubation at 32°C was considered sufficient evidence of presence of coliforms (Richardson, 1985). Lactic Acid Bacteria count (LABC): One ml of appropriate serial dilutions in peptone water of raw milk and Irgo samples were added into a sterile dish. A molten MRS Agar (Oxoid, UK) (45°C) was then poured onto the dish and mixed thoroughly. After the medium had set, another layer of MRS Agar was poured over the surface to produce a layer-plate. Colonies were counted after plates were


46

incubated at 35°C in an atmosphere of 5% CO2 for 48 hours (Savadogo et al., 2004). Total Staphylococci Counts (Staph.C): milk and Irgo samples were thoroughly mixed and plated on mannitol salt agar (MSA) plates. The dried plates were incubated for 45 to 48 hr at 35°C. Typical Staphylococci colonies appeared as golden yellow, smooth, circular, convex, and moist were counted. For confirmation, four to five of typical colonies per MSA plate were streaked on Mannitol salt agar (Oxid, UK), which was followed by catalase test and Gram stain (ISO, 1999; Yousef and Carlstrom, 2003).

Data analysis

Descriptive statistics were employed to analyze data collected from Irgo shops having different sources of milk for Irgo processing. Qualitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results of microbial counts were first transformed to logarithmic values (log 10) and these transformed values were analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) for least squares means in SPSS (version 16) using a fixed effect model. The Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was used to separate the means and differences were considered significant at P<0.05. The numbers of colony forming unit microorganisms were calculated using the following mathematical formula as recommended by IDF, (1987). CFU/ml = ∑C /(1*n1 + 0.1*n2) d Where; ∑C = sum of all colonies on all plates counted, n1= number of plates in first dilution counted, n2 = number of plates in second dilution counted, d = dilution factor of the lowest dilution used

RESULTS

Characteristics of Irgo producers

Among the interviewed Irgo producers 82.2% were male and the remaining were female (17.8%). The proportion of male and female owners was not comparable in all groups of Irgo houses (Table 2). The average age of the Irgo shop owners was 24 years and it is comparable for all groups of producers. The overall figure shows that the majority of Irgo sellers (63%) practice it at very small scale level utilizing less than 5 liters per day, while about followed by 6 up to 10 litters 21.9% of them process a milk amount between 6-10 per day. Only 15% of them processed a milk of over 10 liters per day into Irgo.


47

Table 2: Characteristics of Irgo producers, in Hawassa City

Interviewed house Irgo producers Overall (N=73) Group A

(n=6) Group B (n=36)

Group C (n=31)

Gender (%) Male 33.3 88.9 83.9 82.2

Female 66.7 11.1 16.1 17.8

Mean age (± SE yrs.) 24.3 (1.4) 24.0 (1.1) 23.7 (0. 8) 23.9 (0.7)

Amount of milk used for Irgo production (%.)

Less than 5 L - 94.4 38.7 63.0

6 up to 10 L 16.7 5.6 49.1 21.9

More than 10 L 50.0 - 12.9 9.6

More than 20 L 33.3 (2) - 6.5 (2) 5.5 (4)

Handling of dairy equipment Irgo producers used different milk containers for storing and fermentations of Irgo. About 46.6% of the Irgo shops used plastic containers for transportation, processing and storage of raw milk while 43% of the shops used metal containers. In both groups, fermentation of Irgo is undertaken in smaller glasses (a 250 ml size). The fermentation duration for the Irgo production was reported to be between 10 and 15 hours (68.5%), while others reported about 16 to 20 hours. Limited number of Irgo sellers also reported that the fermentation duration was less than 10 hours (1.4%) and more than 20 hours (8.2%). The survey results showed that cleaning of dairy equipments using warm water and detergents is a common practice by most of the interviewees (90.4%). After complete fermentation of Irgo in an open air for about 10-15 hrs, most producers (78.1%) used refrigerator until it is consumed or sold, while 21.9% of did not use any.

Marketing of Irgo

The most marketable dairy product in the study area was raw milk, which is followed by Irgo, which is prevalently consumed during morning hours along with other breakfast food, notably bread. The selling outlets for the major dairy products were direct to consumers (97.3%) and followed by the retailers (2.7%). Selling to the retailers was observed commonly in the owners who have their own source of milk.

Major problems of Irgo shops

As prioritized by the respondent there was Loss of products due to its poor quality (28.8%) followed by challenges related with processing (26 %) and selling (15.1%) (Table 6). The reported problem related processing in most of the Irgo shops were delay in fermentation, excessive whey production, quality of the raw milk supplied


48

limited milk supply and lack of appropriate equipment. Similarly, fasting season was mentioned in most case as challenge for the marketing of the major products in the shops. Table 3: Potential challenges of Irgo shop owners, in Hawassa city

Problems

Interviewed house Irgo producers Overall (N=73)

Group A (n=6)

Group B (n=36)

Group CC n=31)

Loss of products due to its poor quality

Yes (%) - 23.3 5.5 28.8

Challenges in selling Yes (%) 2.7 4.1 8.2 15.1 Challenges in processing Yes (%) - 19.2 6.8 26.0

Microbial quality of raw milk and Irgo samples

Acidity (pH) level of the milk and Irgo

The average pH value of raw milk and Irgo samples collected from Irgo shops in the present study were 6.49 and 4.18, respectively (Table 7). The least pH value observed in the milk sample was 6.44, while in Irgo it was 6.07.

Microbial counts the raw milk samples

The microbial quality of raw milk, which is used to prepare Irgo is shown as Table 4. The mean AMBC as well as CC of the raw milk samples in group A was significantly (p<0.05) lower than group B and C, the later groups having milk source from other farms. This difference however, was not significant for Staphylococcus count and LABC (P>0.05). Overall, the highest AMB, Coliform, Staphylococcus and LAB count was recorded for raw milk samples collected from group C, who collects milk from multiple farms and retailers. Table 4: Mean (± SD) microbial counts of raw milk samples (Log10 cfu ml-1) collected from three Irgo producing groups in Hawassa city

Type of microbes

Mean microbial count (log CFU ml-1) by sources of raw milk

Mean (N=60)

SD

Group A (n=6)

Group B (n=27)

Group C (n=27)

AMBC 4.93 (0.65)b 6.8 (0.31)a 7.33 (0.31)a 6.85 1.60** Coliform 5.39 (0.43)b 6.33 (0.20)a 6.13 (0.20)a 6.14 1.29** Staph.C 5.51 (0.41) 6.20 (0.19) 6.19 (0.19) 6.13 1.04ns LABC 6.60 (0.45) 7.18 (0.21) 7.34 (0.21) 7.19 0.95ns

AMBC= aerobic mesophilic bacteria count, CC=coliform count, Stap.C= Staphylococci counts, LAB= lactic acid bacteria, SD= standard deviation, NS= non significant at ** significant at p<0.05


49

Microbial counts in Irgo samples The microbial count of the sampled Irgo products is shown in Table 5. The mean AMBC of the Irgo samples in group A was significantly (p<0.05) lower than group B and C. This difference however, was not significant for Colifom, Staphylococcus count and LABC (P>0.05) between the three groups. Overall, the highest AMB, Coliform, Staphylococcus and LAB count was recorded for raw milk samples collected from group C, who collects milk from multiple farms and retailers. Table 5: Mean (± SD) microbial counts of Irgo samples (Log10 cfu ml-1) collected from three Irgo producing groups in Hawassa city

Type of microbes

Mean microbial count (log CFU ml-1) by sources of raw milk

Mean (N=60)

SD

Group A (n=6)

Group B (n=27)

Group C (n=27)

AMBC 5.77 (0.65)b 6.82 (0.31)a 6.97 (0.31)a 6.79 1.72** CC 5.60 (0.43) 5.55 (0.20) 5.64 (0.20) 5.60 0.77ns Staph.C 5.91 (0.41) 5.49 (0.19) 5.53 (0.19) 5.55 0.94ns LABC 6.27 (0.45) 6.21 (0.21) 6.01 (0.21) 6.13 1.20ns

AMBC= aerobic mesophilic bacteria count, CC=coliform count, Stap.C= Staphylococci counts, LAB= lactic acid bacteria, SD= standard deviation, NS= non significant at ** significant at p<0.05

DISCUSSION

The present study has highlighted the handing practices and microbial qualities of Irgo before and after fermentations. Although milk is fermented in an open air for quite long time, which is good enough to allow various microbes to grow, quite high number of Irgo producers used refrigerator after the Irgo ferments. The handling of milk and Irgo during transportation, storage and processing were generally poor. This was common particularly for Irgo shops who take milk from multiple farms and those who do not follow strict sanitary practices. According to Van Kessel et al. (2004), the use of insufficient and poor quality water for cleaning of milk handling equipments can result in milk residues on equipment surfaces that provide nutrients for the growth and multiplication of bacteria that can then contaminate the milk. The Acidity in dairy products at any time is a rough indication of the age of the milk and the manner in which it has been handled (Richardson, 1985; O'Connor, 1994). The average pH value of raw milk and Irgo was 6.49 and 4.18, respectively. Under normal circumstances fresh milk should have between 6.6 to and 6.8 at 20oC (Van den Berg, 1988; Walstra et al., 2006). The current pH value is comparable with results reported by Rahel (2008) for raw milk samples collected from Wolayita Zone.


50

It is recommended that AMBC count in milk should not surpass 5 log10 cfu ml-1 in order for the milk to remain in a reasonably acceptable quality for consumption (Marshall, 1992). The overall result of AMBC obtained for milk in this study were high (6.85 log cfu mL-1). Subsequently the milk becomes unsatisfactory for consumption. In the current study, The AMBC for milk samples collected from

Irgo shops was lower as compared to the values reported by Farhan and Salik (2007) (8.62 log10 cfu ml-1), Bekele and Bayleyegn (2000), where the count reached 8.0 log10 cfu ml-1 up on arrival at the processing plant in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It was higher than the count value reported by Abd Elrahman et al. (2009) for raw milk samples (6.63 log10 cfu ml-1). The higher AMBC obtained in the current study could be related to the overall sanitary conditions followed by most of the farms as well as Irgo processors’. This could be due to the contribution of insufficient preparation of the udder, insufficient cleaning of milk handling equipments in the farm and Irgo shops, use of poor quality water for cleaning, the storage time starting from the production site to the selling points. Murphy and Boor (2000), noted that ineffective use of cleaning water without heat treatment and absence of sanitizers tend to fasten growth of less heat resistant organisms. The presence of CC in milk indicates that the milk has been contaminated with fecal materials and it is an indicator of the sanitary conditions in the production and handling of the milk starting from the production site to the consumer table. The other potential source of contamination can be associated with the use of loosely lose caped storage containers and poor waste disposal methods followed by the dairy farms in the study area (O’Connor, 1994; Farhan and Salik, 2007). The CC value (6.14 log cfu mL-1) for milk samples collected from the Irgo shops was higher than the results obtained by Bekele and Bayleyegn (2000) (4.11 to 4.85 log10 cfu ml-1), Alganesh et al. (2002) for whole milk samples (4.46 log10 cfu ml-1) collected from storage in East Wallega Ethiopia, Nanu et al. (2007) for raw milk samples (3.2 log cfu ml-1) at the production point. Also lower result was observed for raw milk samples collected from storage containers at farm level than the reports of Rai and Dawvedi (1990) from India (5.87 log10 cfu ml-1) but comparable with the value reported by Mogessie and Fekadu (1993) (5.0 log10 cfu ml-1) for milk samples obtained from collecting utensils and Zelalem and Faye (2006) cow’s milk samples (6.57 log10 cfu ml-1) collected from different producers in central highlands of Ethiopia. The present value of CC of milk collected from Irgo shops is also higher than the values reported by Abd Elrahman et al. (2009) (5.61 log10 cfu ml-1) which from Sudan. A value of 1.5 x102 cfu ml-1, is the recommended coliform counts in milk which is internationally acceptable (Marshall, 1992). Apart from safety and public health concerns, high contaminations by coliforms results in off flavors in milk and reduce shelf life of dairy products. Another important pathogen in milk and related products is a Staphylococcus. It is naturally present in milk and are often associated with milk born disease due to the ability of some strains to produce heat stable toxins (Asperger, 1994). Staphylococcus spp. is among pathogenic microbes that cause minor skin infections and life threatening diseases.


51

Dairy cows with mastitis may be the source of enterotoxigenic staphylococcus in raw milk, which may subsequently be commingled with other milk while collecting from cows. In the present study Staph.C was lower than what is reported by Tollossa et al. (2012) and was higher than the value reported by Haile et al. (2012b). LABC (7.19 log cfu mL-1) comprises a major part of the microorganisms. The overall result shows that relatively the count is higher than the count reported by Eyasu and Fekadu (2000). The mean LAB count obtained for raw milk in this study is lower than that reported for raw milk collected from central Ethiopia (ILCA, 1993; Zelalem and Faye, 2006). This high value may lead to undesirable fermentative acidification of raw milk. Therefore, effective measures should be taken to avoid such kind of over fermentation as well as spoilage. Slight reduction in AMBC, CC and Staph.C was observed in the Irgo sampled from the same shops. The reason for the low count could be the high acidity in the final product. The AMBC result of the present study was lower than earlier reports for fermented milk (Fekadu Beyene, 1994; Eyasu and Fekadu, 2000; Haile et al., 2012a). The CC in the present study was higher than other studies in Ethiopia (Fekadu, 1994; Mogessie Ashenafi, 1995; Taye et al., 2000).

CONCLUSION

The sanitary practices followed at Irgo producers during handling, storage and processing were generally poor. The poor quality raw milk, unclean and insufficient cleaning of milk equipments were among the most important sources of milk contamination. The milk is generally exposed to different contaminants when it transferred from one container to another, transported to consumers as well as retailers from the production site without cooling facilities, and with no proper milk containers. Appropriate hygienic practices should be implemented alongside all actors of the dairy value chain. The fast growing dairy enterprise in Hawassa city should be supported in such a way it enhances the income of smallholder dairy producers as well as other value chain actors, however, the safety of consumers should not be neglected.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The financial support of the Research and Development Directorate, Hawassa University is appreciated. The author acknowledges Hawassa University staffs particularly School of Animal and Range Sciences, the Irgo producers and retailers who contributed to the study.


52

REFERENCES

Abd EAM, Ahmed MS, El Zubeir M, Owni O, Ahmed A. 2009. Microbiological

and Physiochemical Properties of Raw Milk Used for Processing Pasteurized Milk in Blue Nile Dairy Company (Sudan). Australian

Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 3(4): pp: 3433-3437. Alganesh T, Ofodile LN, Fekadu B. 2007. Microbial quality and chemical

composition of whole milk from Horro cattle in East Wallega Ethiopia. Chemical Society of Nigeria. Vol. 33 (1): pp: 31-36.

Asperger H. 1994. Staphylococcus aureus. In: the significance of pathogenic microorganisms in raw milk, International Dairy Federation (IDF), Brussels, Beljium.pp:24-42.

Bekele G, Bayileyegn M. 2000. Bacteriological quality of raw cow’s milk from four dairy farms and a milk collection center in and around Addis Ababa. Berliner and Mucnchener Tieraerztliche Wachenschrift|. 113: pp: 276-278.

Coppock DL, Holden SJ, Mulugeta A. 1990. Review of dairy marketing and processing in a semi-arid pastoral system in Ethiopia. In: Dairy marketing in sub-Saharan Africa Proceedings of a symposium held at ILCA, Addis Ababa Ethiopia, 26-30 November 1990. Edited by Ray F. Brokken and Senait Seyoum. International Livestock Centre for Africa PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Eyasu S, Fekadu B. 2000. Microbiological quality of raw and pasteurized goat's milk. Proceedings of the 7th annual conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), 26-27 May, 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 410-418.

Farhan M, Salik S. 2007.Evaluation of bacteriological contamination in raw (unprocessed) milk sold in different regions of Lahore, Pakistan. J. Agri.

Soc. Sci., Vol. 3, No. 3.pp:104-106. Haile W, Zelalem Y, Yosef T. 2012a. Hygienic practices and microbiological

quality of raw milk produced in Hawassa, Southern Ethiopia. Agricultural Research and Reviews, Vol. 1(4), pp. 132 – 142.

Haile W, Zelalem Y, Yosef . 2012b. Incidence of pathogenic and indicator bacteria in raw and pasteurized milk in Hawassa city, rift valley of southern Ethiopia. Afri. J. Anim. and Biochemical Sci.7 (2). http://www.ajabsjournals.com/index.php?q=Abstract&cid=196.

IDF. 1987. Milk and milk products. Enumeration of microorganisms. International Dairy Federation (IDF). Standard 100A. Brussels, Belgium.

ILCA. 1993. The investigation of techniques and systems for milk processing and preservation. International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

ISO. 1999. Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuff-horizontal methods for staphylococci.ISO 6888-1, Geneva.


53

Marshall TR. 1992.Standard Method for the Examination of Dairy Products. 16th ed., American Public Health Association (APHA), Washington. Pp: 213-223.

Mekonen T, Mogessie A. 2005. Fate of Escherichia coli 0157:H7 during the processing and storage ofIrgo and Ayib, traditional Ethiopian dairy products. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 103:11-21.

Mogessie A. 2002. The Microbiology of Ethiopian foods and beverages: A review. SENET: Ethiopian Journal of Science. 25 (1):97-140.

Mogessie A, Fekadu B. 1993. Effect of container smoking and cleaning on the microflora and keeping quality of raw milk from a dairy farm in Awassa, Ethiopia. Tropical Science. 33. 365-376.

Mogessie A. 1993. Microbial quality of Ayib, traditional Ethiopian cottage cheese. Int. J. Food microbial. 10:261-268.

Mogessie A. 1995. Microbial development and some chemical changes during the making of Irgo, a traditional Ethiopian fermented milk. Bull. Anim. health prod. Afr. 43:171-176.

Murphy SC, Boor KJ. 2000. Trouble-shooting sources and causes of high bacteria counts in raw milk. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation 20: pp: 606-611.

Nanu E, Latha C, Sunil P B, Prejit, T. Magna and K. Vrinda Menon, 2007. Quality assurance and public health safety of raw milk at the production point. Am. J. Food Technol., 2: pp: 145-152.

O’Connor CB. 1994. Rural Dairy Technology. ILRI training manual No.1. International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp: 133.

Rahel N. 2008. Traditional and improved milk and milk products handling practices and compositional and microbial quality of milk and buttermilk in delbo watershed of wolayta zone, Ethiopia. Department of animal and range sciences, Hawassa College of agriculture, School of Graduate Studies, University of Hawassa, M.Sc.thesis.

Rai AC, Dawvedi F. 1990. Bacteriological quality of market milk. India Dairyman, 101: pp: 487-491.

Richradson GH. 1985. Standard methods for the analysis of dairy products. 15th edition. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., USA.

SPSS (Statistical Procedures for Social Sciences). 2007. SPSS (Version 16). Statistical. SPSS BI Survey Tips.Inc. Chicago, USA.

Savadogo A, Ouattara CAT, Savadogo PW, Barro N, Ouattara AS, Traore AS. 2004. Identification of exopolysaccharides-producing lactic acid bacteria from Burkina faso fermented milk samples. Afri. J. Biotechnol. 3(3): 189-194.

Sintayehu Y, Fekadu B, Azage T, Berhanu G. 2008. Dairy production, processing and marketing systems of Shashemene– Dilla area, South Ethiopia. IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success) of Ethiopian Farmers


54

Project Working Paper 9. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. pp: 62.

Steel M L,. MacNab MB, Pope C, Griffiths MW, Chen S, Degrandis SA, LC Fruhner SA, Larkin CA, Lynch JA, Odenmeru JA. 1997. Survey of Ontario bulk tank milk for food born pathogens. J. Food Prot. 60:1341-1346.

Tamime A. (Editor). 2006. Fermented milks. Blackwell publisher. UK. Pp 262. Tarik K, Simpson BK, Smith JP, O’Connor CB. 1991. Chemical and microbial

properties of Ititu. Milchwissensch. 46: 649-653. Taye T. 1998. Qualities of cow milk and the effect of Lactoperoxidase system on

preservation of milk at Arsi, ethiopia. Msc. Thesis, Alemaya University, Ethiopia.

van den Berg JCT. 1988. Dairy technology in the tropics and sub tropics center for agricultural puplicating and documentation (pudoc).Wageningen, the Netherlands.

Van Kessel SJ, Karns SJ, Gorski L. 2004. Prevalence of salmonellae, listeria

monocytogen, and fecal coliforms in Bulk tank milk on US dairies. American Dairy Science Association, 2004. J. Dairy Sci. 87: pp: 2822–2830.

Walstra P, Wouters MTJM, Geurts TJ. 2006. Dairy Science and Technology, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, CRC press. London.

Tollossa W, Edessa N, Ajebu N, Haile W. 2012. Microbiological quality and safety of raw milk collected from Borana pastoral community, Oromia Regional State. African J. of Food Sci. and Technology. 3(9): 213-222.

Yousef AE, Carlstrom C. 2003. Food Microbiology; a Laboratory Manual .a John Weiley and Son, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Canada.

Zelalem Y, Bernard F. 2006. Handling and Microbial load of Cow’s milk and Irgo-Fermented milk collected from different shops and producers in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Animal production 6(2):67-82.


