ASSERTIVENESS

There are times in our lives when we find it difficult to deal with certain situations. Two examples of such situations are:

(1) Asking someone to return something that they have borrowed.

(2) Saying, No and then feeling guilty.

(3) Communicating your feelings to a partner, family member of friend.

Our inability to deal with such situations is because we lack assertiveness skills.

In our discussion of negotiation strategies we had mentioned that the confronting strategy is the best one. However confronting conflict is not as easy as it appears to be. Often managers are unable to confront the conflict situation because:

(1) They feel inferior to the other person in the conflict.

(2) They do not possess the necessary skills required for confronting the situation.

(3) The other persons position and power might overawe the manager.

Inability to confront the conflict situation results in managers either suppressing their feelings or expressing their feelings in the form of anger. Neither of them is really helpful in any way and is more often than not counterproductive.

Assertive behavior is an effective alternative to suppression and anger. Assertiveness is the process of expressing thoughts and feelings while asking for what one wants in an appropriate way. Assertiveness involves respecting the rights of others, asking for legitimate changes and giving and receiving honest feedback.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSERTIVE INDIVIDUALS (1) They are not afraid to request the other person to change his/her offensive behavior.

(2) They are not uncomfortable saying No to unreasonable requests.

(3) They are direct, honest and expressive. They express their thoughts, feelings, and ask for what is rightfully theirs but they do so in an appropriate way and without obstructing the rights of the other person.

They are confident, The characteristics of assertive individuals are:

(4) gain self-respect and make others feel important.(5) They have high self-esteem. Irrespective of the outcome, their respect for themselves remains high.

IMPORTANCE OF ASSERTIVENESS People experience a variety of negative emotions and behaviors when they do not know how to be assertive. They experience:

(1) Depression: The person feels helpless and that he has no control over his life.

(2) Resentment: They are furious and angry with others for taking advantage of them.

(3) Frustration: People feel frustrated about letting those events happen that they do no want to happen.

(4) Temper: Individuals who lack assertive skills and are not able to express anger appropriately often throw temper tantrums.

(5) Anxiety: They experience anxiety and try to avoid situations they are uncomfortable in.

(6) Relationship difficulties: Individuals who lack of assertive skills have difficulties in their relationships because they cannot tell others what they want or need or how the other person affects them.

Assertive behavior involves five stages:

(1) Describing the behavior.

(2) Expressing ones feelings.

(3) Empathizing with the other person.

(4) Offering other problem-solving alternatives.

(5) Indicating the consequences.

Assertive behavior is most effective when verbal expression is accompanied by appropriate nonverbal cues. Eye contact, facial expressions, body posture, gestures, and voice modulation all increase the impact of the message.

In contrast to assertive individuals, aggressive people humiliate others. They are demanding, rude, and dominating. They want their own way and have a tendency to violate the rights of others to get their way.

Unassertive people are those individuals who get humiliated or seek sympathy and pity. They find it very difficult to say no to people and other people frequently take advantage of them. They have a very poor self-image.

Assertiveness is not a quality that people are born with. Assertiveness is learnt through conditioning. Hence, it is possible to train people in assertiveness.

# WORK RELATED ATTITUDES

DEFINITIONS

Feelings and beliefs an individual has toward a particular object, place, thing or another person.

Feelings could be positive or negative, pleasant or unpleasant, favorable or unfavorable.

Neutral attitudes are very rare.

# Three COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES

Cognitive Component

Affective Component

Conative Component

# WORK RELATED ATTITUDES

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT JOB SATISFACTION

# ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Positive or negative attitudes individuals have toward their entire organization.

Psychological identification or attachment an employee has with the organization for which he works.

# COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

(1) Acceptance of the values and goals of the organizations.

(2) Willingness to exert effort for the organization.

(3) Having a strong desire to remain with the organization.

Infosys

TISCO

sony

# JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction refers to a set of attitudes that the employees have about their jobs.

Job satisfaction is the favorableness or unfavorableness with which employees view their work.

# FACTORS INFLUENCING JOB SATISFACTION

PERSONAL FACTORS

(1) Sex

(2) Age

(3) No. of dependents

(4) Job experience

(5) Intelligence

(6) Personality

(7) Education

(8) Level of aspiration

(9) Fulfillment of needsORGANIZATION-AL FACTORS

(1) Nature of job

(2) Skill

(3) Occupational Status

(4) Size of organization

(5) Geog. location

(6) Pay

(7) Security

(8) Working conditions

(9) Co-workers

(10) Responsibility

(11) Fringe Benefits

(12) Communication

(13) Supervision

# EFFECTS OF JOB SATISFACTION

Absenteeism

Employee Turnover

Productivity

Tardiness

Violence

Theft

LIFE SATISFACTION

# ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR

A form of Prosocial behavior.