55

The Effect of Feeding Stinging Nettle (Urtica simensis s.) Leaf Meal on the

Feed Intake, Growth Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Hubbard

Broiler Chickens

Aberra Melesse*, Mohammed Beyan and Kefyalew Berihun School of Animal and Range Sciences(*e-mail:

ABSTRACT The effect of dietary inclusion of stinging nettle leaf meal (SNLM) on growth and carcass

parameters of growing Hubbard broiler chickens was investigated. Five iso-nitrogenous

and iso-caloric grower diets, T1 (the control), T2, T3, T4 and T5 were formulated to

contain 0, 3, 6, 9 and 12% of SNLM, respectively as a replacement for soybean meal of T1.

After 2 weeks of brooding period, 200 unsexed chicks were weighed and randomly

allocated to the dietary treatments with four replicates of 10 chickens each. The

experiment lasted for 6 weeks, during which feed intake and body weight were measured

on daily and weekly basis, respectively. Daily body weight gain (DBWG) and feed

conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated. At the end of the experiment, two chickens

(cockerel and pullet) per replicate of each treatment were randomly selected, fastened

overnight, weighed and slaughtered for measurement of carcass parameters. Dry matter,

crude protein, and calcium intakes were higher for T4 but crude fiber intake relatively

higher for T5 (p<0.01). T3 was comparable to T5 for crude protein and calcium intakes

but lower of T1 (p<0.01) for the same parameter. No significant difference was detected

on ether extract, phosphorous and metabolizable energy intakes across treatment groups.

Higher (p<0.01) DBWG and final body weight were observed in chickens fed on T4 diet

than the rest. Chicks fed on T1, T2 and T5 were similar in these parameters. Moreover,

body weight difference was not observed between T1 and T5 or T2 and T3. Significantly

(p<0.001) higher dressing % was obtained from chickens fed with T2, T3 and T4 diets. The

results of the present study revealed that inclusion of stinging nettle leaf meal up to 9% in

broiler diet could be an alternative feeding strategy by substituting soybean meal.

Keywords: Stinging nettle leaf meal, broiler chicken, growth, carcass, feed intake

INTRODUCTION

The greater part of the feed for village chicken is obtained through scavenging, which includes the household cooking waste, cereal and cereal by-products, pulses, roots and tubers, oilseeds, shrubs, fruits and animal proteins (Zemene et al., 2012). In recent years, however, attempts are underway to enhance poultry productivity and optimize the contribution of chickens to the national economy and to transform the production system into a more commercialized and intensive large-scale system (Ashenafi, 2000). Poultry production plays a major role in bridging the protein gap in developing countries where average daily consumption is far below than recommended standards (Onyimonyi et al., 2009). However, the productivity of poultry in the tropics has been limited by scarcity and consequent high prices of the conventional protein and energy sources.


56

Protein sources are especially limiting factors in poultry feed production in the tropics (Atawodi et al., 2008; Sandip et al., 2013). Hence, there is a need to search for locally available alternative sources of protein for use as feed supplement to poultry. One possible source of cheap protein to poultry is the leaf meal of some tropical legume plants and multipurpose trees (Iheukwumere et al., 2008; Aberra et

al., 2013b). Leaf meals of various plants have been incorporated in the diets of poultry as a means of reducing the high cost of conventional protein sources (Demir et al, 2003; Aberra et al., 2013b). According to Fasuyi et al. (2005) leaf meals do not only serve as protein source but also provide some necessary vitamins, minerals and oxycaretenoids which cause yellow color of broiler skin, shank and egg yolk. Among those locally available unconventional protein feed resources one of the most prominent member of feed resource is the stinging nettle (Urtica simensis) leaves, which is endemic to Ethiopia. Stinging nettle, also known as Samma in Amharic, is a perennial plant that is widely known for its unpleasant stinging hairs located under the stems and lower leaf surface. It is an erect non-branched, wild-growing nettle plant that grows in the highlands of Ethiopia especially found in the highlands of North and South Gonder, North and South Welo, North Shewa, Wag Hamra. The plant grows all year round and therefore can be harvested whenever there is a need. The herb usually used as emergency famine food in northern Ethiopia specially around Gonder, Gojam and Oromia region around Kofole area of Arsi zone and in most highlands of Sidama Zone in southern region (Tsegaye, 2008). Stinging nettle leaves are reported to be excellent and easily available source of protein as well as vitamins. The leaves contain on the average about 22% protein on DM basis. The CP content of Urtica simensis S. (Samma) endemic to Ethiopia ranged from 25.1 to 26.3%. Amino acids in nettle leaf meal are nutritionally superior to those of alfalfa meal. It is rich in vitamins A, C, Fe, K, Mn and Ca (Radford et al., 1988). This makes the leaves suitable for feeding monogastric animals such as chickens. In Ethiopia, few research works are available on stinging nettle and are limited to medicinal uses. There are only few literatures regarding the utilization of nettle leaves meal in chickens’ diet and almost no information available in Ethiopian. This study was thus developed to assess the feed intake, growth performances and carcass characteristics of Hubbard broiler chicken in response to diets containing varying levels of stinging nettle leaf meal.


57


The study site

The experiment was carried out at poultry farm of School of Animal and Range Sciences, Hawassa University, which is situated between 7º 4’ N latitude and 38º 29’ E longitudes and an altitude of 1694 m above sea level. Rainfall is bi-modal and ranges between 700 and 1200 mm annually. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures in the area are 13.5 oC and 27.6 0C, respectively (NMA-Hawassa Branch Directorate, 2012) Stinging nettle leaf meal preparation

The leaf part of Stinging nettle was used in the experiment as protein source. Nettle leaves were collected from Kofole area in Arsi Zone, which is located 23 km from the Shashemene (main town of the zone) which is located between 6º 4‘ N latitude and 37º 34‘ E longitude and at an altitude of 1220 m above sea level. Twigs were carefully removed and the leaves were dried under the shade to prevent the loss of vitamins and other volatile nutrients. Leaves were covered by mosquito netting to help keep them clean while drying. The drying process was completed quickly and regular turning of leaves was done to prevent growth of molds. The dried leaves were then grounded with hand by using locally available materials (mortar and pestle) to produce stinging nettle leaf meal (SNLM). Then SNLM was then included in graded levels in other feed ingredients by substituting soybean meal to prepare the experimental diets fed to the chickens for an experimental period of 42 days. Formulating experimental diets The dietary ingredients used in this experiment were maize (white), soybean (roasted), wheat bran, nougcake (Guizotia abyssinica), SNLM, lime stone and salt. The control diet (T1) contained soybean meal as the main protein source with no SNLM and diets containing SNLM at the level of 3% (Treatment, T2), 6% (Treatment, T3), 9% (Treatment, T4) and 12% (Treatment, T5) to substitute the protein level from soybean in the control diet (Table 1). All ingredients except the lime stone and SNLM were purchased from Hawassa town. White maize, raw soybean and noug cake were purchased from the commercial market while wheat bran from Hawassa Flour Mill Industry. The soybean seed was roasted for 5 minutes (to deactivate trypsin inhibitor) prior to inclusion. All the feed ingredients were grounded at the feed processing section of Hawassa University.


58

Table 1: The proportion of feed ingredients (on % DM basis) of the experimental diets

Ingredients T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

Maize 45 45 45 45 45 Soybean seed 30 27 24 21 18 Nougcake 10 10 10 10 10 Wheat bran 13 13 13 13 13 Premix 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Limestone 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 SNLM 0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12 Total 100 100 100 100 100 Calculated values Crude protein 19.94 19.80 19.66 19.51 19.37

Crude fiber 7.95 8.1 8.25 8.4 8.55

ME (kcal/kg DM) 3202 3198 3192 3174 3165

SNLM = Stinging nettle leaf meal; ME = metabolizable energy a) Limestone contains 35% Ca (Boushy & Van der Poel, 2000) b) Rear premix contents per kg: ash 655 g, crude protein 135 g, crude fat 2 g, crude fiber 9 g, lysine 90 g, methionine 20 g, threonine 5 g, Ca 100 g, Na 135 g, Chloride 230 g, Cu 3000 mg, Fe 4000 mg Mn 6000 mg, Zn 5000 mg, Co 20 mg, I 80 mg, Se 15 mg, vitamin A 1,000,000 if, vitamin D3 200,000 if, vitamin E 1500 mg (Pre-Mervo, Utrecht. Expvalk).

Experimental design

The experimental design used for this feeding trial was a completely randomized design consisting of five dietary treatments with four replications (Table 2). Ten unsexed chicks of Hubbard broiler chickens were randomly assigned to each of the four replicates of the five treatment diets. Table 2: Experimental design of the feeding trial with Hubbard broiler chicken breed

Treatment Diets

Inclusion rate of SNLM (%)

Replicates Chickens per replicate

Total chickens per treatment diets

T1 0 4 10 40 T2 3 4 10 40 T3 6 4 10 40 T4 9 4 10 40 T5 12 4 10 40 Total (N) 200

SNLM = Stinging nettle leaf meal; T1 = diets without stinging nettle leaf meal; T2 = diets containing 3% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T3 = diets containing 6% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T4 = diets containing 9% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T5 = diets containing 12% of stinging nettle leaf meal Chickens and their management

Three hundred day old Hubbard broiler chickens were purchased from Debrezeit Agricultural Research Institute and served as a foundation stock for the experimental chickens. The chicks were reared under the brooder for two weeks at the experimental site and during that phase they were provided with the starter


59

rations. After end of the adaptation period, two hundred chickens were randomly selected, weighed individually and transferred into their experimental pens in a manner that ten chickens were assigned to each of the four replicates of the five dietary treatments. The chicks were reared in a deep litter housing system. Wood shavings were used as litter at a depth of 5 cm. The experimental house (pens, watering and feeding troughs) was cleaned, disinfected with formalin and aerated. Iso-management conditions like floor space, light, temperature, ventilation and relative humidity were provided to each of the groups. Birds in each replicate were fed as a group and the actual experiment was carried out for 42 days. During the experimental period, chickens were fed ad-libitum and each day a measured amount of feed was offered to birds. The feed refusal was collected and reweighed back at the end of each day. If the birds are able to consume the whole feed they were provided was topped up with extra feed and the amount provided was recorded. Clean water was provided ad-libitum throughout the experimental period. The chickens were vaccinated against, Newcastle disease; infectious bursal disease (Gumboro) and fowl typhoid as per the recommended vaccination schedule. Measurement of growth performance traits

Body weight of the chicks was taken at the beginning of the experiment and subsequently on a weekly basis, in the morning between 6:30 am and 8: 00 am, prior to feed was offered. Daily body weight gain and feed conversion ratio values were calculated. Mortality and any abnormality were recorded throughout the entire experimental period. Measurement of carcass characteristics

At the end of the experimental period, two chicks (1 male and 1 female) per replicate whose body weight was closest to the mean body weight of their respective groups and sexes, were selected. The chicks were starved for 12 hrs to allow empting of the guts to minimize influence of the digesta on live body weight at slaughter. Each chick was weighed and immediately slaughtered by severing the jugular veins. The body was allowed to bleed and thereafter feathers were manually removed. Edible offal such as gizzard and liver and non-edible offal such as shank + claws, head, lungs, heart, spleen, kidney, pancreas, bile, cloacae, esophagus, crop and digestive organs were weighed using digital balance and recorded. The carcass was further apportioned into commercially important parts (skins, neck, drumsticks, thighs, wings, back (thorax + abdomen), abdominal fat and breast muscle) and weighed. The dressing percentage was calculated as commercial carcass body weight/ slaughter weight × 100. Gizzard and liver are edible offal in Ethiopia, and these were added to the commercial carcass to calculate another version (to assess the value in Ethiopian context) of dressing percentage.


60

Chemical analysis

The stinging nettle leaf meal, feeds offered and refused were analyzed for dry matter, ether extract (EE), crude fiber (CF) and total mineral (ash) by proximate analysis procedures (AOAC, 1995) and nitrogen free extract (NFE) was calculated by difference. Protein in the feed was assessed using Kjeldahl procedure nitrogen in the feed and multiplied by 6.25 to obtain the crude protein value. Calcium and phosphorus were analyzed under atomic absorption spectrophotometer as described by AOAC (1995). The metabolizable energy (ME) was estimated by the formula: ME (Kcal kg-1 DM) = 3951 + 54.4EE - 88.7CF - 40.8Ash (Wiseman, 1987).

Statistical analysis

Data obtained on DM intake, body weight gain, DM conversion ratio, measurement of carcass traits and nutrient retention were subjected to ANOVA using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of SPSS version 20. Means were separated using Duncan’s Multiple Range Tests. Treatment differences were considered significant at the P<0.05 level unless noted otherwise. RESULTS

Nutrient and energy contents of stinging nettle and treatment diets

The determined nutrients composition and calculated metabolizable energy values of STNL and the experimental diets are presented in Table 3. The levels of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), nitrogen free extract (NFE) and phosphorous (P) did not show variation between treatment diets. However, ash levels showed a slight decrease as the inclusion rate of SNLM increased. But the level of calcium (Ca) and crude fiber (CF) showed a slight increase as inclusion rate of SNLM increased. Table 3: Nutrient (% DM) and metabolizable energy (kcal kg-1 DM) contents of stinging nettle leaf meal and experimental diets fed to Hubbard broiler chicken breed

Treatment diets

DM

CP

EE

CF

Ash

NFE

Ca

P

ME

T1 91.4 19.9 9.80 8.32 9.17 56.8 0.15 0.40 3372 T2 91.4 19.8 9.59 8.47 9.20 56.7 0.16 0.41 3346 T3 91.3 19.7 9.48 8.61 9.80 56.7 0.17 0.43 3303 T4 91.3 19.5 9.27 8.76 10.1 56.7 0.18 0.44 3266 T5 91.3 19.4 9.19 9.01 10.3 56.7 0.18 0.45 3231 SNLM 94.8 26.1 5.8 9.60 8.27 34.0 0.30 0.68 3078

DM = dry matter; CP = crude protein; EE = crude fat; CF = crude fiber; NFE = nitrogen free extract; Ca = calcium; P = phosphorus; ME = metabolizable energy; SNLM = stinging nettle leaf meal; T1 = diets without stinging nettle leaf meal; T2 = diets containing 3% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T3 = diets containing 6% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T4 = diets containing 9% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T5 = diets containing 12% of stinging nettle leaf meal.


61

Feed intake of chickens

Feed intake of broiler chickens fed different levels of stinging nettle leaf meal up to six weeks of experimental period is shown in Table 4. As the results indicated, there was non-significant (p>0.05) difference during the experimental period of week 1 and week 2 across treatment diets. However, the feed intake varied with significant (P < 0.01, p<0.001) difference across the dietary treatments in the rest of experimental periods. During the Week 3, Week 4, Week 5 and Week 6 of experimental periods, chickens fed on T1 and T2 diets showed comparable intake while those fed on the T3 and T4 indicated comparable intake during the Week 3 and Week 4. After second week, chickens fed on T5 of experimental diet showed low feed intake. However, starting from the Week 3 up to the Week 6 chickens fed on the T4 dietary treatment showed relatively higher intake than the rest of the group. Table 4: Weekly mean daily feed intake (g/chick/day) of Hubbard broiler breed raised on different levels of stinging nettle leaf meal

Experimental period (weeks)

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM P

W1 68 70 71 71 68 1.93 NS W2 77 78 79 80 77 1.9 NS W3 84b 85b 88a 90a 84b 1.78 *** W4 90b 90b 94ab 96a 88c 1.34 *** W5 96b 97b 98b 109a 90c 2.00 *** W6 100b 101b 102b 117a 95c 1.78 *** a-cMeans within the same columns with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05); T1 = diets without stinging nettle leaf meal; T2 = diets containing 3% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T3 = diets containing 6% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T4 = diets containing 9% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T5 = diets containing 12% of stinging nettle leaf meal; SEM = standard error of the mean Nutrient and energy intakes of chickens

The effects of various levels of SNLM on mean daily nutrient and energy intakes of growing broiler chickens during experimental period are indicated in Table 5. The results indicated that significant differences intake values on DM (P<0.05), OM (p<0.001), CF (p<0.01), CP (p<0.05) and Ca (p<0.01) were observed between the treatment groups. Accordingly, T4 had the higher intake for these nutrients than the other treatments except CF intake for that T5 had the higher intake. In all treatment groups, T1 consumed relatively lower amount of nutrients during the experimental period.


62

Table 5: Nutrient (g/chick/day) and energy (kcal/chick/day) intakes of Hubbard broiler breed fed diets with various levels of stinging nettle leaf meal

Nutrients T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM P

Dry matter 50.8c 50.9c 53.1b 57a 50.9c 2.49 * Organic matter 35.5c 36.5c 37.6b 39.1a 37.4b 0.753 *** Crude protein 7.4d 7.7c 8b 8.4a 7.5c 0.39 *

Crude fat 3.1 3.2 3.2 3 3.1 0.077 NS Crude fiber 2.5c 2.5c 3.2b 3.2b 3.3a 0.38 ** Calcium 0.16d 0.18c 0.19b 0.20a 0.18c 0.0176 ** Phosphorous 0.12 0.127 0.127 0.132 0.12 0.0051 NS Metabolizable energy 133 135 139 142 135 3.19 NS a, b, c Means within the same row bearing different superscript letters are significantly different (p<005); T1 = diets without stinging nettle leaf meal; T2 = diets containing 3% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T3 = diets containing 6% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T4 = diets containing 9% of stinging nettle leaf meal and T5 = diets containing 12% of stinging nettle leaf meal; SEM = Standard error of the mean.

Effect of stinging nettle on growth performance traits

Table 6 shows the average initial body weight, final body weight (FBW), total body weight gain (TBWG), daily body weight gain (DBWG), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and mortality rate of broiler chickens fed diets containing different levels of SNLM. The average FBW, TBWG and DBWG of chickens were significantly (p<0.001) influenced by the inclusion of SNLM in all treatment diets. However, FCR were not significantly (p<0.05) affected by SNLM. Chickens fed on the control and T5 (12%S NLM) diets had lower FBWG, TBWG and BWG than those fed diets containing SNLM of 3%, 6% and 9% (T2,T3 and T4 respectively). However, chickens fed on T2 were comparable with T1, T3 and T5 in these parameters. The highest values in FBW, DBWG and TBWG were achieved in those chickens fed with T4. Mortality of chickens kept under T4 was lower (p<0.001) than those reared in other treatment diets. Table 6: Average body weight gain (g/chick/d), feed conversion ratio (g feed/g gain) and mortality rate (%) of Hubbard broiler breed fed diets with different levels of stinging nettle leaf meal.

Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM P

IBW 172 171 172 172 173 7.32 NS FBW 2131c 2142bc 2187b 2463a 2125c 39.10 *** TBWG 1959c 1972bc 2015b 2291a 1952c 41.2 *** DBWG 45c 47bc 48b 55a 46c 0.98 *** FCR EFU

3.4 0.28b

3.5 0.28b

3.5 0.30ab

3.7 0.32a

3.5 0.28b

0.07 0.007

NS ***

MR 18a 13b 20a 7c 13b 1.62 *** a-c Means within the same row bearing different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05);

IBW = initial body weight; FBW = final body weight; TBWG = total body weight gain; DBWG = daily body weight gain; FCR = feed conversion ratio; MR = morality ratio; SEM = standard error of the


63

mean; T1 = diets without stinging nettle leaf meal; T2 = diets containing 3% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T3 = diets containing 6% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T4 = diets containing 9% of stinging nettle leaf meal and T5 = diets containing 12% of stinging nettle leaf meal.

Growth performance of broiler chickens

The results pertaining to the mean body weight gain (on a weekly basis) across treatments are presented in Figure 1. The body weight gain was non-significant (p>0.05) across the treatment diets up to the fourth week of experimental periods. But, starting from the fourth week, chickens fed diets on T3 and T4 had mostly higher body weight gain as compared with those fed on the other dietary treatments. However, those fed experimental diets on the T1 and T2 were showed comparable weight gain throughout experimental periods. Chickens fed with T5 (12% SNLM) showed relatively lower weekly weight gain than the rest of the group after fourth week of experimental period. In general, the mean weekly body weight gain across all treatment groups increased from 1st week of experimental period up to 5th week while it decreased in increasing manner in the 6th week of experimental period.

Figure 1: Effect of sex on weekly body weight gain of Hubbard broiler breed fed diets with different levels of stinging nettle leaf meal over a period of 6 weeks; error bars are at 95% confidence interval

Effect of stinging nettle on commercial carcass traits

The effect of feeding various levels of SNLM on slaughter weight, dressed carcass, dressing percentage and weights of different body parts and organs of experimental birds is shown in Table 7. Except abdominal fat, gizzard and liver weights, inclusion of SNLM produced significant effects on carcass traits of the chickens. As a result, chickens fed with T1, T2 and T5 diets had significantly lower slaughter weight (p<0.001) than those fed on T3 and T4. Moreover, chickens fed on T1, T2, T3 and T5 diets had comparable dressing percentage values; drumstick; thigh; breast bone. Also chickens fed with T5 diet had comparable values in wing weight with those fed the T4 and T3 diets. But they had lower TEC (p<0.001) and beast


64

muscle (p<0.001) value than the rest of treatment groups. In addition to this, chickens fed with T4 diet had comparable values dressing percentage with those fed on T2 and T3 diets. Among all dietary treatments, chickens fed on T4 diet showed relatively higher performance on carcass weight than the rest of the treatments. On the other hand, treatment diet didn’t produce any significant influence on the weights of liver, abdominal fat and total edible offal. Table 7: Commercial carcass traits of Hubbard broiler chickens reared on different levels of stinging nettle leaf meal

Carcass traits T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM P

Slaughter weight 1255c 1258c 1321b 1431a 1242c 16.8 *** Dressing, % 65.4b 67.0ab 67.1ab 68.0a 64.5b 1.43 ** Drumstick 112b 115b 121b 143a 115b 7.38 *** Thigh 110b 117ab 123a 123a 106b 7.4 * Wing 65b 71b 73ab 81a 82a 6.13 ** Breast muscle 134c 141b 144b 151a 116d 3.96 *** Breast bone 93bc 97b 97b 108a 87c 6.53 ** Neck 49c 51c 59b 70a 47c 3.08 *** Skin 63c 67b 71ab 76a 65c 4.02 ** Liver 24 24 27 25 21 4.1 NS Gizzard 33 35 35 39 35 3.24 NS Abdominal fat 17 19 18 20 17 1.68 NS Back 114b 115b 122a 125a 109b 4.06 *** Total carcass 764cb 784c 825b 907a 745d 17.15 *** Edible offal 57 59 62 64 56 6.29 NS Total edible 821cd 842c 887b 974a 801d 19.76 *** a,b,c Row means within the same category with different superscripts letters are significantly different (p<0.05); T1 = diets without stinging nettle leaf meal; T2 = diets containing 3% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T3 = diets containing 6% of stinging nettle leaf meal; T4 = diets containing 9% of stinging nettle leaf meal and T5 = diets containing 12% of stinging nettle leaf meal; SEM = Standard error of the mean.

DISCUSSION

Nutrient and energy contents of the experimental diets

Treatment diets in this experiment were very close in their DM (91.3-91.8%), CP (19.5-19.9%), EE (9.19-9.80%), CF (8.27-8.91%) and P (0.40-0.450) contents. In addition to this, the calculated (Table 1) and analyzed (Table 5) contents of all dietary treatments for CP were comparable and within the recommended levels suggested by Scanes et al. (2004), 20% and 18.5% CP for grower and finisher broilers respectively. These values were also above 16% dietary CP level recommended by Shewangizaw et al. (2011). However, the level of ether extract slightly decreased as the level of SNLM increases in diets. This might be explained by the increased level of oil in soybean due to the use of full fat soybean. This


65

together with crude fiber and ash values resulted to differences in metabolizable energy content of diet. Among the dietary treatments that contained of SNLM, T4 contained slightly more percentage of CF than T1, T2 and T3 diets. However, the chickens fed on this experimental diets showed increased appetite which suggests that it is still under the upper critical fiber level that can possibly reduce the feed intake of birds resulting poor performances. The composition of calcium linearly increased as the level of stinging nettle leaf meal in the diet increases. This might be explained due to the fact that stinging nettle leaf meal contains relatively high calcium content. The phosphorous content was comparable in all treatment diets. However, all the treatment diets were in accordance with the recommended levels of calcium and phosphorous in terms of quantity and proportion (ca: p ratio) in practical grower chicken diets under tropical conditions (Smith, 1990). The nutrient contents of SNLM indicated that it is rich in crude protein (26.13%) and is comparable with values by Tozer (2007) for dried stinging nettle leaves. Samma (Urtica Simensis) leaf samples collected from Debreberhan, Fitche and Ambo areas had more or less similar protein contents with a mean value of around 26% (Eskedar Getachew et al., 2013). The CP values found in stinging nettle in the current study were comparable to those reported for Moringa setnopetala and Moringa oliefera leaves (Aberra et al., 2012). The crude fat composition of SNLM (5.8%) obtained in this study was comparable with those reported by Odeyinka et al. (2008) and Asaolu et al. (2010) for M.

oleifera leaves and within values (4.73-8.4%) reported by Aberra et al. (2011,2012) for the same species. The crude fiber content of SNLM (9.6%) obtained from the current study was within (9-21%) values reported by Cross et al (2007) for the same species. However, that deviation of crude fiber as reviewed from some of the literatures may be attributed to non genetic factories such as location, maturity of the leaves and as well as the herb as a whole, besides the methods of processing the leaf meals.

Feed and nutrient intakes of chickens

The DM intake of broiler chickens improved all Samma (Urtica Simensis) leaf fed treatments with the exception of T5, which showed a decreasing trend of feed intake. This finding is in accordance with that of Allardic, (1993) who reported that nettles are a very nutritious food that is easily digested and is high in minerals (especially iron), vitamin C and pro-vitamin A. There is also evidence to suggest that herbs, spices and various plant extracts have appetizing and digestion-stimulating properties and antimicrobial effects ( Langhout 2000, Madrid et al. 2003, Alçiçek et al 2004, Zhang et al., 2005), which stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria and minimize pathogenic bacterial activity in the gastrointestinal tract of poultry (Wenk, 2000).


66

Except those of ether extract, metabolizable energy and phosphorous intake values of all nutrients were linearly improved with increasing level of SNLM. This was confirmed with results reported by Nuhu (2010) in a study of feeding M. oleifera

leaves meal to rabbits. Enhanced feed intake of broilers in diets even with similar energy contents was also reported by Mushtaq et al. (2009) to the high dietary crude fiber contents; the reason is that the laxative nature of fiber in simple stomach animals may impair nutrient digestion due to high passage rate in the digestive tract. Improved feed intake, probably due to increased bulk and lower metabolizable concentration in leaves meal was also agreed by Olugbemi et al. (2010). Except those EE, phosphorus and ME, all nutrient intake values had improved positively with increasing level of SNLM in the same manner with dry matter intake which is the attributing factor to those results. These higher nutrient intake values observed suggests that SNLM could be a good alternative source of feed ingredient which improves DM intakes and consequently nutrient consumption of chickens if it included up to 9% in grower rations. Effect of dietary treatments on performance of chickens

The body weight gain did not vary across experimental period across the experimental diets up to fourth week of experimental periods. These results were consistent with the works of Nassir et al., (2010) that using different levels of nettle in starter and growing feeds did not show any significant effects on feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion of broilers. However, after the fourth week, chickens receiving T3 and T4 diets had mostly higher body weight gain as compared to those fed with T1, T2, and T5 diets. The findings are in good agreement with the reports of Windisch et al. (2008) who reported that spices and influence the gastrointestinal ecosystem mostly through growth inhibition of pathogenic microorganism’s growth. This has been also supported with experiments done by Kwiecien and Miec-zan, (2009) that the addition of 2% nettle to broiler diet led to increase their body weight. Feeding of different levels of SNLM to broiler chickens showed significant improvements in final body weight, total body weight gain and daily body weight gain. These findings are in agreement with those reported by Kwiecien and Miec-zan, (2009). Nettles are a very nutritious food that can be easily digested and contain minerals (especially iron), vitamin C and pro-vitamin A (Allardice, 1993). It is hypothesized that it may also affect protein and lipid metabolism and improve their performance. Moreover, amino acids in dehydrated nettle meal are nutritionally superior to those of alfalfa meal (Hojnik et al., 2007) and this could be also a possible explanation for increased performances of broiler chickens fed with diets containing stinging nettle leaf meal (Samma).


67

In this study, the inclusion of SNLM in the chickens’ diet up to the level 9% had a positive effect than the control diet. On the other hand, lower values in final body weight, total body weight gain and daily body weight gain were observed in chickens fed with T5 diet. This was in agreement with the suggestion made by Esonu et al. (2006) that the effects of nutrient imbalance and poor metabolism on mono-gastric animals fed higher levels of unconventional feed ingredients. This could probably occur due to the presence of anti-nutritional factories like tannins and formic acids (Viegi et al. 2003; Gulcin et al. 2004), which could impair bioavailability of nutrients. However, as the result reported by Addis et al. (2005) that the tannin content of raw Samma leaves collected from Debrebrehan, Fitche and Ambo areas were 25.3, 28.2 and 27.0 mg/100gm, respectively in dry weight basis. These values were very low compared to other indigenous wild vegetables. In fact this low concentration of condensed tannin is an advantage for not lowering the bioavailability of other nutrients.

Effect on the carcass characteristics

The effect of different levels of stinging nettle (Samma) leaf meal on total edible offal was non-significant (P > 0.05) across treatment groups and is in agreement with findings by Toldy et al. (2005). The non-significant improvement in liver and gizzard weights observed with inclusion level of SNLM can only be explained by increasing the live body weight of chickens rather than due to physiological response of birds to SNLM since organs development in chicken is proportional to their live body weight (Ayssiwede et al., 2011). Although, as observed by Born et

al. (2006) that the increase in gizzard size is related to the volume of feed, increased time spent on grinding the feed and increased frequency of gizzard contraction which is needed the large particles for further digestion in the distal parts of the intestine, and small increases in the level of dietary fiber are needed to stimulate gizzard development. The absence of changes in gizzard weight with increasing level of SNLM in the current study thus suggests SNLM did not exhibit any effect to delay the retention time of ingesta in the gizzard and to increase frequency of gizzard contraction. This could probably be due to the high digestibility of the leaf meal. This was in line with observations suggested by Platel and Srinivasan (2005) and Suresh and Srinivasan (2007) that extracts from herbs and spices accelerated the digestion and shorten the time of feed passage through the digestive tract. CONCLUSION

The substitution of soybean with stinging nettle (Urtica simensis S.) leaf meal up to 12% in the diet of growing broiler chickens had no negative impacts on performance and best results were obtained up to the inclusion rate of 9% as evidenced by improved feed intake, live body weight, daily weight gain, slaughter weight and nutrient retention. The general improvement in the performance of


68

chickens especially those kept under 6 and 9% levels together with their physical appearance provide sights to conclude that SNLM have supplied better health and nutritional benefits. Having these in mind, the inclusion of stinging nettle leaf meal up to 9% in broilers grower diet could be an alternative feeding strategy for substituting soybean in rural, urban and per-urban chicken production practices which assists to enhance their income through increased productivity and improved nutritional status of birds.

REFERENCES

Aberra M, Workinesh T, Tegene N. 2011. Effect of feeding Moringa stenopetela

leaf meal on nutrient intake and growth performance of Rhode Island Red chicks under tropical climate. Trop. and Subtrop. Agroeco.14 (2011): 485-

492. Aberra M, Yoseph G, Kefyalew B, Sandip B. 2013b. Effect of Feeding Graded

Levels of Moringa stenopetala Leaf Meal on Growth Performance, Carcass Traits and Some Serum Biochemical Parameters of Koekoek Chickens, Livestock Science, 157: 498-505.

Aberra M, Worku Z, Teklegiorgis Y. 2013a. Assessment of the prevailing handling and quality of eggs from scavenging indigenous chickens reared in different agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental and Occupational Science 2(10): 1-8. [doi:10.5455/jeos.20130104091334].

Aberra M. 2011. Comparative assessment on chemical compositions and feeding values of leaves of Moringa stenopetala and Moringa oleifera using in vitro gas production method. Ethiop .J. Appl. Sci. Technol. 2(2): 31- 41.

Addis G, Urga K, Dikasso D. 2005. Ethnopharnical study of edible wild plants in some selected districts of Ethiopia. Human ecology 33(1): 83-118.

Allardic P. 1993. A-Z of companion planting. London: Cassell Publishers Ltd Alçiçek A, Bozkurt M, Çabuk M (2003). The effects of an essential oil

combination derived from selected herbs growing wild in Turkey on broiler performance. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci. 33: 89-94.

AOAC. 1995. Official Methods of Analysis. 16th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, USA, pp. 780.

Asaolu VO, Odeyinka SM, Akinbamijo OO, Sodeinde FG, 2010. Effects of moringa and bamboo leaves on groundnut hay utilization by West African Dwarf goats. Liv. Res. Rural Dev. 22 (1) 2010.

Ashenafi H. 2000. Survey on identification of major diseases of local chickens in three selected agro climatic zones in central Ethiopia. (Doctor of veterinary medicine thesis) Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. International Journal of Poultry Science 4 (7): 507-510

Atawodi SE, Mari D, Atawodi JC, Yahaya Y. 2008. Assessment of Leucaena

leucocephala leaves as feed supplement in laying hens. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 7: 317-321.


69

Ayssiwede SB, Dieng A, Bello H, Chrysostome CAAM, Hane MB, Mankor A, Dahouda M, Houinato MR, Hornick JL, Missohou A. 2011. Effects of Moringa oleifera (Lam.) Leaves Meal Incorporation in Diets on Growth Performances, Carcass Characteristics and Economics Results of Growing Indigenous Senegal Chickens. Pak. J. Nutr., 10 (12): 1132-1145, 2011.

Cross DE, Mcdevitt RM, Hillman K, Acamovic T. 2007. The effect of herbs and their associated essential oils on performance, dietary digestibility and gut microflora in chickens from 7 to 28 days of age. Br. Poult. Sci. 48: 496–506.

CSA (Central Statistical Agency). 2013. Annual Livestock Sample Survey covered the rural agricultural population in all the regions of the country except the non-sedentary population of three zones of Afar & six zones of Somali regions.

Demir E, Sarica S, Ozcan MA, Suic-Mez M. 2003. The use of natural feed additives as alternatives for an antibiotic growth promoter in broiler diets. Br. Poult Sci. 44: 44–45.

Eskedar G, Gulelat D, Getachew A. 2013. Nutritional profile of Samma (Urtica

simensis Steudel) leaves grown in Ethiopia. International Journal of Science Innovations and Discoveries, 3 (1): 153-160.

Esonu BO, Opara MN, Okoli IC, Obikaonu HO, Udedibie C, Iheshiulor OOM. 2006. Physiological response of laying birds to Neem (Azadirachta Indica) leaf meal-based diets: Body weight, organ characteristics and haematology. Online J Health App. Scs. 2006; 2:4.

Ethiopian health and nutrition research institute (EHNRI). (1997): Food Composition Table for use in Ethiopia.

Fasuyi AO, Aletor VA. 2005. Varietal composition and functional properties of Cassava leaf meal and leaf protein concentrates. Pak. J. Nutri. 4: 43-49.

Hojnik M, Škerget M, Knez Z. 2007. “Isolation of chlorophylls from stinging nettle (Urtica dioica L.),” Separation and Purification Technology. 57(1): 37–46.

Iheukwumere FC, Ndubuisi EC, Mazi EA. Onyekwere MU. 2008. Performance, nutrient utilization and organ characteristics of broilers fed cassava leaf meal (Manihot esculentaCrantz). Pakistan J Nutr 7: 13-16.

Kwiecien M, Mieczan W. 2009. Effect of addition of herbs on body weight and assessment of physical and chemical alterations in the tiba bones of broiler chickens. International Journal of Elem. 14: 705-715.

Langhout P .2000. New additives for broiler chickens. J. World’s Poult. Sci. J. 16 (3): 22-27.

Madrid J, Herandez F, Garcia V, Orengo J, Megias MD, Sevilla V (2003). Effects of plant extracts on ileal apparent digestibility and carcass yield in broilers at level of farm. In Proc. 14th European Symp. On Poultry Nutrition, August, Lillehammer, Norway. PP. 187.

Mushtaq T, Sarwar M, Ahmad G, Mirza MA, Ahmad T, Noreen U, Mushtaq MMH, Kamran Z. 2009. Influence of sunflower meal based diets supplemented with exogenous enzyme and digestible lysine on


70

performance, digestibility and carcass response of broiler chickens. Anim

Feed Sci. Tech. 149: 275–286. NMA (National Metrological Agency). 2012. Hawassa Branch Directorate,

Hawassa, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia.

Nuhu F. 2010. Effect of Moringa leaf meal (MOLM) on nutrient digestibility, growth, carcass and blood indices of weaner rabbits. A thesis submitted to the school of graduate studies, kwame nkrumah university of science and technology, kumasi, Ghana.

Onyimonyi AE, Olabode A, Okeke GC. 2009. Performance and economic characteristics of broilers fed varying dietary levels of Neem leaf meal (Azadirachta indica). International Journal of Poultry Science. 8 (3): 256-259.

Odeyinka N, Erener F, Burak AK, Sungu M, Altop A, Ozmen A .2008. Performance of broilers fed diets supplements with dry peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) or thyme (thymus Vulgaris L.) leaves as growth promoter source. Czech. J. Anim. Sci. 53 (4): 169-175.

Olugbemi TS, Mutayoba SK, Lekule FP. 2010. Effect of Moringa (Moringa

oleifera) inclusion in Cassava based diets fed to broiler chickens. Int. J.

Poul. Sci. 9 (4): 363-367, 2010. Platel K, Srinivasan K. 2005. Digestive stimulant action of spices: a myth or

reality. Indian J. Med. Res. 119: 167-179. Radford AE, Ahles H, Ritchie B. 1988. Manual of the vascular flora of the

Carolinas, the University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1183 pp. Sandip B, Aberra M, Eshetu D, Kefyalew B, Mohammed B. 2013. Effect of

Feeding Different Dietary Protein Levels with Iso-Caloric Ration on Nutrients Intake and Growth Performances of Dual-Purpose Koekoeck Chicken Breeds. International Journal of Applied Poultry Research 2 (2): 27-32.

Scanes CG, Brant G, Ensminger ME. 2004. Poultry Science (4th ed). Pearson Prentice Hall, pp 105-106.

Shewangizaw W, Tegene N, Aberra Melesse, 2011. Effect of dietary protein concentration on feed intake, body mass gain and carcass traits of Rhode Island Red chicken. J. Sci. Dev. 1 (1) 201 1.

Smith AJ. 1990. Poultry. The tropical agriculturalist. Macmillan Education Ltd. Hong Kong, China.

Suresh D, Srinivasan K. 2007. Studies on the in vitro absorption of spice principles

curcumin, capsaicin and piperine in rat intestines. Food Chem. Toxicol. 45: 1437-1442.

Toldy A, Stadler K, Sasvari M, Jakus J, Jung KJ, Chung HY, Berkes I, Nyakas C, Radak Z. 2005. The effect of exercise and nettle supplementation on oxidative stress markers in the rat brain. Brain Res. Bull. 65: 487-493.

Tozer PR. 2007. The power of tests for bioequivalence in feed experiments with poultry. Journal of Animal Science. 82:110-118.


71

Tsegaye K. 2008. Antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiulcer and analgesic ac-tivities of nettle (Uritica dioica L). Journal of Ethnopharacol. 90: 205-215.

Viegi L, Pieroni A, Guarrera PM, Vangelisti R. 2003. A review of plants used in folk veterinary medicine in Italy as basis for a databank. J. Ethnopharmacol. 89: 221-224.

Wenk C. 2000. Why all the discussion about herbs? Proc. Alltech’s 16th Ann. Symp. Biotechnol. In the Feed Industry. Ed. Lyons, T.P., Alltech Tech. Publ., Nottingham, University Press, Nicholasvile, KY. Pp. 79-96.

Windisch W, Schedle K, Plitzner C, Kroismayer A. 2008. Use of phytogenetic products as feed additives for swine and poultry. J. Anim. Sci. 86: 140-148.

Zemene W, Aberra M, Yosef T/Giorgis. 2012. Assessment of Village Chicken Production System and the Performance of Local Chicken Populations in West Amhara Region of Ethiopia. Journal of Animal Production Advances, 2(4): 199-207.

Zhang KY, Yan F, Keen CA, Waldroup PW. 2005. Evaluation of microencapsulated essential oils and organic acids in diets for broiler chickens. Int. J. Poult. Sci. 4 (9): 612-61.


72

Enrichment of Maize and Wheat Grains with Zinc: an Investment for

Humanity and Crop Production

Molla Assefa* and Sheleme Beyene School of Plant and Horticultural Sciences (*e-mail:[email protected])

ABSTRACT Zinc deficiency is a well-documented problem in food crops, causing decreased crop yields

and poor nutritional quality. Generally, the regions in the world with Zn-deficient soils are

also characterized by widespread Zn deficiency in humans. Recent estimates indicate that

nearly half of world population suffers from Zn deficiency. Cereal crops play an important

role in satisfying daily calorie intake in developing world, but they are inherently very low

in Zn concentrations in grain, particularly when grown on Zn-deficient soils. Maize (Zea

mays L.) and wheat (Teriticum aestivum L.) are high nutrient demanding crop but sensitive

to zinc (Zn) deficiency in soil. Application of Zn fertilizers could be a viable option to fulfill

the crop demand for Zn and also to increase its contents in grains. A pot experiment was

conducted to evaluate the effect of different rates and methods of Zn application on maize

and wheat cultivars. A selected maize hybrid (BH- 540) and a wheat variety (HR-1685)

were grown at three different rates and two methods of Zn application along with

recommended doses of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Plant height, ear height and

grain yield were measured and analyzed. Response of maize and wheat varied to different

methods of Zn application. Maximum maize (296gm/pot) and wheat (46gm/pot) grain yield

was obtained for soil + foliar application of Zn followed by soil application of Zn at the

rate of 50kg ha-1. Plant height also responded to application of soil + foliar Zn in both

maize and wheat. The non-significant (p<0.05) difference observed for seed number per

plant but significant difference (p<0.05) for seed yield in wheat indicates that yield gain

was due to seed weight rather than increased spicklets per head.