Helping behaviors performed without any hope of external rewards.

Examples of OCB: helping a employee who is overloaded, not taking any unnecessary breaks, not misusing organizational materials.

# SOME ATTITUDINAL PROBLEMS

PREJUDICE

SEXISM

Effects

Performance appraisal

Employment interview.

# WHY STUDY OB ?

First job on account of technical skills.

As people move up the corporate ladder, technical skills don't matter as much. What matters is their ability to manage people.

That's what O.B. is about.

OB helps you to understand people better and hence manage them better.

# The Organizational Iceberg

What sinks a ship isnt always what sailors can see, but what they cant see. What often destroys an organization is not that which is visible to managers but that which is not easily visible.

# What is OB?

Concerned with what people do in an organization and how that behavior affects the performance of the organization.

Studies have found that, ten years out of school, the one business course that managers say they wish they had paid more attention to is Organizational Behavior.

# NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Interdisciplinary

Major contributor Psychology

Misconceptions of psychology

Psychology - a science with limitations

Limitations of psychology are the limitations of OB

No magical MANTRA with OB

Knowledge of OB helps you put forth a meaningful hypothesis.

# SOME MANTRAS (PRINCIPLES) OF OB

Well known but forgotten mantras.

Based on common sense but backed by scientific research.

Gentle reminder.

Constant awareness is the key to managing people.

#THE FIRSTMANTRA

VARIETY is the spice of life.

Each individual is different.

Every individual is unique and special.

An outcome of Nature and Nurture.

Difficult but Challenging & Exciting.

# THE SECOND MANTRA

There is always a REASON.

Behaviors are motivated

Behaviors do not happen in a vacuum.

There is cause behind every behavior.

Understand the cause and you will be able to understand behavior.

# THE THIRD MANTRA

Angora Impara

Latin for And I still continue to learn

Most behaviors are learned

Learning takes place in different ways.

The carrot and stick policy

# THE FOURTH MANTRA

Your world is not my world

Perception.

Each person sees and interprets the world in a unique way .

The reason why two people see the same object in two different ways.

Different perceptions give rise to different meanings.

The world runs on perceived reality.

# THE FIFTH MANTRA

Its all in the mind

Nothing is good or bad, thinking makes it so.

Events are not the cause of how we feel but it is how we think about the events that determines how we feel.# THE SIXTH MANTRA

Whole Person

Employs whole person

Employs the full human being

Not possible to separate family and work life

Focus on whole person and everyone benefits

# THE SEVENTH MANTRA Social System

An organization is very complex and dynamic system.

Many forces at work

Hawthorne Studies

THE JOHARI WINDOW

Our capacity to function effectively in life is determined by our knowledge of ourselves and our ability to understand others. Self-knowledge helps us to prepare better for events and achieve the outcomes that we want. Knowledge and understanding of others helps us to develop satisfying relationships and succeed in our careers.

The Johari Window is a simple tool for making sense of who we are. Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingram (thus the name Johari Window), this model is highly useful in understanding ourselves and people around us.

Luft and Ingham were researching human personality at the University of California in the 1950's when they devised their Johari Window. Rather than measuring personality, the Window offers a way of looking at how personality is expressed.

Luft and Ingham observed that there are aspects of our personality that we're open about, and other elements that we keep to ourselves. At the same time, there are things that others see in us that we're not aware of.Finally, there are aspects of our personality that are unknown to others as well as to ourselves. These different dimensions of our personality can be represented in the form of four windows:

OPEN SELF(Known to others and self)

BLIND SELF

(Known to others but not to self)

HIDDEN SELF

(Known to self but not known to others)

UNKNOWN SELF(Not known to others or self)

(1) Open Self: The open self refers to those aspects of our life that is known to oneself as well as to others. For example, a persons gender, height, approximate weight and so on.

It includes not only factual information, but also information on a persons feelings, motives, behaviors, wants, needs and desires or any other information that a person intentionally conveys to people.