Keywords: Yield, Zn deficiency, Zn fertilizer, Wheat, Maize, Nutritional quality

INTRODUCTION

Increasing the Zn and Fe concentration of food crop plants, resulting in better crop production and improved human health is an important global challenge. Among micronutrients, Zn deficiency is occurring in both crops and humans (White and Zasoski, 1999; Hotz and Brown, 2004; Welch and Graham, 2004). Zinc deficiency is currently listed as a major risk factor for human health and cause of death globally. According to a WHO report on the risk factors responsible for development of illnesses and diseases, Zn deficiency ranks 11th among the 20 most important factors in the world and 5th among the 10 most important factors in developing countries. In a comprehensive study, Hotz and Brown (2004) reported that Zn deficiency affects, on average, one-third of world’s population, ranging from 4 to 73% in different countries.


73

Zinc deficiency is responsible for many severe health complications, including impairments of physical growth, immune system and learning ability, combined with increased risk of infections, DNA damage and cancer development (Hotz and Brown, 2004; Gibson 2006; Prasad, 2007). Zinc deficiency in soils and plants is a global micronutrient deficiency problem reported in many countries (Sillanpaa, 1982; Alloway, 2004). Low solubility of Zn in soils rather than low total amount of Zn is the major reason for the widespread occurrence of Zn deficiency problem in crop plants. Possibly, there are many other regions or countries where Zn deficiency problem has not been reported or diagnosed. Nearly 50% of the cereal-grown areas in the world have soils with low plant availability of Zn (Graham and Welch, 1996; Cakmak, 2002). Cereal crops represent a major source of minerals and protein in developing world. In Ethiopia wheat and maize provide of the highest daily calorie intake. Wheat and maize are inherently low in concentrations of Zn in grain, particularly when grown on Zn deficient soils. Based on a range of reports and survey studies, the average concentration of Zn in whole grain of wheat in various countries is between 20 to 35 mg kg−1 (Rengel et al., 1999; Cakmak et al., 2004). The Zn concentrations reported are too low to meet daily human requirement, especially for those consuming a high proportion of cereal-based diets. For a measurable biological impact on human health, the concentration of Zn in whole wheat grain needs to be increased at least by approximately 10 mg kg−1, assuming a 400 g per day intake for adult woman in the countries where whole grain flour is used for making food (Pfeiffer and McClafferty, 2007; and http://www.harvestplus.org). Generally, recommended dietary allowance for Zn is around 15 mg per day (National Research Council, 1989). Most of the seed-Zn is located in the embryo and aleurone layer, whereas the endosperm is very low in Zn concentration (Ozturk et al., 2006). The embryo and aleurone parts are also rich in protein and phytate (Lott and Spitzer, 1980; Mazzolini et al., 1985), indicating that protein and phytate in seeds could be sinks for Zn. The Zn-rich parts of wheat seed are removed during milling, thus resulting in a marked reduction in flour Zn concentrations. Consequently, heavy consumption of high proportion of milled wheat and other cereal products may result in reduced intake of Zn. Enrichment of cereal grains with Zn is, therefore, a high priority area of research and will contribute to minimizing Zn deficiency related health problems in humans. Among the interventions currently being used as major solution to Zn deficiency in humans, food fortification and supplementation are being widely applied in some countries. However, these approaches appear to be expensive and not easily accessible by those living in developing countries (Bouis, 2003; Stein et al., 2007; Pfeiffer and Mc Clafferty, 2007). For example, to eliminate micronutrient deficiencies in a nation with 50 million affected people using food fortification program US$ 25 million is needed annually (Bouis et al., 2000). Alternatively, agricultural strategies (e.g., breeding


74

and fertilization) appear to be cost-effective approaches useful in improving micronutrient concentrations in grain, and thus contributing to human health. There are several examples demonstrating that applying Zn fertilizers to cereal crops improve not only productivity, but also grain Zn concentration of plants. Depending on the soil conditions and application form, Zn fertilizers can increase grain Zn concentration up to fourfold under field conditions (Yilmaz et al., 1997). In an effort coordinated by the HarvestPlus project, CGIAR (The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) Centers are taking a leading role in breeding for increasing concentration and bioavailable levels of Zn and Fe in seeds of major stable food crops (Bouis, 2003; Pfeiffer and McClafferty, 2007). Plant breeding (e.g., genetic biofortification) approach to minimize the extent of Zn deficiency is thought to be cost-effective, easily applicable and affordable in the target populations. A breeding program aiming at development of new genotypes with high Zn concentration first requires existence of useful genetic variation for Zn accumulation in grain. However, cultivated wheat contains very low levels of Zn and shows a narrow genetic variation for Zn. Although it is a powerful and sustainable strategy, breeding approach has some limitations: it is a long-term process requiring variety of breeding activities and huge resources. In addition, it is uncertain whether this strategy will effectively work after all the long-term efforts. In view of the discussion above, providing Zn to plants (for example, by applying Zn-fertilizers to soil and/or to foliar) appears to be important to ensure success of breeding efforts for increasing Zn concentration in grain. Fertilizer strategy could be a rapid solution to the problem and can be considered an important complementary approach to the on-going breeding programs. Fertilizer studies focusing specifically on increasing Zn concentration of grain (or other edible parts) are, however, very rare, although a large number of studies are available on the role of soil and foliar applied Zn fertilizers in correction of Zn deficiency and increasing plant growth and yield (Rengel et al., 1999). Zinc can be directly applied to soil as both organic and inorganic compounds. Zinc sulfate (ZnSO4) is the most widely applied inorganic source of Zn due to its high solubility and low cost. Convincing evidence about the role of Zn fertilizer strategy in improving grain Zn concentration in wheat (e.g., agronomic biofortification) has been obtained in field trials in Turkey. Applying Zn fertilizers to wheat grown in field in Central Anatolia improved not only productivity, but also grain Zn concentration (Yilmaz et al., 1997). The purpose of this study was:

• To investigate the potential effect of Zinc sulfate (ZnSO4) on grain yield of wheat and maize

• To examine grain Zn concentration as affected by application of Zinc sulfate (ZnSO4)


75


A pot experiment was conducted at Research and Farm Center (RFC) of College of Agriculture, Hawassa University, to evaluate the effect of different rates and methods of Zn application on maize (Zea mays L.) cultivar BH-540 and wheat (Treticum aestivum L.) variety (HR-1685). Seeds of both maize and wheat cultivars selected were sown in a 15 gallon pot filled with 5 kg soil taken from Alage area having soil pH of 8.3. Before sowing, pot was irrigated with water. The experiment was laid out in complete randomized design with three replications. Three seed per pot were planted for maize which latter thinned to two plants per pot whereas five plants per pot were allowed to grow for wheat. Recommended doses of Urea and DAP at 100, 100 kg ha-1, respectively were applied uniformly to all the pots 50 percent Urea at sowing for maize and the rest 50 percent after six weeks. Zinc was applied at 0, and 50 kg ha-1 for soil application and 0.5% (w/v) for foliar application as ZnSO4. The reason for the selection of such high rate (50 kg ha-1) of Zn was to observe the response for academic research purposes. Moreover such higher rate for Zn has also been reported in an earlier study conducted by Rashid and Fox (1992). Water was irrigated to the pots as and when required. Plants were grown till maturity, after which cobs and heads were separated from the plants and air dried. After drying grains were manually separated and dry weight was recorded. Data obtained from the pot experiment were analyzed statistically using Proc GLM of SAS for windows version 9.2. Least significant difference test was used to separate various treatment means.


Maize: Zinc application to soil had a significant (p<0.05) effect on grain yield of maize hybrid BH-540 (Table 1). Rego et al. (2007) and Kanwal et al (2010) also noted similar increase in grain yield of maize cultivars by Zn application. Maximum seed yield per pot (296 g), ear hight (85.3 cm) and plant height (176 cm) was observed for the Zn soil + foliar application. There was no significant difference (p<0.05) observed for plant height and ear height under foliar application of Zn compared to control (no Zn). Wheat: Application of Zn on soil and soil + foliar has significant (p<0.05) effect on seed yield and plant height of wheat variety HR-1685(Table 2). Similarly increased productivity of wheat and increased Zn concentration in grains of wheat by applying Zn fertilizers to wheat was reported by Yilmaz et al. (1997). Foliar application of Zn has not shown any effect on the three parameters, moreover the seed number per plant was not significant for all methods of application indicating that yield difference was brought by seed weight or grain density. These results


76

implied that maize and wheat respond to application of Zn for yield and other agronomic parameters. The positive yield response of maize could be an additional benefit if the grain Zn content increase through foliar application. Table 1: Mean Comparison of maize seed yield and yield components Treatment Seed yield (g/pot) Plant height (cm) height ( Control (No Zn) 157.33c 159.67b 73.67b Zn Soil application 184.70b 167.00ab 71.33b Zn foliar application 189.73b 161.67b 74.67b Zn Soil + Foliar 296.03a 176.33 85.33a

Mean 206.95 166.17 76.25 LSD 13.575 11.568 9.57 CV% 3.48 3.69 6.66 Means in each column, following similar letter(s) are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability using LSD. Table 2: Mean Comparison of Wheat seed yield and yield components

Treatment Seed yield (g/pot) Plant height (cm) Seed number/head Control (No Zn) 15.77b 51.07bc 26.37a Zn Soil application 20.97a 59.70ab 31.33a Zn foliar application 15.80b 49.47c 30.53a Zn Soil + Foliar 21.30a 63.73a 33.00a

Mean 18.46 55.99 30.40 LSD 3.177 9.23 8.761 CV% 9.14 8.75 15.30 Means in each column, following similar letter(s) are not significantly different at the 5% level of probability using LSD.

CONCLUSIONS

Zinc fertilization improved grain yield of maize hybrid and wheat variety compared to no Zn application at high pH soil. Agronomic biofortification is of great importance in enriching seeds with Zn. Due to some degree of uncertainty whether the breeding strategy will be efficacious in enriching grains with Zn, the short-term agricultural tools like applying Zn fertilizers should be considered. In rural areas of the country where there is high incidence of Zn deficiency, fertilizer strategy should be applied as a quick solution to the Zn deficiency problem in human nutrition. For the long-term, agronomic biofortification is a complementary approach to breeding strategy and is likely to be required for ensuring success of breeding efforts. In future, this research should be conducted in field condition under different environment focusing on development of most efficient Zn application methods for promoting Zn uptake and maximizing Zn accumulation in grain. Studying the bioavailability of grain Zn derived from foliar applications would be an important


77

research topic in future from economical point of view. The remaining activity of this research on analyzing the grain Zn content of both maize and wheat should be completed and documented.

REFERENCES

Alloway BJ. 2004. Zinc in soils and crop nutrition. IZA Publications. International

Zinc Association, Brussels, pp 1-116. Bouis HE.(2003. Micronutrient fortification of plants through plant breeding: can it

improve nutrition in man at low cost? Proc Nutr Soc 62:403-411. Bouis HE, Graham RD, Welch RM. 2000. The Consultative Group on International

Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Micronutrients Project: Justifications and objectives. Food Nutr Bull 21:374-381

Cakmak I. 2002. Plant nutrition research: Priorities to meet human needs for food in sustainable ways. Plant Soil 247:3-24.

Cakmak I, Torun A, Millet E, Feldman M, Fahima T, Korol A, Nevo E, Braun HJ, Ozkan H. 2004. Triticum dicoccoides: an important genetic resource for increasing zinc and iron concentration in modern cultivated wheat. Soil Sci Plant Nutr 50:1047-1054.

Gibson RS (2006) Zinc: the missing link in combating micronutrient malnutrition in developing countries. Proc Nutr Soc 65:51-60.

Graham RD, Welch RM. 1996. Breeding for staple-food crops with high micronutrient density: Working Papers on Agricultural Strategies for Micronutrients, No.3. International Food Policy Institute, Washington DC.

Hotz C, Brown KH. 2004. Assessment of the risk of zinc deficiency in populations and options for its control. Food Nutr Bull 25:94-204.

Kanwal S, Rahmatullah, AM Ranjha and Ahmad R. 2010. Zinc partitioning in maize grain after soil fertilization with zinc sulfate. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 12: 299-302.

Lott JNA, Spitzer E. 1980. X-ray analysis studies of elements stored in protein body globoid crystals of Triticum grains. Plant Physiol 66:494-499.

Mazzolini AP, Pallaghy CK, Legge GJF. 1985. Quantitative microanalysis of Mn, Zn, and other elements in mature wheat seed. New Phytol 100:483-509.

National Research Council Recommended Dietary Allowances.1989. Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the RDAs Food and Nutrition Board, Commission on Life Sciences.10th ed. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

Ozturk L, Yazici MA, Yucel C, Torun A, Cekic C, Bagci A, Ozkan H, Braun H-J, Sayers Z, Cakmak I. 2006. Concentration and localization of zinc during seed development and germination in wheat. Physiol Plant 128:144-152.

Pfeiffer WH, McClafferty B. 2007. Biofortification: Breeding Micronutrient-Dense Crops. In: Kang MS (Ed) Breeding major food staples. As quoted by Cakmak, 2008. Plant soil. 3002: 1-17.

Prasad AS. 2007. Zinc: Mechanisms of host defense. J Nutr 137:1345-1349.


78

Rashid A, Fox RL. 1992. Evaluating internal Zinc requirements of grain crops by seed analysis. Agron. J., 84: 469-474.

Rego TJ, Sahrawat KL, Wani SP, Pardhasaradhi G. 2007. Widespread deficiencies of sulfur, boron and zinc in Indian semi-arid tropical soils: on-farm crop. J.

Plant Nutr., 30: 1569–1583. Rengel Z, Batten GD, Crowley DE. 1999. Agronomic approaches for improving

the micronutrient density in edible portions of field crops. Field Crops Res 60:27-40.

Sillanpaa M. 1982. Micro nutrients and the nutrient status of soils. A global study. FAO Soils Bulletin, No.48, FAO, Rome.

Stein AJ, Nestel P, Meenakshi JV, Qaim M, Sachdev HPS, Bhutta ZA. 2007. Plant breeding to control zinc deficiency in India: how cost-effective is biofortification? Pub Health Nutr 10:492–501.

Welch RM, Graham RD. 2004. Breeding for micronutrients in staple food crops from a human nutrition perspective. J Exp Bot 55:353-364.

White JG, Zasoski RJ. 1999. Mapping soil micronutrients. Field Crop Res 60:11-26.

Yilmaz A, Ekiz H, Torun B, Gultekin I, Karanlik S, Bagci SA, Cakmak I. 1997. Effect of different zinc application methods on grain yield and zinc concentration in wheat grown on zinc-deficient calcareous soils in Central Anatolia. J Plant Nutr 20:461-471


79

The Effect of Waterlogging at Different Phases on Gowth, Poductivity and

Nodulation of Desi and Kabuli Chickpea (Cicer arietinum).

Walelign Worku* School of Plant and Horticultural Sciences (*e-mail: [email protected])

ABSTRACT Chickpea is mainly a rain fed crop, which is exposed to terminal drought stress. Terminal

drought could be mitigated by planting earlier. However, this may coincide with heavy

rainfall, which creates waterlogging problem. Moreover, global climate change is likely to

increase the occurrence of waterlogging and inundation. An experiment was conducted to

examine the physiological and agronomic response of Desi and Kabuli chickpea to severe

waterlogging. The Desi type maintained consistently higher stomatal resistance against

waterlogging during each of the three phases. Number of nodules, root and nodule dry

matter was significantly reduced by flowering and seed filling waterlogging but not by

vegetative waterlogging. The most sensitive phase for productivity was the flowering phase

followed by the seed filling phase.

Keywords: Climate change, Dry matter, Nodulation, Productivity, Waterlogging

INTRODUCTION

Globally, chickpea cropping system is largely rainfed and terminal drought of varied intensities is a major constraint to its productivity (Krishnamurthy et al., 2010). In Ethiopia, chickpea production is affected by several abiotic and biotic factors of which drought is the most important one (Bejiga and Anbessa, 1994). Terminal drought could be mitigated by planting earlier. However, this may coincide with heavy rainfall, which creates waterlogging problem. Waterlogging is a major abiotic stress adversely affecting crop productivity worldwide (Bansal and Srivastava, 2012; Shimono et al., 2012). Thus, this work was initiated to (1) investigate the response of desi and kabuli chickpea genotypes to waterlogging at different phases (2) identify the sensitive phase(s) that limit productivity most and (3) observe whether the two chickpea types differ in their response or not. MATERIALS AND METHODS

A greenhouse experiment was carried out between December 2011 and March 2012 at Hawassa University, southern Ethiopia. Hawassa is located 7°5'N and 38°30'E at 1660 meters a.s.l. The treatments were made from a factorial combination of two chickpea genotypes (a desi and a kabuli) and four moisture regimes (optimum throughout, water logging during either of the three growth phases and waterlogging during each of the growth phases). The following were the moisture levels used:

1. Optimum throughout = OOO


80

2. Waterlogging during the vegetative phase and optimum thereafter = WOO 3. Waterlogging during the flowering phase and optimum at the other phases =

OWO 4. Waterlogging during the seed filling phase and optimum at the other phases

= OOW 5. Waterlogging during each of the three growth phases = WWW

A completely randomized design with three replications was used. Waterlogging was administered by immersing the experimental pots in a pot of 13 liter (28 cm diameter and 21 cm height) capacity for 10 days.


Waterlogging during any of the developmental phases has increased stomatal resistance (Fig. 1). However, the genotypes differed consistently in the magnitude of their response at each of the growth phases. The kabuli type maintained relatively lower stomatal resistance compared to the desi type during the waterlogging periods. Vegetative waterlogging affected neither nodule number nor nodule dry weight while it raised root dry weight, at maturity (Table 1). Root growth and nodulation were extremely damaged by flowering and seed filling waterlogging. Waterlogging at flowering caused maximum reduction in shoot, straw and total dry weights. Vegetative growth had recovered from the impacts of early waterlogging. The flowering phase was the most sensitive to waterlogging showing a 95% loss in grain yield (Fig. 2). The second most affected phase was seed filling with 59% reduction. The Kabuli type suffered twice as much yield loss as the desi type due to early waterlogging. Table 1: The effect of waterlogging during three phenological phases on various parameters of desi and kabuli chickpea at maturity.*

Treatment Root dry wt

Nodule number

Nodule dry wt

Straw dry wt

Shoot dry wt

Total dry wt

Moisture OOO 0.39b 96.6a 0.29a 3.75a 7.06a 7.76a WOO 0.47a 83.4a 0.30a 3.53a 5.83b 6.61b OWO 0.15c 4.0b 0.01b 1.87c 2.01d 2.17d OOW 0.14c 0.0b 0.00b 2.87b 4.21c 4.36c WWW 0.10c 0.0b 0.00b 1.36c 1.50d 1.76d Genotypes Desi (Naatolii) 0.24a 41.29a 0.12a 2.56a 4.18a 4.62a Kabul (Habru) 0.25a 32.33b 0.11a 2.79a 4.06a 4.43a

All the weights are in gram. *, data are given on per plant basis; column means with the same letter are not significantly different at P ≤ 0.05


81

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1 3 5 7 9 11 13

Sto

ma

ta

l re

sis

ta

nce

, s m

-1

Days after start/stop

D-optimum

K-optimum

D-Wlogged

K-Wlogged

A

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17

Sto

ma

ta

l re

sis

ta

nce

' s m

-1


D-optimum

K-optimum

D-Wlogged

K-Wlogged

B

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

1 3 5 7 9

Sto

ma

ta

l re

sis

ta

nce

, s m

-1


D-optimum

K-optimum

D-Wlogged

K-Wlogged

C

Fig. 1: The effect of waterlogging on stomatal resistance on Desi and Kabuli chickpea during (A) vegetative (B) flowering and (C) seed filling phase. D, Desi; K, Kabuli; wlogged, waterlogged; arrow indicates date of stopping

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

OOO WOO OWO OOW WWW

Grain

yiel

d pl

ant -1

, g

Moisture regimes

Kabuli

Desi

LSD0.5

Fig. 2: Moisture x cultivar interaction on grain yield per plant. O, optimum; W, waterlogged; the three letters represent the vegetative, flowering and seed filling phases, respectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Financial support for this work provided by CIDA_IDRC, project No. 106305-001. Hence, the author acknoldge CID, IDRC and the project coordinator for providing the fund and facilitation of the budget release.


82

REFERENCES

Bansal R, Srivastava JP. 2012. Antioxidative defence system in pigeonpea roots

under waterlogging stress. Acta Physiol. Plant. 34:515-522. Bejiga G, Anbessa A. 1994. Genetics and breeding research in Chickpea. In:

Proceedings of the First National Cool-season Food Legumes Review Conference, Telaye, A., G. Begiga, M. C. Saxena and M. B. Solh, eds. 16-20 Dec., 1993, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 138-160.

Krishnamurthy L, Kashiwagi J, Gaur PM, Upadhyaya HD, Vadez V. 2010. Sources of tolerance to terminal drought in the chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) minicore germplasm. Field Crops Res. 119:322–330.

Shimono H, Konno T, Sakai H, Sameshima R. 2012. Interactive effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 and waterlogging on vegetative growth of soybean (Glycine

max (L.) merr.) Plant Prod. Sci. 15(3): 238-245.


83

Assessment of Community-Based Irrigation Water Management in

Wondogenet Woreda of Sidama Zone, Ethiopia

Kinfe Asayehegn and Dawit Daniel School of Environment, Gender and Development Studies

ABSTRACT

The survey results showed a significant difference in mean total household income between

irrigation user and non-user livelihoods. In specific the findings show that 7.7% of the

irrigation users do not have any income from rain-fed crop production other than

irrigation products. With regard to livestock production, irrigation dependent households

gain income from livestock 13.8% larger than irrigation nonusers do. It is also found that

63.1% of the users and 67.7% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation do not participate

in any off-farm activities. Thus, households depend their livelihood on non-farm and on-

farm income portfolios. In relation to the above income portfolio and livelihood of the

households, 56.9% of the users and 60% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation

households do not depend on non-farm income and activities. From the total respondents,

10.2% of the users and 7.7% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation receives a

remittance from relatives and friends. Remittance covers 1.5% and 2.2% of the total

income of the users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation respectively. The mean total

income and purchasing power of the households also shows that irrigation user livelihoods

are better than non usesr.

Keywords: Crop production, Irrigation, Household income, Livestock production, Water

management

INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Sub- Saharan Africa with a population of 73.92 million in 2007 (CSA, 2007). It is predominantly an agrarian country with the vast majority of its population directly or indirectly involved in agriculture. It has reasonably good resource potential indispensable for the development of agriculture, biodiversity, water resource, minerals etc yet, it is faced with complex poverty, which is broad, deep and structural (MoFED, 2002b). Agriculture in the country is mostly small- scale, rainfall dependent, traditional and subsistence farming with limited access to technology and institutional support services (Desta, 2004). Rainfall is erratic and unevenly distributed between seasons and agro ecological regions led to poor yields, low productivity, food insecurity and poverty within the farming population, thus emphasizing the need for irrigation in the region. Currently, the country is in transition from traditional and manual, rain-fed, supply driven, production oriented agriculture to technology intensive, and mechanized, irrigated, market oriented agriculture, through full packages of value chain and post harvest technologies. To this end, the objective of the growth and transformation encompasses i) achieving a sustainable increase in agricultural productivity and production; ii) accelerating agricultural commercialization and


84

agro-industrial development; iii) reducing degradation and improving productivity of natural resources; and iv) achieving universal food security and protecting vulnerable households from natural disasters (MoARD, 2010). Irrigation is one means by which agricultural production can be increased to meet the growing food demand in Ethiopia. Increasing food demand can be met in one or a combination of three ways: increasing agricultural yield, increasing the area of arable land and increasing cropping intensity (number of crops per year). Expansion of the area under cultivation is a finite option, especially in view of the marginal and vulnerable characteristics of large parts of the country’s land and increasing population. Increasing yields in both rain-fed and irrigated agriculture and cropping intensity in irrigated areas through various methods and technologies are therefore the most viable options for achieving food security in Ethiopia (IWMI, 2005). Though Ethiopia has 3.5 million ha of irrigable land, irrigation covers only 0.6 million ha or about 5 percent of the total irrigable land. Moreover, most of the schemes are community-managed with absence of continuous improvement initiatives and performance-monitoring mechanisms either have challenged sustainable production or have resulted in wastage and misuse of scarce water resources in these schemes (Awulachew et al., 2007). In a country like Ethiopia, where resources are scarce and socio-economic well-being of farm households is at minimum, irrigation effect studies in relation to rural household well-being and value chain analysis is essential and required. Although different small-scale irrigation schemes have been constructed aiming at reducing farm household’s dependency on rain-fed production, different factors influence them to achieve the objectives in improving the household well-being. With expected global increase in food demand about 40% in the next 20 to 25 years and with decline of rate of expansion of irrigated area, enhancing irrigation water through improved water management systems is usual (FAO, 2005). In Ethiopia, with food production already lagging behind, population growth, inefficient management of water for agriculture may worsen the problem of current food insecurity despite the availability a large volume of water in the country. Relatively, effective legal and administrative system is required in water allocation. However, little evidence exists regarding local level institutions and organizations for irrigated water management. A study by Misra and Sing(1960), in Sarda canal irrigation of India showed gross farm output per acre is on the whole 8.6% higher in the canal irrigated villages than outside. The crop produce as distinct from the total farm output is 5.5% more with canal irrigation than without, mainly due to the cropping pattern under irrigation incorporating cash crops. The value of crop produce sold per acre is 48% higher in the canal-irrigated area than outside. Total inputs per acre are 3.7% higher in terms of quantity in the canal-irrigated area than outside indicating, more intensive


85

farming under irrigation. They also showed that payment to outside labor, including casual and permanent farm labor is about 21% more in irrigated areas than outside. The economic as well as social impact of small-scale irrigation utilization and its contribution to food security in particular and human wellbeing in general is an engine (driving force) for development. However, most of the irrigation researches in Ethiopia are on technical and operational performance, unlike its socio-economic impact to the rural households’ food security. Moreover, the negative effect of community-managed irrigation is scarcely explored by researches. Therefore, this research is aimed at primarily identifying and documenting the impact of community managed irrigation on household food security and irrigation management systems in relation to production efficiency and product value chain that contributes its part to the existing body of knowledge. Secondly, it provides a base for policy makers through the comparisons of positive and negative effect of irrigation with respect to similar areas in specific. Thirdly, it provides directions for further research, extension and development schemes that benefit the scheme beneficiaries.

Objectives of the study

The general objective of this research is to assess the irrigation water and scheme management systems being used by community managed irrigation users of Wondogenet Woreda. The specific objectives includes- � To analyze the institutional and organizational arrangements of irrigation water

management of the study area; � To assess the types of water management and distribution mechanisms being

used among site users and between upstream and downstream users; � To analyse the conditions for successful community-based irrigation

management thereby conditions for long-term sustainability

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Sample and sampling design

A two stage sampling procedure followed to select the peasant associations and sample households. In the first stage, three peasant associations with access to community-managed irrigation was selected purposively. Before selecting household heads to be included in the sample, the sampling frame stratified in to irrigation water user households (from the mentioned water sources) and nonusers of irrigation of each peasant association in collaboration with leaders, key informants and development agents of the respective peasant associations, which formed the sampling frame. In the second stage, 130 farm household heads selected from the identified lists using simple random sampling technique taking into


86

account probability proportional to size of the identified households in each of the three selected peasant associations and the survey was conducted accordingly. Method of data collection

In this study, both primary and secondary data is utilized. To obtain primary data, structured questionnaire with both closed and open-ended questions developed. Important variables on economic, social and institutional aspect of the society in the sampled districts collected. Nine enumerators and one supervisor, all from their respective sampled Kebeles, was recruited. Necessary care had been taken in recruiting the enumerators and strict supervision made during the course of survey work. The enumerators are all fluent speakers of the local language. They had been given an intensive training on data collection procedures, interviewing techniques and the detailed contents of the questionnaire. The questionnaire pre-tested and adjusted accordingly. Personal observations of physical features, informal discussions with farmers and DAs of the selected Kebeles was also made. Moreover, secondary data obtained through discussions with concerned expertise and officials of line-offices of the respective districts. District Offices of Irrigation Development (DOID), District Offices of Rural and Agricultural development (DORAD), District Offices of Finance and Economic Development (DOFED), are some of the district offices from which secondary data obtained. Methods of data analysis

To analyze data, both descriptive and econometric models were used. Descriptive statistical methods such as frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation applied. Chi-square test for categorical variables and the t-test to examine the mean difference between irrigation users and non-users with respect certain continuous variables used. The above-mentioned descriptive analysis is helpful for all the three phases of the research regardless of the econometric analysis, which have different analysis models for all stages.

Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression used to analyze the average value of household contribution for the resource management and number of violation-restricted rules, since these variables are continuous. An addition to the least squares, Heckman two-stage estimation used. In the first step (Probit) of the model absence /presence of guard/ water distributor, attempts to capture the factors governing the probability of having guard/ water distributor seen. This equation is used to construct a selectivity term known as the ‘Mills ratio’, which is added to the second stage ‘outcome’ equation using OLS. If the coefficient of selectivity term is significant then the hypothesis that an observed selection process governs the first equation will confirmed. Moreover, with the inclusion of extra term, the coefficient in the second stage ‘selectivity corrected’ equation is unbiased (Zaman, 2001).


87

The research also contains censored dependent variable, variables whose actual values are not observed for a large proportion of cases (Tobin, 1958) and dependent variables that cannot take below and above a particular limit. For this reason, Tobit model used for analyzing determinants of frequent occurrence of conflicts and application of penalty system in communal managed irrigation schemes, since the dependent variables for which a large proportion of cases have zero as the lowest possible value. Heckman two-stage estimation procedure, which assumes probit in the first step and Ordinary Least Square (OLS) in the second step is recommended to detect and avoid sample selection biases (Heckman, 1979). Inverse mill’s ratio or lambda will be obtained from the probit equation and considered as one explanatory variable in the second equation if its coefficient is statistically significant selectivity biases is confirmed (Heckman, 1979; Greene, 2000). RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Household characteristics

The study revealed that socio-economic characteristics of the sample households such as age, sex, marital status, family size, education level and family labor force of the small-scale irrigation user and nonuser farm households are different from one to another. Age of the household heads of sample respondents ranged from 20 to 60 years with mean of 44.22 and standard deviation of 11.04 years for small- scale irrigation users. For non-users the mean and standard deviation happens to be 47.12 and 12.859 years, respectively (Table 1). The age difference between the two groups, however, is found to be statistically insignificant suggesting age have very little influence on the participation decision. As shown in Table 1, the study sample composed of 5% female and 95% male-headed households. Of the irrigation user sample households, about 6% and 94% are female and male-headed households, respectively, found to be participating in the irrigation scheme suggesting labor availability and gender are important factors determining participation in irrigated farming. This could be attributed to various reasons, which could be the problem of economic position of female-headed households, including shortage of labor, limited access to information and required inputs due to social position, etc. The chi-square test of gender between the two groups was found to be significant at less than 5% (χ 2=3.894). The result of the survey showed that married household heads are more likely to participate in small-scale irrigation than divorced and widowed household heads. Moreover, the chi-square test (χ 2= 6.752) is significant at 10% significant level implying the claim have statistical support.


88

Table 1: Gender of the Household Heads

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Male 95 95.0 95.0 95.0 Female 5 5.0 5.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Regarding education level of the sample households, the study revealed that 1% of the users and 12% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation are illiterate. It is also found that the number of irrigation users who completed nine years of schooling and above is twice as compared to nonusers. However, the t-test of educational status of sample household heads as depicted in Table 2 is not significant signifying education level of households have very little effect on the decision to participate in small-scale irrigation. The result further revealed none of the sample households attended preparatory class while a significant number of the non-users are illiterate. Table 2: Education level of the household heads


Illiterate nonusers 12 12 12 12 use r 1 1 1 13 read and write 17 17 17 30 primary 39 39 39 69 secondary 31 31 31 100

Total 100 100 0

The frequency distribution of religion of respondents as displayed in the Table 3 bellow shows 85% of sample households are protestant Christian while the rest, 5% are Muslim and 10% Orthodox Christian. However, there is no significant difference in irrigation utilization between the religion followers. Table 3 : Religion of the households

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Orthodox 10 10 10 10 Muslim 5 5 5 15 Protestant 85 85 85 100

Total 100 100 100

The average size of household for the users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation is found to be 6.43 and 5.15, with a standard deviation of 2.038 and 1.946, respectively. This result is statistically significant suggesting labor availability is an important factor influencing households decision to participate in small-scale irrigation schemes. The result also showed family labor force of the economically active members (15-64 years) is higher for irrigation participants further providing


89

evidence the importance of labor availability in influencing the participation decision of households in small-scale irrigation. Irrigation labor force is the amount of labor needed for irrigation activities. Similarly, rain-fed labor is the labor required for rain-fed activities. Findings from the study showed 44.6% of the users of small-scale irrigation faced labor shortage for irrigation activities while 30.9% of the users and 24.6% of the nonusers faced labor shortage for rain-fed activities. Farm households who faced labor shortage employ different mechanisms to acquire additional labor required for accomplishing farm activities. 76.9% and 23.1% of the irrigation users, which faced labor shortage, acquired additional labor through hiring and labor exchange mechanisms, respectively. Likewise, 77% and 23% of the labor deficient irrigation users used hired and exchange labor, respectively, to solve the problem of labor shortage for rain-fed farming. Similarly, as indicated in Table 3, a total of 24.6% and 75.4 of the labor deficient irrigation nonusers used hired and exchange labor for rain-fed farm activities. It worth to note that 35.4% of the casual labor employed in irrigation farming were source from the nonusers of irrigation within the kebele/ wereda whereas 64.6% came from nearby kebele/wereda that are very little irrigation. The study further revealed that women and children labor constitute, a significant share of the total labor employed in farming. Women work about 8 hours on the average a day with a maximum of 12 hours at peak times. In addition to family labor, oxen power is found to have a positive and significant influence on the decision to participate in irrigation farming at 5% probability level. Nevertheless, quite a good number of households 29% of households of which 15% of the users and 42% of the nonuser households have no ox at all. Irrigation user households also compared the labor consumption ratio of irrigated farming to rain-fed farming, which accounts 12.3%, 70.8%, 15.4% and 1.5% as equal, two times, three times and four times respectively. The farm households replied from the point of view of their activities and economy. The response of equal and three or four times ratio is from the farm families specialized on cereal and vegetable crops respectively in their irrigated farm and two times is from the farm households which diversified on cereal and vegetable crops. This replies that the labor consumption for vegetable farming is double as compared with cereal crops.


90

Housing condition of the sample households

Corrugated iron sheet, soil and thatch roofed type of houses are common to both users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation regardless of the magnitude. Although with three of the house types in severance are similar, the proportion of irrigation user households who owned all the three types is four times higher than, the nonuser households. The collected data showed 15.4% of the nonusers of irrigation have been living in rented house. The difference was statistically tested and found significant at less than 1% level of significance (χ 2= 19.677). The study also found that 66.2% of the users of irrigation constructed/improved different number of classes mainly corrugated iron sheet ranged 1-7 because of increasing income from irrigation after its start( refer appendix Table 5 ). Table 4: House type owned by the household head


Thatch roofed 11 11.0 11.0 11.0 Corrugated iron sheet 89 89.0 89.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Table 5: Number of classes improved after irrigation use


Cumulative Percent

0 23 23 23 42 1 7 7 7.0 49 2 10 10 10 60 3 16 16 16 76 4 7 7 7 83 5 2 2 2 85 6 1 1 1 86 7 1 1 1 87 no 10 10 10 97 No 1 1 1 98 One thatch roofed 1 1 1 99 three, iron sheet 1 1 1 100

Total 100 100 100

Resource ownership and farm experience

Resource ownership and farm experience are hypothesized to have a profound effect on the participation decision-making behavior of farm households. The variables experience in rain-fed farming and rain-fed land holding pertain to both users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation while the variables irrigation experience and irrigable land holding pertain to users only. The survey results revealed that 10.8% of the users of irrigation do not own rain-fed land at all. On the


91

other hand, of the total respondents, 4.6% of the users and 7.7% of the nonusers do not own land but cultivated land obtained through sharecropping arrangements. Findings of the survey revealed that 58.5% of the users and 17% of the nonusers shared in land, while 16.9% of the users and 24.6% of the nonusers shared out their own land. This shows that irrigation users are better practice land shared in than nonusers are. The land shortage and searching for additional land is the motivating factor for shared in. The chi- square test also revealed a significant difference for land shared in at 1% significance level(χ2=25.279) and insignificant for shared out land among the users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation. The survey result also showed land shared in and shared out in the study area is taken in two forms, sharecropping only in one hand and sharecropping and additional cash incentives in birr in the other hand. As a result, it is revealed that 73.85% and 26.156% of the users of small-scale irrigation agree to have shared in/out in sharecrop only, both sharecrop and additional incentives respectively while 90.86% and 9.23% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation agree in sharecrop only and sharecrop plus additional incentives, respectively. This shows most of the land renters agree in sharecropping only without any additional motivating incentives. The nonusers of small-scale irrigation have different reasons, for shunning irrigation utilization. From the total irrigation nonuser households, 26.2% and 32.4% eschewed from utilization due to lack of farmland at the time of redistribution and information on irrigation respectively. On the other hand, 41.4% of them is due to their expectation the rain-fed land they owned is too fertile and can produce better. With regard to farm experience of the households, findings compared that 55.4% of the irrigation users and 35.4% of the irrigation nonusers have more than 30 years of rain-fed farm experience respectively. Likewise, 55.4% and 1.5% of the users of small-scale irrigation have 12 and more than 30 years of irrigation experience respectively. This shows, most of the users of small-scale irrigation begun their practice in recent years after construction of the irrigation dams in the area. The t- test on rain-fed experience between users and nonusers of irrigation showed a significant difference at 5% level (t=1.994). The mean and standard deviation of irrigation experience of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation is 1 and 0 year respectively. This is due to that all the nonusers of irrigation have no experience in irrigation. Livestock production and ownership of the households

Wealth ranking of the survey found that rural farm households ranked livestock as a key asset next to land, which indicated 92.3% of the users and 70.8% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation rear different types of livestock. The t- test of


92

livestock production in TLU between the two groups was run and the difference was found significant at 5% level. Table 6: livestock owned by the farm households in total livestock unit (TLU)

User Nonuser t-value

Mean 4.732 2.338 St.dev 2.802 1.898 5.703** Minimum 0.000 0.000 Maximum 14.985 8.24 Oxen (mean) 2 1 4.742** ** Statistically significant at 5% probability level

Table 7: House Hold income source before the implementation of Irrigation, Sales of livestock


Cumulative Percent

Valid Yes 81 81.0 92.0 92.0 No 7 7.0 8.0 100.0 Total 88 88.0 100.0

Missing System 12 12.0 Total 100 100.0

The collected data revealed that except an equal amount of 1.5% of the users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation, who rear livestock, have utilization of animal health service even though the access is equal to all. The study also revealed that shortage of feed, recurrent drought, lower market prices of local breeds, higher prices of improved breeds and lower productivity of local breeds are the common problems of users and nonusers of irrigation in livestock production. Although both users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation have the problems of livestock production, the severity of the problems is different for the two groups. Severity of the livestock production problems of the users of irrigation is lower than, the nonuser households by nearly half, due to the presence of irrigation by-products, which covered part of the feed expenses. Income distribution and inequalities of the households

Some of the households specialized primarily irrigation dependent livelihoods, while others depend their livelihood from a diverse range of livelihood activities but out of irrigation. There are also households diversified their livelihood as irrigation dependent and irrigation independent livelihoods which includes both scenarios. This depends on the different types of income and activity portfolios. With regard to livelihoods of households within the farming community of the study area, households found to depend on diverse portfolio of activities and income sources. On-farm income (such as income from irrigated crop, rain-fed crop or livestock production/rearing), off-farm income (such as trading of agricultural products), and non-farm income (such as non-farm employment, non-


93

farm trade), are the different income portfolios in which the households of the study area diversify their activities. The survey results found that there is a significant difference in mean total household income between irrigation user and non-user livelihoods. Findings as depicted in the Table below, shows that 7.7% of the irrigation users do not have any income from rain-fed crop production other than irrigation products. With regard to livestock production, irrigation dependent households gain income from livestock 13.8% larger than irrigation nonusers do. It is also found that 63.1% of the users and 67.7% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation do not participate in any off-farm activities. Thus, households depend their livelihood on non-farm and on-farm income portfolios. In relation to the above income portfolio and livelihood of the households, 56.9% of the users and 60% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation households do not depend on non-farm income and activities. From the total respondents, 10.2% of the users and 7.7% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation receives a remittance from relatives and friends. Remittance covers 1.5% and 2.2% of the total income of the users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation respectively. The mean total income of the households also shows that irrigation user livelihoods are better off by 37.03% than those of irrigation nonuser livelihoods. Similar findings occur with respect to household expenditure on food crops and food for work showed that 87.7% of the users and 91.8% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation expend part of their income to purchase food crops and 23.1% of the users and 40% of the nonusers of small-scale irrigation seasonally depend on food for work. The study also contended that the number of food for work recipients of irrigation nonuser to user exceeds by 16.9%. It is revealed that 10 and 7 quintals is the maximum yearly crop purchase of the users and nonusers of irrigation with a maximum cost of 8400 birr and 3500 birr respectively. This is due to that most users of small-scale irrigation are net purchasers of teff after selling of irrigation products and most of the irrigation nonusers are net purchasers of maize. This shows the income and purchasing power disparity between users and nonusers of small-scale irrigation. Moreover, the result was tested using t-test and found statistically significant at 5% significant level. REFERENCES

Adugna J. 2000. Irrigation Development (in Ameharic): Water for 21st century.

MWR, Water and Development, Addis Ababa CSA (Central Statistics Authority). 2007. Population and Housing Census:

Ethiopia’s Population. Census report: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.


94

Dessalegn R. 1999. "Water Resource Management in Ethiopia: Issues of Sustainability and Participation." Addis Ababa.

Desta B. 2004. Impact of Community managed irrigation on farm efficiency and household income: The case Weliso and Wenchi Districts of Oromia. M.Sc Thesis presented to the School of Graduate Studies of Haramaya University.

FAO 1994, Small-Scale Irrigation Consolidation Project. Report No 59194, AFDB-ETH 48.Addis Ababa.

FAO. 1995. Water Development for Food Security. FAO water Resource Bulletin 112, Rome.