This is our basic public personality. The public area contains things that are openly known and talked about - and which may be seen as strengths or weaknesses. This is the self that we choose to share with others.

When we first meet a new person, the size of this window is not very large, since there has been little time to exchange information. As the process of getting to know one another continues, the size of this window increases.

(2) Hidden Self: This part of the window is also known as the private area or facade. It contains aspects of our self that we know about but are kept hidden from others. The hidden pane of the window is a collection of those things that we keep to ourselves. For example, our secret desires, the girl or boy whom you love, something bad that one has done.

These are those parts of ourselves that we choose not to share with others because we consider them private. Our hidden self cannot be known to others unless we disclose it.

(3) Blind Self: The blind self represents things that others know about us, but we are unaware of. It includes things that others have observed in us but we don't know about. They could be positive or negative behaviors, and they affect the way that others act towards us. For example, a manager may be rude in the way he talks to his subordinates without being aware about it.

The blind area includes things about ourselves which we do not know but others can see, it also includes things that we imagine to be true for ourselves for a variety of reasons but that others do not see at all.

This part of the window is occasionally called the 'bad breath' window. Others know this about it, but we don't know about it.

(4) Unknown Self: The unknown area contains things that nobody knows about us - including ourselves.It includes those aspects of our personality that are hidden from others as well from ourselves. For example, when we are placed in new situations we often learn new information that was previously not known to self or others. This may be because we've never exposed those areas of our personality, or because they're buried deep in the unconscious.

The unknown self shows that we are more rich and complex than that which we and others know. However from time to time something happens is felt, read, heard, dreamed and something from our unconscious is revealed. Then we know what we have never known before.

SELF-DISCLOSURE AND FEEDBACK

The boundaries of the different windows in the Johari window are flexible. That is one can enlarge or reduce the size of a particular window.

There are two processes that affect the shape of the Johari window, they are:

(1) Self-Disclosure: It is the extent to which a person is willing to share information about himself/herself with others. Self-disclosure is not simply providing information to another person. Instead, self-disclosure is sharing information with others that they would not normally know or discover. Self-disclosure involves risk and vulnerability on the part of the person sharing the information.

By sharing information, we become more intimate with other people and our interpersonal relationship is strengthened. (2) Feedback: It is the extent to which others are willing to share with the person. It also includes the extent to which a person is willing to listen to others.The willingness of others to give feedback depends on a persons receptivity to feedback. If the person reacts in anger or by being argumentative then others will feel less reluctant to offer feedback.

Depending upon the level of self-disclosure a person is willing to make and the feedback he is willing to receive, a person may be placed in one of the following four categories:

Open Area

Blind

Area

Hidden Area

Unkno-wn Area

Figure 1.2: The Open-Receptive Person

(1) The Open-Receptive Person: The open-receptive person has a large public area, reflecting someone who is open about himself / herself and receptive to feedback from others. (See figure 1.2) This is the person who has a clear self-image and enough confidence in who he/she is to be visible to others.

This is the area in which we should generally operate to be effective in interpersonal relationships. The more we operate in the open area, the more we understand each other.

Open Area

Blind

Area

Hidden Area

Unkno-wn Area

Figure 1.3: The Interviewer

(2) The Interviewer: The interviewer has a large hidden area, reflecting someone who keeps information to himself/herself. This kind of a person is always asking for information but giving very little information in return. People around this kind of a person feel defensive and resentful. They react to him with irritation and distrust. They are also known as pumpers. (See figure 1.3).

Sharing more information about oneself is the way to decrease the hidden area and increase the open area.

Open AreaBlind Area

Hidden Area

Unknown Area

Figure 1.4: The Bull-in-a-China Shop

(3) The Bull-in-a-China shop: This kind of a person is also known as a blabbermouth. Such a person has a large blind area, reflecting someone who talks a lot but does not listen. This person is preoccupied with himself/herself and does not know when to keep quiet. (See figure 1.4)

Such persons tend to be insensitive to the impact of their behavior on others. They respond to feedback with anger and arguments and hence others are reluctant to give them feedback.

Open AreaBlindArea

Hidden Area

Unknown Area

(4) The Turtle: This kind of a person is also known as the hermit. Such a person has a large unknown area, reflecting lack of self-knowledge and understanding. The turtles behavior tends to be unpredictable. People around them tend to feel insecure and confused about expectations. (See figure 1.5)

We can reduce the unknown area by sharing information and receiving feedback. The best way to reduce it is to encounter new and different situations.