FAO. 1997, Assessment of the Socio-Economic Impact of Smallholder Irrigation on Smallholder Farmers in Zimbabwe. FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa (SAFR), Harare.

FAO 2000. Socio –Economic Impact of Smallholder Irrigation Development in Zimbabwe: Case studies of ten irrigation scheme, Harare.

FAO. 2003. Irrigation in Africa South of the Sahara. FAO Investment Center Technical Paper 5. FAO, Rome.

FAO. 2005. Agricultural trade liberalization: implications for irrigated agriculture. Paper 5. Rome.

Fuad Adam 2001. Small-Scale Irrigation and Household Food Security: A Case Study from Central Ethiopia. Forum for Social Studies. Addis Ababa.

Gedion A. 1990. The Need On Irrigation Policy and Strategy. A paper Presented at the National Irrigation Policy and Strategy Workshop (unpublished document). Addis Ababa.Gujarati, D.N. 1995. Basic econometrics. 3rd edition, McGraw Hill, Inc., New York. IFAD. 1985. Ethiopian Small-Scale Irrigation. Main Report. 1(3) Addis Ababa.

IWMI. 2005. Experiences and opportunities for promoting small scale micro irrigation and rain water harvesting for food security in Ethiopia. Working paper 98. Addis Ababa.

Maddala GS. 1983. Limited Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Maddala GS. 1997. Limited Dependent and Quantitative Variables in Econometrics. Cambridge University Press

Meinzen-Dick R. 1993. Water rights and multiple water uses: Irrigation and

Drainage Systems, framework and application to Kirindi Oya irrigation scheme, Sri Lanka.

Michael AM 1997. Irrigation Theory and practice. Vikas Publishing House pvt.ltd, New Delhi, India.

MoARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development). 2010. Ethiopia’s

Agriculture Sector Policy and Investment Framework: Ten Year Road Map (2010-2020).

Ministry of Agriculture. 1993. Information regarding activities on small-scale irrigation. Irrigation development department. Addis Ababa.


95

Ministry of Agriculture /Tahal. 1988. Traditional organizational forms in small-scale irrigation schemes Tahal Consulting Engineers Ltd Ministry of Agriculture, Addis Ababa

Ministry of Finance and Economic Development, 2002. Development and Poverty Profile of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.

Repetto R. 1985. The Global Possible. University Press, Newhaven, Yale. SCF (UK). 1999. The North Wollo East Plain Food Economy Zone. Baseline

Report. Addis Ababa. Sing V. and Misra. N. 1960. Cost Benefit Analysis: A case study of the Sarda canal

irrigation project. India. Tobin J. 1958. Estimation of Relationships for Limited Dependent Variables.

Econometrica. Webb P. 1991. When Projects Collapse, Irrigation Failure in the Gambia from

Household Perspective. Journal of International Development 3(4); July institute, Washington.


96

Effect of Substituting Wheat Bran for Green Pod of Moringa Stenopetala on

Feed Intake, Digestibility and Growth Performance of Adilo Sheep Fed

Natural Grass Hay as a Basal Diet

Aberra Melesse* and Ajebu Nurfeta

School of Animal and Range Sciences (*e-mail: [email protected]) ABSTRACT

Conventional sources of feed supplements are costly and mostly unavailable for

smallholder farmers. Moringa stenopetala is locally available protein supplement. The

study used twenty-four yearling male Adilo male sheep with an average initial body weight

of (14.09 ±0.78 kg) to evaluate the effect of M. stenopetala green pod substituting wheat

bran. The parameters used to assess the effects of M. stenopetala green pod inclusion were

dry matter and nutrient intake, digestibility, growth performances, nitrogen utilization and

economic evaluation. The experimental design of the study was CRD where six sheep were

randomly assigned to the four treatment diets. The four treatment diets, T1, T2, T3 and T4

contained 0, 15.5, 27.9, 46.5 percent M. stenopetala green pod, respectively as a substitute

for wheat bran. The growth trial lasted for 70 days and followed by digestibility trial. Feed

intake and body weight were measured on a daily and weekly basis, respectively. All the

collected data were subjected to ANOVA using the general linear model procedure of

SPSS. Dry matter (539.4g/day) and crude protein intakes (g/kg-1BW) (57.8g/day) were

higher for T4 (p<.001). The dry matter digestibility coefficient (74.35) were higher for T1

(p<0.05and CP digestibility coefficient was higher for T4 (83.25) (p<0.001). Average

daily gain was higher for T4 (50.5 g) and final body weight (19.2 kg) for T3 (p<.05). Cost

per kg feed, cost per feed intake and cost per average daily weight gain values were higher

for T4 (p<.001). Feed and protein conversion ratio values were higher for T1 (13.31)

(p<.05). The results of this study indicated that substitution of wheat bran by M.

stenopetala green pod up to 46.5 per cent in diet of sheep have positive responses on feed

intake, digestibility and nitrogen utilization. Moringa stenopetala green pod is a cost

effective and easily accessible alternative source of supplemental feeding as substitute for

wheat bran.

Keywords: Moringa Stenopetala green pod, wheat bran, sheep, growth, digestibility,

intake

INTRODUCTION

Livestock production is an integral part of Ethiopian agricultural system under heterogeneous agro-ecologies. The sub-sector contributes about 12-16% of the total GDP and 30-35% of total agricultural GDP, and 60-70% livelihoods of the Ethiopia population (Metaferia et al., 2011). Ethiopia’s sheep population is 27.35 million out of which 22.8 % heads of sheep is under small farmers or landless livestock farmers (CSA, 2014). The rural population’s dependency on the livestock sub-sector is 7.8% and 74.5% is integral with crop production.


97

Sheep production contributes for subsistence and cash income generation for smallholder farmers. Sheep in Ethiopia accounts for 63% of the net cash income derived from livestock production (Ehui et al., 1999). Sheep contribute substantially to food (meat supply), hides, wool and manure. They serve as part of the crop failure risk coping portfolio, and investment as well as many other cultural functions (Tibbo, 2006). Sheep production is a function of nutrition, health, genetics, climate and management among which nutrition plays an important role. Inadequate nutrition is the major constraint, for the low productivity of sheep (Zelalem and Fletcher, 1991). Sheep production relies on crop residues and natural pasture, which are usually deficient in nitrogen and limit animal performance. Thus, supplementation of nitrogen to low-quality roughages is required for reasonable levels of animal performance. Farmers traditionally use conventional supplements like noug seed cakes, wheat bran and maize grains to improve the nutritive value of fibrous basal feeds. However, the supplementation through traditional protein supplements (oil cakes/bran/grains) is unaffordable and often inaccessible to poor farmer than locally available unconventional sources like leaves of multipurpose trees. Multipurpose trees are an alternative source of protein (N) supplement which can be found at ease and optimum price. Multipurpose tree parts can be harvested, sun-dried and used to compound protein supplements. Substitution of conventional ingredients by tree parts such as leaves or pods will make such supplements cheaper than the commercial concentrates. Sesbania sesba (Solomon et al., 2004; Debela et al., 2011), Leucaena leucocephala (Aregheore, 2004 and Shelton and Brewbaker 1998) and Gliricidia sepium (Simons and Stewart, 1998), Acacia

tortolis (Lengarite, 2014), Acacia senegal (Sanon et al. 2008), Acacia etbaica (Yayneshet et al., 2008), Prosopis juliflora (Sawal et al. 2004), Acacia karroo

(Marume 2010), Prosopis juliflora (Sawal et al., 2004; Kipchirchir, 2010 and Girma et al., 2011) were reported as suitable tree parts in feeding livestock. Hence, supplementation of multipurpose tree parts to basal feed as a substitute of conventional protein supplements is a paramount importance to enhance productivity of animals at low cost.

Moringa can adapt to arid environments and conditions related to the cutting frequencies as it can grow in diverse soils and good biomass production (Makkar and Becker, 1996). Moringa Stenopetala green pod is rich in nutrients like amino acids, iron, potassium, calcium, and multivitamins (Melesse et al., 2012), which are essential for improving weight gaining in ruminants (Sanchez et al., 2006; Newton et al., 2010) and productivity of animals (Oliveira et al., 1999; Richter et al. 2003) by presenting suitable mixtures in economic feeding (Kakengiet, 2000: Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011). Leaves, fruit, flowers and immature pods of Moringa are used as a nutritional vegetable and a source of income in many developing countries, where the tree is


98

native (Anwar et al., 2006). Moringa stenopetala pods are available during most part of the year and could be used a good source of feed mainly during the dry season as a protein and energy supplement to low-quality roughages and increases dry matter intake (DMI) and digestibility of the feed (Melesse et al., 2012). Moreover, Moringa Stenopetala green pod contains 18 % (CP), 50% (ADF), and 52.4% (NDF) and 11.5 % ash (Melesse, 2012; Melesse and Berihun, 2013). The research hypothesis of the present work was that the green pods of multipurpose tree species Moringa stenopetala can serve as an economically efficient protein supplement to enhance intake digestibility and growth of sheep by substituting the conventional wheat bran. Therefore, the principal objectives of study were to assess the effect of substituting Moringa stenopetala green pods for wheat bran on feed intake, nutrient digestibility and body weight change of Adilo sheep fed a basal diet of natural grass hay. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental Site

The experiment station for the study was Hawassa University, School of Animal and Range Sciences, 704’ N latitude and 38029’ E longitude and at an altitude of 1694 m above sea level. The rainfall pattern of the area is bi-modal ranging between 700 and 1200 mm annually. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures in the area are 13.5 0C and 27.6 0C (NMA-Hawassa Branch Directorate, 2014).

Moringa stenopetala green pod feed preparation

The green pod of Moringa stenopetala was collected from farmers’ field at Mirab Abaya Woreda. The green pods were neither over mature nor too tender. The procedures of drying includes; separation pods from seeds, in an area protected from direct light to prevent loss of vitamins and other volatile nutrients and regular turning of the feed ingredient was done to facilitate drying and prevent growth of molds. The length of drying was 15 days. After drying of the collected pods, the remaining twigs were carefully removed and chopped by using mortar and pestle (locally available). Then after, the chopped green pods of Moringa stenopetala were mixed with other feed ingredients (Noug seed cake, Wheat bran and Maize grain) to prepare the experimental diets as indicated in Table 1. Experimental Diets

The dietary ingredients used in this experiment were maize (white), wheat bran, Noug seed (Guizotia abyssinica) cake, Moringa stenopetala green pod, limestone and salt. The proportion of ingredients and chemical composition of the four treatment diets is presented in Table 2. The control diet (T1) contained wheat bran as the main protein source with no Moringa stenopetala green pod and diets


99

containing Moringa stenopetala at the level of 15.5% (T2), 27.9% (T3) and 46.5% (T4) to replace the protein level from wheat bran in the control diet. The adaptation rations for the two weeks period were 15 to 25% Moringa stenopetala green pod and wheat bran, fed to sheep with constant percentages of other ingredients of the experimental diets. Twenty four one year old Adilo sheep were weighed before the commencement of the feeding regime and divided into four groups of six animals, balanced for body weight and randomly allocated to dietary treatments in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD). Table 1: Ingredient composition of treatments (in % on DM basis)

Feed ingredients Treatment diets

T1 T2 T3 T4

Natural grass hay Ad libitum Ad libitum Ad libitum Ad libitum

Wheat bran 62 46.5 34.1 15.5

Maize 16 16 16 16

Noug cake 20 20 20 20

Green pod 0 15.5 27.9 46.5

Salt 1 1 1 1

Mineral 1 1 1 1

Number of sheep 6 6 6 6

Animals and their management

The twenty four year old sheep were purchased from Adilo animal market and kept in the Hawassa University research station for 120 days provided with the experimental diets. The sheep were ear tagged, weighed individually on a spring balance and kept in the experimental pens with average initial weight of 14.09+0.78kg. After adaptation period of 15 days to the experimental environment, pen management and diets, animals were randomly allotted to the four dietary treatments (six sheep per treatment). Clean water was available for each animal ad

libitum. Cleaning the experimental house (pens, watering and feeding troughs) was done on regular basis.

Growth Trial

The feed intake and growth trial lasted for 70 days in which measurement and recording of daily feed offered and refusal for each animal was carried out during the experimental period. Feed intake was determined by difference between the amount of feed offered and refuse. Samples of feed offered and refused was taken on daily basis and sub-sampled every 15 days for each animal. Sheep body weight was taken at the beginning of the experimental period and then on a fortnight basis in the morning between 6:00 am and 6:30 am, prior to feed offering. Average daily body weight gain (ADG) was calculated by subtracting the initial live weight from


100

final live weight and divided by the number of days. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated as a ratio of feed intake to weight gain. Mortality and any abnormality were recorded throughout the entire experimental period. Digestibility Trial

At the end of feeding trial, all animals were transferred to metabolic crate to undertake digestibility trial. Experimental sheep were adapted to fecal bags which were attached to them for three days followed by data collection for seven days. Measurement of daily fecal output for each animal and sub samples of 10% was stored in a deep freezer (-21°C) pending for chemical analysis.

Chemical analysis

Feed samples were oven dried at 105°C overnight to determine the dry matter content. Faecal samples were also oven dried at 60°C for 48 h and milled using cross-beater mill to pass through 1-mm sieve and stored in plastic bags for chemical analysis (Thomas Wiley, Philadelphia, PA, USA). Ash was determined by combusting the samples at 550°C for 5 h. The nitrogen content of samples were determined using micro-Kjeldahl method (fresh samples were used for feces and urine and dried samples for feed samples). The CP contents were calculated as nitrogen (N) × 6.25. The acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) contents were analyzed using the method of Van Soest et al. (1991) in an ANKOM® 200 Fiber Analyzer (ANKOM Technology Corp., Fairport, NY, USA). Statistical Analysis

Data on feed intake, live weight change, digestibility and feed conversion ratio (g DMI g-1 gain) were analyzed using the General Linear Models (GLM) procedure of SPSS. When GLM declares significance, treatment means were separated using LSD. The linear model used was: Y=µ + ai + eik Where, Y = response variables (Intake, live weight change, digestibility, FCR); µ = overall mean, ai = effect of treatment diet, and eik = random variation.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

Partial budget analysis performed to evaluate the economic advantage of the different treatments by using the procedure of Upton (1979). The partial budget analysis was involved in the calculation of variable costs. The expenditures incurred on feeds calculated by taking as additions to the variable costs. The cost of the feeds was computed by multiplying the actual feed intake for the whole feeding period with the prevailing prices. At the time of feed purchasing, the prevailing price of the feeds included the transportation cost incurred to move them to the experimental site. The labor cost was constant for all the treatments. Partial budget


101

method measures profit or losses, which are the differences between gains and expenses for feed. RESULTS

Chemical composition of treatment feeds

The chemical compositions of the natural grass hay shows that it had low CP and high NDF and ADF contents. The CP content of Moringa Stenopetala green pod is slightly higher than wheat bran. It has also lower NDF and ADF contents than wheat bran. The CP content of the treatment diets is similar (Table 2). Table 2. Chemical composition of feed ingredients and experimental diets (g/kg DM)

Items DM CP NDF ADF Ash

Feed ingredients Maize 961 86.4 241 205 35.2 Noug seed cake 961 303 345 215 116 Wheat bran 972 146 425 253 96.2 Moringa Stenopetala green pod

973 160 323 215 55.5

Natural grass hay 944 28.5 661 337 116 Treatment diets T1 988 171 243 179 69.4 T2 976 171 242 177 58.4 T3 979 171 242 171 58.0 T4 986 171 252 181 38.3

T1= 62% Wheat bran,18% maize, 25% noug seed cake and 1% salt; T2 = 46.25% maize, 27.75% Moringa stenopetala green pod, 25% noug seed cake & 1% salt ; T3=27.75% maize, 46.25% Moringa stenopetala green pod, 25% noug seed cake & 1% salt; T4=74% Moringa stenopetala green pod, 25% noug seed cake & 1% salt


102

Table 3: Daily feed and nutrient intakes of sheep fed natural pasture grass hay supplemented with Moringa Stenopetala green pod by substituting wheat bran

Intake Treatment diets SEM P T1 T2 T3 T4

Basal feed (g/d) 243c 225b 230c 251a 2.73 *** (g/Kg BW.75) 40.74b 42.5b 40b 35.7a 0.54 ***

Supplement (g/Kg BW.75) 37.22a 37.0a 35.5b 33.9c 0.32 ***

Total DM (g/d) 539.37b 517.9c 524c 546a 2.73 ***

(g/Kg BW.75) 57.53 c 57.1 d 56.5 b 57.8 a 0.61 ***

Total CP (g/d) (g/Kg BW.75) Total NDF(g/d) Total ADF (g/d)

67.6 7.21a 161b 135 b

65.4 7.13a 147b 122 c

63.2 6.89b 147a

124c

62.1

6.59b

161a

131a

0.02 NS 0.02 *** 0.62 *** 0.31 ***

a, b, = means with different superscripts in a row are significantly different. * = (P < 0.05); ** = (P < 0.01); *** = (P < 0.001); SEM = standard error of mean: T1= 62% Wheat bran,18% maize, 25% noug cake and 1% salt; T2 = 46.25% maize, 27.75% Moringa Stenopetala green pod 25% noug cake & 1% salt ; T3=27.75% maize, 46.25% Moringa Stenopetala green pod, 25% noug cake & 1% salt; T4=74% Moringa Stenopetala green pod 25% noug cake & 1% salt.

Dry Matter and Nutrient Intake

The study showed that the basal feed intake and total dry matter intake were significantly higher for T4 (g/d) and T1 had high intake (g/Kg BW.75) (p<.001). Total NDF and ADF intake (g/d) were high for T1 (p<.001). Total CP intake was high for sheep fed on T1 (g/Kg BW.75) (p<.001) (Table 3).

Dry Matter and Nutrient Digestibility

The study showed that DM digestibility coefficient was higher for T1 (p<0.05) and CP digestibility for sheep fed with T1, T2 and T3, T4 were comparable although it was higher for T3 (P<0.05). The NDF digestibility coefficient was higher for T2 (P>0.05) (Table 4). Table 4: Digestibility coefficients of sheep fed natural pasture grass hay supplemented with Moringa Stenopetala green pod substituting wheat bran in concentrate mix diet

Feeding parameters Treatment diets SEM P

T1 T2 T3 T4

Dry matter 74.35a 73.1a 72.11 a 67.1b .42 * Organic matter 75.8 75.9 75.2 76.9 .37 NS Crude protein 77.5a 77.4a 85.1b 83.3b .29 * NDF 59.7a 93.4c 53.1a 60.3b .34 * ADF 66.5 62.7 66.7 63.5 .66 NS a, b = means with different superscripts in a row are significantly different * = (P < 0.05); ** = (P < 0.01); *** = (P < 0.001); NDF = Neutral detergent fiber; ADF = Acid detergent fiber; SEM = standard error of mean; T1= 62% Wheat bran,18% maize, 25% noug cake and 1% salt; T2 = 46.25% maize, 27.75% Moringa stenopetala green pod 25% noug cake & 1% salt; T3=27.75% maize, 46.25%


103

Moringa stenopetala green pod 25% noug cake & 1% salt; T4=74% Moringa stenopetala green pod 25% noug cake & 1% salt.

Dry Matter and Nutrient Digestibility

The study showed that the digestibility of DM (p<0.01),, CP (p<0.001) and NDF (p<0.001) was higher for T4 (Table 5). Table 5: Digestible nutrient intake of sheep fed natural pasture grass hay supplemented with Moringa Stenopetala green pod in concentrate mix diet


T1 T2 T3 T4

Dry mater 431b 423b 379a 449b 9.01 ** Organic matter 385 a 401ab 370 a 428 b 7.6 ** Crude protein 43.2 b 38.1a 47.1c 48.4c .87 *** NDF 99.5a 192c 118ab 143ab 8.28 ** * ADF 82.7b 75.8 b 80.8 b 63.8 a 2.4 ** a, b = means with different superscripts in a row are significantly different. * = (P < 0.05); ** = (P < 0.01); *** = (P < 0.001); NDF = Neutral detergent fiber; ADF = Acid detergent fiber; SEM = standard error of mean; T1= 62% Wheat bran,18% maize, 25% noug cake and 1% salt; T2 = 46.25% maize, 27.75% Moringa stenopetala green pod 25% noug cake & 1% salt; T3=27.75% maize, 46.25% Moringa stenopetala green pod , 25% noug cake & 1% salt; T4=74% Moringa stenopetala green pod 25% noug cake & 1% salt

Live Weight Gain, Economic efficiency and Feed Conversion Ratio

The study showed that ADG value for T4 was greater (P>0.05) (P<0.05), while final BW was higher for T3. FCR was higher for T1 followed by T2 and T3. The lowest FCR was noted in T4. Cost benefit analysis showed that substitution of wheat bran for Moringa stenopetala pods generally reduced costs of feed per Kg, FI and ADG (Table 6). Table 6: Live weight changes of sheep fed basal diet of natural grass hay supplemented with increasing levels of Moringa stenopetala green pod concentrate mix


T1 T2 T3 T4

Initial weight 14.15 14.1 14.1 14.1 0 .4 NS Average daily gain (ADG) 42.6 c 45.7b 44.0c 50.5a 0.45 * Final body weight 17.6 c 19.2 a 19.1 a 18.3 b 0.02 * Feed conversion ratio 13.31c 12.0 b 11.9 b 11.0 a 0.16 * Cost/Kg weight 2.7a 2.68b 2.67c 2.64d 0.64 *** Cost/feed intake 7.6d 7.0c 5.7b 4.4a 0.52 *** Cost/ADG 1.41d 1.18c .95 b .67 a .11 *** a,b,c= Means with different superscripts in a row are significantly different. * = (P < 0.05); ** = (P < 0.01); *** = (P < 0.001); NS=not significant; SEM = standard error of mean; T1= 62% Wheat bran,18% maize, 25% noug cake and 1% salt; T2 = 46.25% maize, 27.75% Moringa stenopetala green pod 25% noug cake & 1% salt ; T3=27.75% maize, 46.25% Moringa stenopetala green pod, 25% noug cake & 1% salt; T4=74% Moringa stenopetala green pod 25% nougcake & 1% salt.