BENEFITS AND RISKS OF DISCLOSURE

Self-disclosure performs several functions. While some disclosure is useful, it can also be damaging to a relationship.

The benefits of disclosure are:

(1) Self-disclosure is one way to learn about how another person thinks and feels. Once a person engages in self-disclosure, it is implied that the other person will also disclose personal information. This is known as the norm of reciprocity.

(2) Mutual disclosure deepens trust in the relationships and helps both people understand each other better. One comes to feel better about oneself and ones relationship when other persons accept what one tells them.

The risks associated with disclosure are:

(1) One risk is that the other person will not respond favorably to the information. Self-disclosure does not automatically lead to favorable impressions.

(2) Another risk is that the other persons will gain power in the relationship because of the information they possess.

(3) Too much self-disclosure or self-disclosure that comes too early in a relationship can damage the relationship.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK

The following guidelines will make giving and receiving feedback more effective.

While giving feedback to another person:

(1) Always focus on the behavior and not on the person.

(2) Be specific. Tell the individual precisely what is right or wrong in his behavior. Do not talk in general.

(3) As far as possible give feedback immediately after the behavior.

(4) Give feedback only if the other person wants and is asking for it.

(5) Give the feedback and leave it at that. It is for the other person to decide what he wants to do with it.

While receiving feedback:(1) Listen attentively.

(2) Do not get angry or upset when you receive negative feedback. If you do then people will hesitate to give feedback in the future.

(3) Allow the person to complete what he is saying. Do not interrupt prematurely, it shows that you are getting defensive,

(4) Thank the person for providing the feedback.

ASSERTIVENESS

There are times in our lives when we find it difficult to deal with certain situations. Two examples of such situations are:

(4) Asking someone to return something that they have borrowed.

(5) Saying, No and then feeling guilty.

(6) Communicating your feelings to a partner, family member of friend.

Our inability to deal with such situations is because we lack assertiveness skills.

In our discussion of negotiation strategies we had mentioned that the confronting strategy is the best one. However confronting conflict is not as easy as it appears to be. Often managers are unable to confront the conflict situation because:

(4) They feel inferior to the other person in the conflict.

(5) They do not possess the necessary skills required for confronting the situation.

(6) The other persons position and power might overawe the manager.

Inability to confront the conflict situation results in managers either suppressing their feelings or expressing their feelings in the form of anger. Neither of them is really helpful in any way and is more often than not counterproductive.

Assertive behavior is an effective alternative to suppression and anger. Assertiveness is the process of expressing thoughts and feelings while asking for what one wants in an appropriate way. Assertiveness involves respecting the rights of others, asking for legitimate changes and giving and receiving honest feedback.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSERTIVE INDIVIDUALS The characteristics of assertive individuals are:

(6) They are not afraid to request the other person to change his/her offensive behavior.

(7) They are not uncomfortable saying No to unreasonable requests.

(8) They are direct, honest and expressive. They express their thoughts, feelings, and ask for what is rightfully theirs but they do so in an appropriate way and without obstructing the rights of the other person.

(9) They are confident, gain self-respect and make others feel important.(10) They have high self-esteem. Irrespective of the outcome, their respect for themselves remains high.

IMPORTANCE OF ASSERTIVENESS People experience a variety of negative emotions and behaviors when they do not know how to be assertive. They experience:

(7) Depression: The person feels helpless and that he has no control over his life.

(8) Resentment: They are furious and angry with others for taking advantage of them.

(9) Frustration: People feel frustrated about letting those events happen that they do no want to happen.

(10) Temper: Individuals who lack assertive skills and are not able to express anger appropriately often throw temper tantrums.

(11) Anxiety: They experience anxiety and try to avoid situations they are uncomfortable in.

(12) Relationship difficulties: Individuals who lack of assertive skills have difficulties in their relationships because they cannot tell others what they want or need or how the other person affects them.

Assertive behavior involves five stages:

(6) Describing the behavior.

(7) Expressing ones feelings.

(8) Empathizing with the other person.

(9) Offering other problem-solving alternatives.

(10) Indicating the consequences.

Assertive behavior is most effective when verbal expression is accompanied by appropriate nonverbal cues. Eye contact, facial expressions, body posture, gestures, and voice modulation all increase the impact of the message.

In contrast to assertive individuals, aggressive people humiliate others. They are demanding, rude, and dominating. They want their own way and have a tendency to violate the rights of others to get their way.