104

Nitrogen Utilization

The study showed that nitrogen utilization (NI) was numerically higher for T1 (P>0.05) while fecal nitrogen (FN) was higher for T4 (P>0.05). The concentration of urine nitrogen (UN) was high for T4 (P<0.05). The level of nitrogen retention (NR) was higher for T4 (P<0.05) (Table 7). Table 7: Nitrogen utilization of Sheep fed diet of hay supplemented with wheat bran substituted with Moringa stenopetala green pod at different proportions

Feeding parameters

Treatment diets SEM P

T1 T2 T3 T4

NI 8.7c 8.3d 9.0b 9.2a 0.06 * FN 1.3b 1.2c 1.3b 1.4a 0.3 * UN .7b .9b 1 a 1.1a 0.07 * NR 5.9b 5.5c 5.6c 6.5a 0.2 * a-c Means with different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05), SEM: Standard error of the mean, *p<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001; NI=nitrogen intake; FN=fecal nitrogen; UN=urine nitrogen; NR=nitrogen retention

DISCUSSION

Chemical Composition

Natural grass that is commonly used as basal roughage could not support the maintenance requirement of animals due to the high fiber and low protein content. Moreover, the CP content below the minimum microbial requirement (70 g CP/kg DM) cannot support microbial activity and the maintenance requirement of animal (McDonald et al., 2002). The CP content of natural grass hay in this study (2.85%) is comparable with those reported by Nurfeta et al. (2009) and Tsegaye (2013) but lower than those of Moges et al. (2008)and Tolera (2008).These variations might be due to differences in location, soil type, variety, post harvest handling, leaf to stem ratio and physiological development of the forage up on harvest (Moges et al., 2008). Substituting Moringa stenopetala green pod for wheat bran is favorable when sheep are fed with natural grass hay based feeding of sheep for optimum supply of. In the current study the NDF and ADF values were lower than those reported by Melesse et al. (2012, 2013) and Debela and Tolera (2013). The ADF values in this study were much lower than reported by Melesse (2012). According to Van Soest (1991) the critical ranges of NDF supply to ruminants are 600-650 g/kg DM above which feed intake will be hampered. Multipurpose tree parts like Moringa

stenopetala green pod maintain the initial high level of protein for long periods before the protein content drops below the maintenance requirement of animals, with advance in plant maturity (Gizachew et al., 1993; Debela and Tolera, 2013).


105

Daily DM and nutrients intake

The chemical composition of feed ingredients supports the variation in feed intake of treatment diets. Moringa stenopetala green pod maintained increased intake of basal and total feed DM at increased levels of inclusion, which justifies that green pods did not reduce the intakes of animals and is consistent with the study of Moses, (2014) which showed increased feed intake of sheep fed with Acacia

tortilis pods. Moreover, Zemmelink and t’Mannetje (2002) reported increasing level of feed offers resulted in higher DM and nutrient intakes. In contrast, Kipchirchir (2010) reported increased levels of basal feed refusals at higher levels of supplementation of Prosopis juliflora seedpod meal to goats. This might be due substitution effect on basal feed DM at increased levels of supplementation as suggested by Umunna et al. (1995). Increasing levels of Moringa stenopetala green pod substitution for wheat bran did not have undesirable effect on basal feed DM intake. This suggests that the less likelihood of fast degrading supplements to substitute the basal feed DM, which was in agreement with other studies of Kaitho (1997; Nsahlai et al., 1998) and Patra (2009). The crude protein intake was also increased similar to the trends in feed DM intake which is in good agreement with the reports by Tegene et al. (2000). However, the DM intake per day kg W0.75 in the study reduced as the inclusion rate of green pods increased which is contrary to the reports of Sahlu et al. (1993) who observed no change in DM intake per day kg W0.75 with increasing level of supplementation. Moreover, Reyes-Sanchez et al. (2006b) reported that feeding Moringa forage had

limited effect on rumen filling due to its low NDF content which suggests that feed intake and nutrients digestibility could be improved. On the other hand, the negative effect of condensed tannins and soluble phenolics contained in multipurpose tree fodder like Prosopis juliflora, imposed limitations on CP intake (Talpada et al., 2002), probably by forming protein-tannins complex and rendering it indigestible (McLeod, 1974 and Barry et al., 1986). However, the content of anti nutritional factors in Moringa tissues is negligible (Makkar and Bekker, 2000). The findings indicate that Moringa stenopetala green pod can substitute wheat bran by serving as protein and energy sources without adverse effect on voluntary feed intake and growth rate. Thus, smallholder farmers can substitute conventional concentrate supplements by Moringa stenopetala green pod

due to its year round availability and easy access particularly in Moringa growing regions.


106

DM and nutrients digestibility

The amount of dry matter intake and digestibility are determinants for the utilization of nutrients contained in feeds. The nutrient composition basal feed and supplement consumed together affects digestibility (McDonald et al., 2002). In the current study, sheep fed with green pods of Moringa stenopetala have lower DM digestibility coefficient but high CP digestibility coefficient than the control diet. The variation in DM and CP digestibility coefficients might be due to the supplementation level (only partial replacement of the control diet). The findings are consistent with Silva et al. (1986) who reported similar findings in complete replacement of wheat bran with mesquite pods. Furthermore, ARC (1980) indicated that there would be reduced digestibility when a ration has too little protein as compared to the amount of readily digested carbohydrates. However, the nutrients supplied by the different combination of supplements employed in this study were sufficient to make more or less similar effect on the digestibility of DM and nutrients. The higher CP digestibility of sheep fed on T4 compared with that of T1 could be due to high CP intake of T4 supplied by green pods. The results are consistent with the findings of Gebregiorgis et al. (2011), Dougnon et al., (2012) and Khalel et al. (2014) who reported positive effects of Moringa stenopetala and Moringa olifera leaves on the performance of sheep, rabbits and lactating cows, respectively. The present results are also in good agreement with those reported by Newton et al. (2010), Mendieta-Araica et al.

(2013) and Nouman et al. (2013) who suggested that Moringa forage is rich in most nutrients and thus it can serve as useful source of supplementation to low quality diets so as to increase their dry matter intake and nutrients digestibility. The current study results showed that there is a higher NDF digestibility coefficient as the level of Moringa stenopetala green pod increased but was comparatively lower than the control diet. The results are consistent with Debela and Tolera (2013) and Melesse et al. (2013) who reported higher fermentation characteristics of green pod and deseeded green pods of Moringa stenopetala suggesting improved digestibility and availability of nutrients to animals. Moreover, Becker (1996) reported that about 95% of Moringa crude protein was found to be available either in the rumen or in the post rumen. Kleinschmit et al.

(2007) reported bypass protein that resists degradation in the rumen and pass to the lower tract for digestion is necessary for maximizing production of ruminant animals. Hence, an increase in crude protein content of Moringa stenopetala green pod due to the action of fermenting microorganisms in the synthesis of some amino acids. Therefore, increased digestibility coefficients and digestible CP intakes could be the results of improved quality of protein, which is the result of amino acid profiles, physic-chemical characteristics and microbial proliferation initiated by Moringa stenopetala green pod inclusion in the diet.


107

Daily live weight gain and final live weight

Growth performances of animals under different experimental conditions may vary mainly depending on the type of dietary ingredients used. The quality of the basal diet, type and amount of the supplement used are important parameters (Gizachew, 2012). Sheep in all treatments of the present study had a positive weight gain, which indicates the nutritive value of the Moringa stenopetala green pod as potential source of protein and energy. The ADG in the current study were higher than the values of reported by Lemma and Alemu (1991) for lambs fed with Leucaena by substituting for noug cake but was lower than those of Gebregiorgis et al. (2011) for sheep supplemented with Moringa stenopetala leaf. Similarly, lower values in ADG than the current results were reported for lambs fed with Leucaena supplementation (Lemma, 1993). Results of feeding different levels of Moringa stenopetala green pod substituting wheat bran in the current study were consistent with that of Gashu et al. (2009) for Washera sheep fed on grass hay supplemented with maize bran, noug seed meal and their mixtures. On the other hand, current results are contrary to the findings of Sharma (1997) and Ibrahim and Gaili (1985) who reported a considerable reduction of body weight gain in sheep and goat fed diets containing various levels of mesquite pods. The tendency for higher daily live weight gains with increasing levels of Moringa stenopetala green pod in concentrate mixture is a reflection of higher DCP intake, which was positively correlated with daily live weight gain which is consistent with the findings of Nouman et al. (2013) and (Adegun and Aye, 2013) on West African Dwarf Rams fed Moringa oleifera and cotton seed cake. The findings are also in good agreement with those of Owen and Zinn (1988) who, after reviewing a large body of data, concluded that added dietary protein resulted in increased rate of weight gain in over 85 % of feeding trials. Nitrogen Utilization

Feed resources that are available in Ethiopia are mainly native pastures and agricultural by-products, which are mostly deficient in protein concentration and thus, animals cannot maintain a positive nitrogen balance particularly during the dry season. Efficiency of utilization of local protein sources could be used to maximize livestock productivity (Negesse et al., 2007). Multipurpose tree parts are well recognized in filling the gap for nutrients (mainly protein and mineral sources) that are mostly sub optimal in conventional feed resources in the tropical countries (Melesse and Berihun, 2014). Moringa stenopetala green pod has relatively high crude protein content (16.01%) which can be used as protein supplement when animals fed with low quality forages such as straws and poor quality.


108

All the treatment groups fed with Moringa stenopetala green pods have indicated a positive nitrogen balance, which could indicate supply of energy and nitrogen more than the maintenance requirement. The results are consistent with the findings of Nurfeta et al. (2010), Mendieta-Aracia et al. (2013) and Nouman et al. (2013) who reported improved growth performance in sheep fed with basal wheat straw supplemented with local agricultural byproducts and Moringa leaves. On the other hand, contradictory results were reported in sheep fed Prosopis juliflora pods and Cenchrus grass (Chaturvedi and Sahoo, 2013). In the current study, fecal and urine nitrogen increased with increased leveles of Moringa stenopetala green pod inclusion which is consistent with the reports of Clark et al. (1992). The positive balance shows nitrogen (N) availability for microbial protein synthesis and that the captured N from the treatment diets and there is net loss of nitrogen from the rumen through feaces and urine. Nitrogen retention for a specific ration is affected by factors such as increasing presence of fermentable energy, available fermentable energy, and variation in rumen undegradeble nitrogen (Holzer and Samule, 1986). Moreover optimizing factors for nitrogen retention enhances utilization of ammonia in the rumen and reduces the effect of free fats in protein synthesis (Hagemeister et al., 1981). Improved efficiency of microbial N synthesis is the effect of rapid fermentation as of Sesbania sesba (Umunna et al., 1995). Feed conversion ratio and economics of feeding

Animals that convert at a high rate (lower FCR) are more preferred to those with lower ratio as they optimize performance and are economically valuable in environments that have low quality and quantity of feed resources (Crews, 2005). Feed conversion ratio in the current study is reduced as the level of Moringa

stenopetala green pod increased and the results are consistent with those of Kipchirchir (2010). The low FCR observed in this study can be due to the contribution of Moringa stenopetala green pod fermentation quality brought into the rumen in the form of available cellulose and hemicelluloses which stimulate fiber digestion and hence nutrient released for growth (Debela and Tolera, 2013).

Feed costs were reduced as wheat bran was replaced with Moringa stenopetala green pods without adverse effect on the growth performances of sheep. The results were higher than those reported by Talpadaet al. (2002) for sheep fed with mesquite pods and Ravikala et al. (1995) and Dougnon et al. (2012) for rabbit feed with Moringa olifera leaf supplementation. Replacement of conventional feed ingredients such as maize, barley, wheat bran, rice bran etc. with cheap feed resources would reduce production cost and improve profitability of with increased weight gain (Talpada and Shukla, 1988). Feed costs were reduced by 26% when mesquite pods were replaced up to 50% of the concentrate diet of sheep, without affecting their growth perormancs (Sharma, 1997). The current results showed that


109

Moringa stenopetala green pods can be used as alternative cheap feed resource for tropical livestock in regions that grow Moringa trees.

CONCLUSIONS

Moringa stenopetala green pod can replace wheat bran in the concentrate mixture up to 46.5% in sheep feeding without adverse effects on the intake of dry matter. The responses of intake, digestibility and N utilization in sheep fed poor quality natural grass hay supplemented with concentrate mix under different experimental conditions is attributed to differences in the quality and quantity of treatment diets fed. Thus, Moringa stenopetala green pod that is available at ease with the farmers of semi-arid/arid tropics could substitute for cereal grains by products and oil cakes in the concentrate mixture.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project was supported by the research fund granted by the Hawssa University Research and Development Office for which the authors are highly grateful. The support received from Mr. Tadesse Bekore in analyzing the feed composition is highly acknowledged. REFERENCES

Anwar F, Hussain AI, Ashraf M, Jamil A, Iqbal S. 2006. Effect of salinity on yield

and quality of Moringa oleifera seed oil. 57: 394-401. A.O.A.C. (Association of Official Analytical Chemists). 1995. Official Method of

Analysis (15th Ed.).Washington, Virginia, U.S.A. ARC (Agricultural Research Council). 1990. The nutrient requirement of ruminant

livestock. Common Wealth Agricultural Bureaux. Slough, England. UK. Aregheore EM, Perera D. 2004. Effects of Erythrina variegata, Gliricidiasepium

and Leucaena leucocephala on dry matter intake andnutrient digestibility of maize stover, before and after spraying with molasses. Anim Feed Sci Technol, 111:191-201.

CSA.2013/14. Agricultural Sample Survey:Volume II Report On Livestocks And Livestock Characteristics(Private Peasant Hioldings). Sample Survey, CSA:Centeral Statistical Agency, Addis Ababa.

Debela E, Tolera A, Eik LO, Salte R. 2011. Nutritive value of morphological fractions of Sesbania sesban and Desmodium intortum. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 14(3).

Debela E, Tolera A. 2013. Nutritive value of botanical fractions of Moringa

oleifera and Moringa stenopetala grown in the mid-Rift Valley of southern Ethiopia. Agroforestry systems, 87(5): 1147-1155.


110

Ehui S. 1999. A review of the contribution of livestock to food security, poverty alleviation and environmental sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa. Pp. 1-

13 in Proc. 7th

annual conf., Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Gashu S, Melaku S, Urgie M. 2009.Effects of supplementation with maize bran, noug Seed meal and their mixtures on feed utilization and carcass characteristics of Washera sheep fed hay. Ethiopia PP: Haramaya University.

Gebregiorgis F, Negesse T, Nurfeta A, 2012. Feed intake and utilization in sheep fed graded levels of dried Moringa stenopetala leaf as a supplement to Rhodes grass hay.

Gizachew B.. 2007. Major animal health problems of market oriented livestock development in Metema woreda, north Gondar zone, Ethiopia. DVM thesis. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.

Makkar, H. P. S., Becker, K. 1998. Do tannins in leaves of trees and shrubs from African and Himalayan regions differ in level and activity?. Agroforestry systems, 40(1), 59-68.

Makkar HPS, Aderibigbe AO, Becker K. 1998. Comparative evaluation of non-toxic and toxic varieties of Jatropha curcas for chemical composition, digestibility, protein degradability and toxic factors. Food chemistry, 62(2): 207-215.

McDonald P, Edwards RA, Greenhalgh JFD, Morgan CA. 2002. Animal nutrition,

6th edn. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Melesse A, Workinesh T, Tegene N. 2011. Effects of feeding Moringa stenopetala

leaf meal on nutrient intake and growth performance of Rhode Island Red chicks under tropical climate. Tropical and Subtropical Agro ecosystems 14.2: 485-492.

Melesse A, Steingass H, Boguhn J, Schollenberger M, Rodehutscord M. 2012. Effects of elevation and season on nutrient composition of leaves and green pods of Moringa stenopetala and Moringa oleifera. Agroforestry systems, 86(3): 505-518.

Melesse A, Berihun K. 2013. Chemical and mineral compositions of pods of Moringa stenopetala and Moringa oleifera cultivated in the lowland of Gamogofa Zone. Journal of Environmental and Occupational Science, 2(1): 33-38.

Melesse A, Yoseph G, Kefyalew B, Sandip B. 2013. Effect of feeding graded levels of Moringa stenopetala leaf meal on growth performance, carcass traits and some serum biochemical parameters of Koekoek chickens. Livestock Science, 157: 498-505.

Mendieta-Araica B, Spörndly R, Reyes-Sánchez N, Spörndly E. 2011. Moringa

oleifera leaf meal as a source of protein in locally produced concentrates


111

for dairy cows fed low protein diets in tropical areas. Livestock Science, 137(1): 10-17.

Metaferia F, Cherenet T, Gelan A, Abinet F, Tesfay A, Ali JA, Gulilat W. 2011. A Review to Improve Estimation of Livestock Contribution to the National GDP. Ministry of Finance and Economic Development and Ministry of Agriculture. Addia Ababa, Ethiopia.

Newton KA, Bennett RN, Curto RB, Rosa EA, Turc VL, Giuffrida A, Curto AL, Crea F, Timpo GM. 2010. Profiling selected phytochemicals and nutrients in different tissues of the multipurpose tree Moringa oleifera L.,grown in Ghana. Food Chemistry Journal, 122: 1047-1064.

Nouman W, Basra SM, Siddiqui MT, YasmeenA, Gull T, Alcayde MA. 2013. Potential of Moringa oleifera L. as livestock fodder crop: a review. Turkish Journal of Agricalture.,doi:10.3906/tar- 1211-66.

Nsahlai IV, Umunna NN. 1996. Sesbania and lablab supplementation of oat hay basal diet fed to sheep with or without maize grain. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 61(1): 275-289.

Nurfeta A, Tolera A, Eik LO, Sundstøl F. 2009. Yield and mineral content of ten enset (Ensete ventricosum) varieties. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 40: 299-309.

Nurfeta A. 2010. Feed intake, digestibility, nitrogen utilization and body weight change of sheep consuming wheat straw supplemented with local agricultural and agro-industrial by-products. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 42:815-824.

Owen FN, Zinn R. 1988. Protein Metabolism of Ruminant Animal. In: Church (ed)-The Ruminant Animal Digestive Physiology and Nutrition. Prentice Hall. New Jersey, p: 227-229.

Shelton HM, Brewbaker JL. 1998. Leucaena leucocephala–the most widely used forage tree legume. Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture. St Lucia Queensland: Tropical Grassland Society of Australia Inc.http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/ AGPC/doc/Publicat/Guttshel/x5556e06. htm.

Simons AJ, Stewart JL. 1994. Gliricidia sepium – amultipurpose tree legume. In: Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical

Talpada PM, Pandya PR, Patel GR, Patel DC, Desai M. 2002. Utilization of complete feed using Prosopis juliflora pods as a ration of growing crossbred calves. Indian J. Anim.Nutr. 19(1):1-6.

Tolera A. 2008. Feed resources and feeding management: A manual for feedlot operators and development workers. SPS-LMM Program, Addis Abab, Ethiopia. Agency, Addis Ababa.

Tibbo M. 2006. Productivity and health of indigenous sheep breeds and crossbreds in the central Ethiopian highlands. Ph D. Thesis. Swedish Univ. Uppsala, Sweden.

Umunna NN, Osuji PO, Nsahlai IV, Khalili H, Mohamed-Saleem MA. 1995. Effect of supplementing oat hay with lablab, sesbania, tagasaste or wheat


112

middlings on voluntary intake, N utilization and weight gain of Ethiopian Menz sheep. Small Ruminant Research, 18(2), 113-120.

Van Soest PJ; Robertson JB, Lewis BA.1991. Methods for dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre and non-starch polysaccharides inrelation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci. 74:3583-3597.

Yayneshet T, Eik LO, Moe SR. 2008. Feeding Acacia etbaica and Dichrostachys cinerea fruits to smallholder goats in northern Ethiopia improves their performance during the dry season. Livestock Science, 119(1), 31-41

Zelalem A, Fletcher I. 1991. Small ruminant productivity in the central Ethiopian

mixed farming systems. Pp. 141-147 in Proc. 4th

NLIC., 13-15 November. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.


113

Internal Marketing-A Tool to Quality Education in Hawassa University

*Berhanu Borji1 and Demeke Afework2

1College of Business and Economics (* e-mail: 2School of Environment, Gender and Development Studies

INTRODUCTION

Service industry organizations including universities now recognize the importance of quality and attempt to exceed the expectations of customers (Ballantyne et al., 1995). While the level of perception varies from customer to customer, if service quality provided increases the value for the customer experience, then one method to obtain this level is through the implementation of an internal marketing program (Ballantyne et al., 1995). It is believed organizational problems are internal, not external (Lings, 1999) therefore, implementation of an internal marketing program will eliminate departmental walls, integrate members organization wide (Ahmed and Rafiq, 2003; Hogg, Carter and Dunne, 1998), and this creates the opportunity to improve quality throughout the organization (Lings and Brooks, 1998; Prasad and Steffes, 2002). Issues develop over the legitimacy of internal marketing and the two lines of research that exist: (1) an internal customer orientation and (2) a human resource perspective (Lings, 2004). Human resource scholars believe internal marketing is a personnel issue (Ahmed et al., 2002; Wasmer and Bruner II, 1991). Cahill (1995) and Lings and Brooks (1998) extended this thought and stated marketers are attempting to create a market-driven organization and fail to recognize how this affects external customers and these individuals are the true customers. Marketing scholars simply believe human resource practices treat employees as pawns, not customers and therefore members create contradictions between actions and beliefs. The ultimate goal is to shift the employee perception of working for themselves into a belief of working for the company (Mudie, 2003). The shift toward recognizing the importance of human capital in the industrial age has led companies to change their paradigms about people management. Successful companies no longer see employees as a resource whose primary function is to provide goods and services. Instead employees are seen as critical to the capability of service organizations. Internal marketing is treating both employees and customers with equal importance through proactive programs in order to achieve organizational objectives. Payne suggests that the key aims of internal marketing are the development of internal and external customer awareness and the removal of functional barriers to achieving organizational effectiveness. Lack of commitment from employees can be harmful to an organization, resulting in poorer performance arising from inferior service offerings and higher costs. The resultant positive effect of internal marketing will mean that employees will input maximum rather than minimum effort, thereby better satisfying the needs and wants of


114

external customers. Hogg has suggested that internal marketing could be the answer to gaining employee commitment, succeeding where traditional internal communications programs have failed. Internal marketing (IM) is a pre-requisite for effective external marketing and over its relatively short history has developed along three streams of thinking. The early approaches were suggested by Berry in the 1970s. Berry approached IM from a traditional marketing view, focusing primarily on 4Ps. He posited that employee could be considered as internal customer and the job could be seen as the firm’s products. He developed traditional marketing models and approaches that were based on the idea of making the worker’s job attractive and desirable in the belief that employee satisfaction would lead to customer satisfaction which would, in turn, build more customer loyalty. Consequently, attraction of the best personnel, their retention and motivation becomes of critical importance. In the 1980s, Gronroos introduced a new approach to IM. In this view, it is not sufficient that employees are motivated to perform better but they must also be sales minded. Thus, the employees facing customer were key to the firm’s success. Each employee should be trained as a marketer to do add-on, cross-selling and the like along with customer retention customer relationships. The company should adopt a framework similar to that of its external marketing and by applying marketing-like activities internally, stimulate service awareness and customer oriented behavior among personnel. The critical difference between Gronroos’ approach and that of Berry is that Gronroos focuses attention on creating customer orientation in employees through a process of influencing, rather than satisfying and motivating employees. The study relates the idea of internal marketing, as an approach or tool in achieving quality education in the university. As reported by many scholars, the use of internal marketing approaches contributes significantly towards quality education. Therefore, the idea should be tested in the context of Hawassa University and the factors thus obtained contributing to quality education will be of great importance for decision makers of the university and other concerned bodies in quality education related issues. Furthermore, the study maintains relevance to contribute significantly to the existing literature of internal marketing and consumer behavior related to quality education. Objectives

The objectives of the study are manifold. However, the general objective can be seen as to understand the role of internal marketing towards quality education in Hawassa University. The specific objectives are:

i. To see how the concept of internal marketing is understood among the university officials.

ii. To evaluate the level of internal marketing practices in the university. iii. To evaluate the trend of internal marketing practices in the university.


115

iv. To measure the level of satisfaction of the academic staff in the university v. To measure the level of satisfaction of the students in the university vi. To see the overall impact of internal marketing practices on the quality of

education in the university. vii. To understand role of academic staff in quality education

Survey research method will be applied to assess how the concept of internal marketing is understood among the university officials, to evaluate the level of internal marketing practices in the university and to evaluate the trend of internal marketing practices in the university. However, a pilot-study will be conducted with 10-15 respondents to obtain their understanding and belief regarding internal marketing concepts, and the responses will be used to frame items to measure and achieve the above research objectives. The sampling unit/element for the research includes the university officials (from all levels of the university’s organizational structure), students and course instructors. To represent all these units, a sample of 200 students from the four campuses of the university of both regular CDED (Main campus, ACA, Health sciences, and Wondo Genet campus) considering both female and male students) from each batch will be drawn using proportionate stratified random sampling ensuring equal participation from both the genders and in the university .This will be done firstly, the total students in each batch and campus will be calculated. Then the proportion will be assigned for each batch. Finally, random sampling from each batch with the consideration of equal participation of male and female students will be taken. In the same way samples of 20 university officials and 100 course instructors were taken from the four campuses of the university as per Yamane (1967) model of sample size determination. Out of the total 180 total population 150 samples was used. To obtain the necessary data/information on the practices and concept understanding of internal marketing among the university community, both secondary and primary sources will be explored. Various published and unpublished sources will be used to gather relevant information on the practices and impact of internal marketing on the quality of education in the university. Semi-structured questionnaire and semi structure interview will then be prepared and used as a tool to obtain data from the respondents. However, items of the questionnaire will be designed also to measure the level internal marketing practices. All the items related to perceptions in the study, will be prepared using a 5-point Likert type scale, and the respondents will be asked to report their level of agreement (5-strongly agree) and disagreement (1-strongly disagree) associated with each statement. Furthermore, the academic staff and students will be required to report on their beliefs and level of satisfaction in the university.


116

The study examines the association of internal marketing practice in the university with its strategic mission towards quality education. However, to analyze the data obtained through questionnaires from the four campuses of Hawassa University Main, ACA, Health sciences, and Wondo Genet campus, descriptive analysis together with multivariate (factor analysis and multiple regression techniques) will be used. All the attitudinal items with a factor loading of 0.5 and above will be accepted for final analysis. Appropriate (parametric or non-parametric) statistics will be used to analyze the impact of internal marketing practices on the quality of education. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and other software will be used for editing, coding, scoring and tabulation of data. An assessment of the practices of internal marketing approaches (mix) will be carried out from the respondents’ perspective in each campus.

Results

In order to Analyze the data, the researcher used the above scale as: Mean > 3.5 is favorable perception and < 3.5 as a favorable perception of respondents : Strongly Agree (7); Agree (6); Slightly Agree(5); Neutral (4); Slightly Disagree(3); Disagree (2); Strongly Disagree(1). Table 1: Employees satisfaction and Hu’s internal marketing

Personal needs met

Satisfaction improves attitude

Hu Markets its services to

employees

Hu promotes CR

N 104 104 104 104 Mean 3.1 5.4 2.5 3.1 Median 2.5 6.5 3.0 3.0 Std. Deviation 1.8 2.3 1.3 1.7

Key: N refers to the number of respondents.

As we can see from the table above HU is somehow weak in in promoting customer relations, its services to employees (mean=2.50 and 3.12 respectively). In addition to that respondents also believe that their personal needs in the university is not met well with mean of 3.1 Table 2: Educational Quality and Hu’s treatment

HU recognizes me as a customer

Hu is concerned about service quality

N 104 104 Mean 2.0000 2.8750

Median 1.5000 2.5000

Std. Deviation 1.32928 1.84174

Key: N refers to the number of respondents.


117

As we can see from the responses from table above, Hu almost didn’t recognize its employees as its customers (mean=2.0/7) and it defiantly affects the quality of education. Moreover, respondents also believe that Hu was not concerned about service quality as such with (Mean=2.88/7). This defiantly shows that quality seems again compromised. Table 3: Quality and Employees feeling

Truly believe in the educational quality Hu sells to students

Proud to work in Hu

I feel good to work in HU

Believe in Hus educational services

N 104 104 104 104 Mean 3.75 4.13 4.00 4.25 Median 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.00 Std.D 1.99 1.70 1.59 1.31

As we can see from the table above, respondents somehow believe in the quality of education Hu sells to students (mean=3.75/7). I addition to that respondents also somehow feel proud and good to work in HU( mean=4.0/7). This means that there is a big room for the quality to be affected by such perception to. Table 4: Quality and Overall satisfaction of employees

I am delivering quality education

I am motivated and satisfied to work in the university

N 104 104 Mean 3.03 3.00 Median 3.50 3.00 Std. Dev. 1.81 1.59

Respondents in the above table that they almost don’t believe that they are delivering quality education in the university (Mean =3.02/7). Moreover they also responded that they are almost not satisfied to work in the university (Mean=3.00/7). This low motivation belief may affect quality education of the university. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSION

HU is somehow weak in promoting customer relations, its services to employees. In addition to that respondents also believe that their personal needs in the university is not met well. Employees didn’t believe that they are delivering quality education in the university. Moreover they also responded that they are almost not satisfied to work


118

in the university .This low motivation belief may affect quality education of the university. Hu staffs somehow marginally believe in the quality of education Hu sells to students. I addition to that respondents also somehow feel proud and good to work in HU. This means that there is a big room for the quality to be affected by such perception. Hu almost didn’t recognize its employees as its customers and it defiantly affects the quality of education. Moreover, respondents also believe that Hu was not concerned about service quality as such. This defiantly shows that quality seems again compromised.

RECOMMENDATION

It is true that it is only a satisfied employee that can create a satisfied customer. Hence the quality of Hawassa University’s education is also determined by the satisfaction of the academic staff which directly delivers the services. Therefore, Hu should intensify the internal marketing concepts application on its employees

REFERENCES

Ahmed P, Rafiq M. 2002. Internal Marketing: Tools and Concepts for Customer-

focused Management. Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 219-32.

Ballantyne D. 2000. Internal relationship marketing: a strategy for knowledge renewal, The International Journal of Bank Marketing, Bradford: 2000, Vol. 18, Iss. 6

Ballantyne D. 2000. The strengths and weaknesses of internal marketing. In Varey, R.J. and Lewis, B.R. (Eds.), Internal Marketing: Directions for Management, Routledge, London, pp. 43-60.

Ballantyne D. 2003. A relationship-mediated theory of internal marketing. European Journal of Marketing, Vol 37,

Berry L. 1974. Are we losing sight of the marketing tasks?, US Investor- Eastern

Banker, Vol 85 No 19, pp.13 and19. (CD ROM Abstract) Berry L. 1983. Relationship marketing. In Berry, L., Shotack, G.L., and Upah,

G.D. (Eds), Emerging Perspectives on Services Marketing, American Marketing Association, Chicago, pp.25-28.

Berry L. 1984b.The employee as customer, In Lovelock, C. (Ed.), Services

Marketing: Text, Cases and Readings, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, pp. 271 –278.

Berry L. 1987. Big ideas in services marketing. Journal of Service Marketing, Vol 1 No 1, pp.5-9.

Berry L, Parasuraman A. 1991. Marketing Services - Competing Through Quality, The Free Press, New York.


119

Berry L, Parasuraman A. 2000. Services marketing starts from within. In Varey, R.J. and Lewis, B.R. (Eds.), Internal Marketing: Directions for Management, Routledge, London, pp. 173 -191.

Berry L. 1981. The Employee as Customer. J. Retail Banking, 3(1): 25-28. Berry L, Conant JS, Parasuraman A. 1991. A framework for conducting a services

marketing audit. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 19 No.3, pp. 260-267.

Berry LL. 2006. The employee as a customer, Journal of Retail Banking, 1981, Vol. 33. Cetin_, I., Brandabur, R., Constantinescu, M., Marketingul serviciilor – teorie _i aplica_ii, Ed. Uranus, 2006

Berry LL, Parasuraman A. 1991. Marketing Services: Competing through Quality, The Free Press, New York.

Berry LL, Parasuraman A, Zeithaml VA. 1994. Improving service quality in America: Lessons learned. Academy of Management Executive 8 (2), 32-45.

Brooks RF, Lings IN, Botschen MA. 1999. Internal marketing and customer driven wave fronts. The Service Industries Journal 19 (4), 49-67.

Budhwar PS, Verma A, Malhotra N, Mukherjee A. 2009. Insights into the Indian call centre industry: can internal marketing help tackle high employee turnover? Journal of Services Marketing, Vol 23, No. 5, pp. 351-362 Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

Cahill DJ. 1995. The managerial implications of the learning organization: a new tool for internal marketing. Journal of Services Marketing, Vol 9 No 4, pp. 43-51.

Caruana A, Calleya P. 1998. The effect of internal marketing on organizational commitment among retail bank managers. International Journal of Bank

Marketing 16 (3): 108–16. Elementary school act. Uradni list Republike

Slovenije 12/1996, 33/1997, 54/2000, 59/2001, 71/2004, 53/2005. Chaston I. 1993. Customer-Focused marketing: Actions for Delivering Greater

Chicago, IL, pp. 236-8. Ewing M T, Caruana A. 1999. An Internal marketing approach to public sector

management. The International Journal of Public Sector Management 12 (1): 17–25. Firm. (4th edn) McGraw-Hill Irwin, NY.

George W. 1990. Internal marketing and organizational behavior: a partnership in developing customer-conscious employees at every level. Journal of Business

Research, Vol. 10, pp. 63-70. George WR, Grönroos C. 1991. Developing customer-conscious employees at

every level: internal marketing. In Congram, C.A. and Friedman, M. L., The

AMA Handbook of marketing for the Service Industries, American Marketing Association, Chicago, pp.85-100.

George, W.R., (1990). Internal Marketing and Organizational Behavior: a Partnership in Developing Customer-Conscious Employees Every Level. J. Business Res., 20 (1): 63-70.


120

Gray L. 1991. Marketing education. Buckingham: Open University Press. Harris, L. C., and E. Ogbonna. 2002. Exploring service sabotage. Journal of Service

Research 4 (3): 163–83. Grönroos C. 1981. Internal marketing: an integral part of marketing theory. In

Donnelly, J.H. and George, W.R. Grönroos C. 1983. Seven key areas of research according to the Nordic School of

Service Marketing. In Berry, L. Shotack, G.L. and Upah, G.D. (Eds), Emerging Perspectives on Services Marketing, American Marketing Association, Chicago, pp. 108-110.

Grönroos C. 1985. Internal marketing - theory and practice. In Bloch, T.M., Block, Upah, G.D. and Zeithaml, V. (Eds), Services Marketing in a Changing Environment, American Marketing Association, Chicago, pp.41-47.

Grönroos C. 1988. A service quality model and its marketing implications. In Greenley, G and Shipley, D., Readings in Marketing Management from

European Journal of Marketing, McGraw-Hill Book Company, London, pp.277-285.

Grönroos C. 1990a. Relationship approach to marketing in service contexts: the marketing and organizational behaviour interface. Journal of Business

Research, Vol 20 No 1, pp.3-11. Grönroos C. 1990b, Services Management and Marketing - Managing the

Moments of Truth in Service Competition, Lexington Books, Massachusetts/Toronto, pp. 221-240.

Gronroos C. 1994. From marketing mix to relationship marketing: Towards a paradigm shift in marketing.

Grönroos C. 2000. Service Management and Marketing: A Customer Relationship

Management Approach (2nd Ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Chichester. Gummesson, E. (1987a). Using internal marketing to develop a new culture.

Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, Vol 2 No 3, pp.23-28. Gummesson E. 1987b. Using internal marketing to develop a new culture –the case

of Ericsson quality. In Czepiel, J.A., Congram, C.A. and Shanahan, J. (Eds), The Services Challenge: Integrating for Competitive Advantage, American Marketing Association, Chicago, pp.13-15.

Gummesson E. 1987c. The new marketing - developing long -term interactive relationships. Long Range Planning, Vol 20 No 2, pp.10-20.

Gummesson E. 1987. Using internal marketing to develop a new culture- the case of Ericsson quality. The Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing 2 (3), 23-28.

Hackett RD, Bycio P, Hausdorf PA. 1994. Further assessments of Meyer and Allen’s (1991) Three-Component Model of Organizational Commitment. J. Applied Psycholo., 79(1): 15-23.

Heskett JL, Jones TO, Loveman GW, Sasser WE. Jr., Sclesinger LA. 1994. Putting the service profit chain to work. Harvard Business Review March-April, 164-174


121

Heskett JL, Jones TO, Loveman W, Sasser WE, Schlesinger LA. 1994. “Putting the service-profit chain to work”, Harvard Business Review, Vol 72 No 2, pp.164-174.

Heskett JL, Sasser Jr. WE, Schlesinger LA. 1997. The Service Profit Chain: How Leading Companies link Profit and Growth to Loyalty, Satisfaction and Value, Free Press, New York.

Hogg, C. 1996. Selling your soul. Human Resources, Vol. 96 No. 25, pp. 88-90. Jauhari V, Hogg G, Carter S. 2000. Employee attitudes and responses to internal

marketing. In Varey, R.J. and Kotler P. 1991. Marketing Management – Analysis, Planning, Implementation and

Control. 7th ed., Prentice Hall, Kotler P, Fox. KFA. 1985. Strategic marketing for educational institutions.

Englewood Cliffs, nj: Prentice-Hall. Lewis, B.R. (Eds.). Internal Marketing: Directions for Management, Routledge,

London, pp. 109 124.Internal and External Customer Satisfaction, McGraw-Hill Book Company Lings I. 2004. Internal Market Orientation: construct and consequences. Journal of Business Research, Vol 57, pp. London.

Manaktola K. 2009. Managing workforce issues in the hospitality industry in India. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp: 19-24

Meyer JP, Allen NJ, Smith CA. 1993. Commitment to Organizations and Occupations: Extension and Test of a Three-Component Conceptualization. J. Applied Psycholo., 78(4): 538-551. 30. Gronroos, C., 1996a. Relationship Marketing Logic, Asia-Australia Marketing J., 4(1): 1-21

Mudie P. 2003. Internal customer: by design or default. European Journal of

Marketing, Vol. 37, No. 9, pp.New York No. 9, pp. 1177-86. No. 9, pp. 1242-1260. organizations: as applied to a Credit Union. Journal of

Professional Services Marketing, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 193-202. Piercy N, Morgan N. 1990. Internal marketing: making marketing happen.

Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol 8 No 1, pp.4-6. Piercy N, Morgan N. 1991. Internal marketing - the missing half of the marketing

programme. Long Range Planning, Vol 24 No 2, pp.82-93. Piercy N. 1995. Customer satisfaction and the internal market Marketing our customers to

our employees. Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science 1 (1), 22-44.

Rafiq M, Ahmed PK. 1998. A customer-oriented framework for empowering service employees. Journal of Services Marketing, Vol 12 No 5, pp. 379-396.

Rafiq M, Ahmed PK. 2000. Advancing in the internal marketing concept: definition, synthesis and extension. Journal of Services Marketing, Vol 14 No 6, pp. 449-462.

Rafiq M, Ahmed PK. 1993. The Scope of Internal Marketing: Defining the Boundary between Marketing and Human Resource. Manage. J. Marketing Manage., 9 (3): 219-232. Am. J. Applied Sci., 5 (11): 1480-1486, 2008 1486


122

Rafiq M, Ahmed PK. 1995. The Role of Internal Marketing in the Implementation of Marketing Strategies. Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Sci., 1 (4): 32-51.

Rafiq M, Ahmed, PK. 2003. Internal Marketing Issues and Challenges. Eur. J. Marketing, 37 (9): 1177-1186.

Sasser WE, Arbeit SP. 1980. Selling Jobs in the Service Sector. Business Horizons, Schlesinger LA, Heskett JL. 1991. Breaking the cycle of failure in services. Sloan

Management Review 32 (3), 17-28. Snoj B. 1998. Management storitev. Koper: Visoka šola za management. Snoj B, Gabrijan V. 20049. Zbrano gradivo za predmet Osnove marketinga.

Maribor: Ekonomsko poslovna fakulteta. Tansuhaj P, Randall D, McCullough J. 1988. A Services Marketing Management

Model: integrating internal and external marketing functions”, Journal of

Services Marketing, Vol 2 No 1, pp.31-38. Varey RJ, Lewis BR. 1999. A broadened conception of internal marketing.

European Journal of Marketing 33 (9/10): 926-44. Vocational and technical education act. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 12/1996, 44/2000, 86/2004.

Varey RJ. 1995. Internal marketing: a review and some interdisciplinary research challenges”, International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol 6 No 1, pp.40-63.

Wasmer DJ, Bruner GC. III 1991. Using organizational culture to design internal marketing strategies”, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol 5 No 1, pp. 35- 46.

Zeithaml VA, Bitner MJ, Gremler DD. 2006. Services Marketing: Integrating

Customer Focus Across the

ZeithamlVA, BitnerMJ. 1996. Services Marketing. McGraw-Hill, Singapore. Zeithaml VA, Berry LL, Parasuraman A. 1988. Communication and control

processes in the delivery of service quality. Journal of Marketing, Vol 52 No 4, pp.35-48.

Zeithaml VA, Parasuraman A, Berry LL. 1985. Problems and strategies in services marketing. Journal of Marketing, Vol 49 No 1, pp.33-46.

hawassa university office of vice president for research ... · pdf filethe office of vice...

Documents