Unassertive people are those individuals who get humiliated or seek sympathy and pity. They find it very difficult to say no to people and other people frequently take advantage of them. They have a very poor self-image.

Assertiveness is not a quality that people are born with. Assertiveness is learnt through conditioning. Hence, it is possible to train people in assertiveness.

# Leadership

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP

There are no bad soldiers; there are only bad captains.

Leadership plays a key role in human resource management. Without leadership an organization would only be a confusion of people and machines.

Leadership is one of the most researched and discussed areas.

Its importance lies not just in industry but in almost every field of life politics, sports, religion, education and so on.

DEFINITIONS

Leadership is defined as the process through which one member of a group (the leader) influences other group members toward attainment of shared group goals.

A leader is a man who has the ability to get other people to do what they dont want to do, and like it.

# LEADERSHIP TRAITS

Great Person Theory

Important leader traits

1. Drive

2. Intelligence

3. Self-Confidence

4. Creativity

5. Leadership motivation.

6. Flexibility.

7. Cognitive ability

8. Honesty & Integrity

9. Knowledge of the business

# Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid

Blake and Mouton identified two behavioral dimensions of leadership:

(a) Concern for people and

(b) Concern for production.

Depending on the level of concern managers show for people and production, Blake and Mouton identified five leadership styles:

Authority Obedience

Impoverished management

Country Club management

Organization man management

Team management

# The Situational Model of Hersey and Blanchard

Leadership is not a one-way affair.

The most important feature of the Situational Leadership theory proposed by Hersey and Blanchard is that it takes into account the role of the followers.

Leadership is an interplay of the following three dimensions:

(1) Task style

(2) Relationship style

(3) Maturity of followers ( Job & Psychological Maturity)

According to Hersey and Blanchard, the key to effective leadership is to match the situation with the appropriate style. There are four leadership styles

(a)Telling Style: High task Low rsp

(b) Selling Style: High task High rsp

(c) Participating Style: Low task High rsp

(d) Delegating Style: Low task Low rsp

# CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP

Charismatic leadership is a result of the followers perception of the unique and larger than life characteristics that they think their leader possesses.

Some notable features of the relationship between charismatic leaders and their followers :

(1) Followers believe that leader possesses divinely inspired qualities.

(2) Followers not only respect and trust them but worship the leader as a superhuman hero.

(3)Unquestioned obedience and acceptance of the beliefs of charismatic leaders by their followers.

(4) Charismatic leaders paint a picture of a future that promises a better and more meaningful life to their followers.

Some of the traits of charismatic leaders are:

(1) A strong need for power.

(2) A high level of self-confidence.

(3) Strong convictions.

Some typical behaviors of charismatic leaders are:

(1)Very good at impression management.

(2) High expectations of their followers.

(3)Charismatic leaders build follower commitment by creating an appealing and attractive vision.

(4)Charismatic leaders build their followers self-confidence by expressing confidence in them.

A dark side of charismatic leaders:

(1)Unrealistic projects

(2) Poor implementation

(3) No successors

LEARNING

Our life is a continuous learning process. Right from the time we are born till we die, we keep learning many things. At birth, we are born with a few abilities determined by heredity. Thereafter all the abilities that we acquire are through learning. We acquire new information and knowledge about different events. We learn new languages and customs and traditions of the society. We develop simple skills such as eating, as well as highly complex skills involved in handling machines. All this is possible because of learning.

Learning is a fundamental process in organizations. Organizations that invest in their employees learning process and create an environment that encourages employees to learn are likely to be more productive and profitable.

DEFINITION AND NATURE OF LEARNING

Learning may be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through experience.

From the above definition, we can see that learning involves three important aspects:

(1) Learning is a change in behavior. However not all change in behavior is due to learning. Those changes that occur due to drugs or injury or maturation are not considered as learning.

(2) The change in behavior is a result of practice or experience. However changes that take place unintentionally are also considered as learning. For example, you hate mushrooms because it made you sick after eating it. This is also learning.

(3) The change in behavior is relatively permanent. It may take some time for the change to occur but it should not be temporary. Learning is said to have taken place only if the change in behavior lasts.CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist is credited for the discovery of learning by Classical Conditioning. Hence classical conditioning is also referred to as Pavlovian conditioning.The findings of Pavlov were accidental. Pavlov did not set out to investigate classical conditioning. Actually Pavlov was studying the process of digestion in dogs. To study salivation, Pavlov implanted tubes in the cheeks of the dog so that he could measure the amount of saliva. During his study Pavlov noticed something strange and curious. The dog in his study began to salivate (mouth began to water) at the sight of the attendant who brought the food.

These unusual findings set Pavlov thinking and he conducted a number of experiments to know more about classical conditioning.

Pavlov believed that classical conditioning was actually learning through association. The association in time between a neutral stimulus (one that does not originally elicit a response) and a stimulus that does get a response.

To study this association, Pavlov conducted experiments in the following manner:

(1) A dog was placed in an apparatus (please see figure: 6.1) that could measure the amount of salivation.

(2) At the beginning of the experiment, Pavlov rang a bell but there was no response from the dog.

(3) Next, Pavlov would ring a bell and after a fixed interval of time a small quantity of meat powder was presented to elicit salivation.

(4) This procedure was repeated every fifteen minutes.

(5) Later when the bell alone was presented, the dog responded by salivating.

Thus an association or connection was established between a neutral stimulus (bell) and a stimulus capable of eliciting a response (meat powder).

In the course of his experiments Pavlov made two important observations:

(1) Frequency: The more frequently the bell is associated with the food; the more often the bell will elicit salivation.

(2) Timing: Pavlov also noticed that the timing of the association between the two stimuli was very important. The best results occurred when the bell was rung half a second before the food was presented. Longer time intervals were less effective.

No learning occurred when the bell was rung at the same time as the food was presented or if the food was presented slightly before the bell.

Importance of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is considered as a form of learning not because new behavior is acquired but because old behavior is elicited by a new stimulus.

Classical conditioning plays an important role in shaping human behavior and has wide applications. Let us now examine some of the major studies conducted to study the influence of classical conditioning on human lives.

(1) Fears are acquired by classic conditioning: Many of our Phobias (intense fears) develop through classical conditioning. This was demonstrated by John Watson in his famous experiment on Little Albert.

Little Albert was an 11-month old child. Initially when a white rat was placed before little Albert, he would smile at the rat and attempt to play with it. Later whenever Albert reached out to touch the rat, an iron bar was struck loudly with a hammer behind Alberts head. The loud noise scared little Albert and caused him to cry fearfully.

This procedure was repeated a number of times. After some time Albert showed a strong fear whenever the rat was placed near him. He would cry loudly and try to crawl away from the rat. Thus little Albert had been conditioned to fear the rat.

(2) What has been learned can be unlearned: John Watson demonstrated this by Counter-conditioning. In counter-conditioning an incompatible response is paired with the conditioned response thus weakening it.

In their experiment, Watson successfully reduced the fear of rabbits in a small child by pairing the rabbit (CS) with cookies (UCS). Initially the childs response to the rabbit was crying and to the cookies was eating. But crying and eating are two incompatible responses that cannot occur at the same time. The cookies (UCS) were presented first. Then the rabbit (CS) was introduced briefly when the child was eating the cookies. After repeated such pairings the child stopped crying even when only the rabbit was introduced.

The importance of counter-conditioning is that it can used to correct and unlearn faulty behaviors.

(3) Classical conditioning influences physiological responses: Classical conditioning can influence physiological responses that we are not even aware of.

In one study, patients who were taking medicines to treat their high blood pressure were switched without their knowledge to a placebo a fake pill. These patients maintained healthy blood pressure longer than other patients whose medicines were stopped but not given placebos. This shows that the patients blood pressure had become a classically conditioned response to the cues associated with taking their medicines.

(4) Classical conditioning also influences sexual arousal. A young boy meets an attractive girl who applies a strong pleasant perfume and gets sexually aroused. This happens a few times. Later on the boy may get sexually excited at the mere smell of the perfume. Classical conditioning has taken place.

Many of the abnormal sexual behaviors are a result of classical conditioning.

As we can see from the above studies, learning by classical conditioning plays an important role in human lives.

OPERANT Conditioning

Operant conditioning is defined as that form of learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of its occurrence.Operant conditioning is based on the law of effect. The law of effect states that a person tends to repeat behavior that is accompanied by favorable consequences and tends not to repeat behavior that is accompanied by unfavorable consequences. In other words, the law of effect states that we tend to learn responses that have rewarding consequences and not to learn those that have punishing consequences.

There are four important ways in which desirable and undesirable consequences influence our behavior. They are:

(1) Positive Reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement is a favorable consequence that encourages repetition of a behavior. It is an event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be made again. For example, the manager praises the employee for doing high quality work.

Positive reinforcement is a process by which people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired outcomes. The behavior that led to the positive outcomes is strengthened and is likely to be repeated in the future.

The effectiveness of positive reinforcement depends on certain important factors:

(a) Timing: The positive reinforcer must be given immediately or within a short amount of time following the response otherwise learning will progress very slowly. For example, the husband praising the wife immediately after a eating a delicious meal will be more effective than the husband praising her a week or month later.

(b) Consistency: At the beginning of learning, positive reinforcement must be given after every response. However it is not necessary to reinforce every response after some learning has taken place.

(c) Rewarding: Positive reinforcement will be effective only if it is rewarding and desirable to the individual. For example, money will not serve as a positive reinforcement to a financially well off employee.

(2) Negative Reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event. It is the process by which people learn to perform acts that lead to the removal of undesired events. In negative reinforcement, the behavior is accompanied by removal of an unfavorable consequence. For example, the employee learns that reporting to work on time prevents a firing from the boss.

Like positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that the response will be made again.

(3) Punishment:

Punishment is any event that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of the response occurring again. Punishment is a negative consequence that leads to a reduction in the frequency of the behavior that produced it.

Through punishment we learn what actions not to perform. For example, when the boss shouts or cuts the pay of the employee for coming late to work, the employee learns not to repeat the behavior.

In our society, teachers, parents and others in authority commonly use punishment for discouraging wrong or inappropriate behavior. Although punishments are widely used it is absolutely essential that we exercise caution in the use of punishments.

Punishment needs to be used with care for the following reasons:

(a) While punishment discourages undesirable behavior, it does not directly encourage desired behavior unless the person is aware about the alternatives.

(b) The victim of punishment may start hating the person who inflicted the punishment. In organizations, employees dislike managers who use punishment and it creates strain in their work relationship.

(c) While punishment may suppress a wrong behavior it does not teach the individual the correct behavior. Punishment by itself will serve no use until the individual is taught the appropriate behavior to replace the inappropriate one.

(4) Extinction:

It is the withholding of significant positive consequences that previously followed desirable behavior. When a response that was once rewarded is no longer rewarded, it tends to weaken and eventually die out. It is extinguished. For example, a manager rewards employees for suggesting ways to improve work. However, if the manager stops rewarding employees for their suggestions then the employees will stop giving suggestions.Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement are rules determining how reinforcements will be delivered. In other words, a schedule of reinforcement is a plan for determining which responses are to be reinforced or rewarded.

Rewarding every desired response is called Continuous reinforcement. Although it would be wonderful if we were rewarded every time we made a correct response but in real life this does not happen nor is it practical.

Organizations tend to follow an intermittent or partial schedule of reinforcement when it comes to rewarding people at work. In a partial schedule of reinforcement, some responses are rewarded while others are not.

There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules:

(1) Fixed Ratio Schedule: It is a schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is given only after a fixed number of responses have been emitted. For example, a salesman is given a bonus every time he sells 5 washing machines.

(2) Variable Ratio Schedule: It is a schedule of reinforcement in which the reinforcement is delivered after a varying number of responses have been made. That is a variable number of responses must elapse between the administration of reinforcements.

Sales people who work on commission are examples of individuals working on this schedule of reinforcements. On a good day the salesman might make a sale after only two calls. However on some days the salesman might have to make 30 calls before he makes his first sale.

The gambling machines in the casinos are also programmed on the variable ratio schedule.

(3) Fixed Interval Schedule: In this schedule, the critical variable is time. In a fixed interval schedule, a fixed period of time must elapse before a reinforcement is administered. In everyday life, weekly wages or the salary we get at the beginning of every month is an example of the fixed interval schedule.

In this schedule of reinforcement, the rate of response drops after the reinforcement but starts increasing as the time for the next reinforcement comes near.

(4) Variable Interval Schedule: It is a schedule of reinforcement in which a variable amount of time must pass before a response is reinforced. For example, the manager checks the work of subordinates twice a month but on which two days of the month is uncertain. Thus the subordinates are kept on their toes all month through.

Shaping

Shaping is a technique that managers frequently use to teach employees behaviors that are beneficial to the organization. It is based on the principle that a little can eventually go a long way.

Shaping may be described as a process of selectively reinforcing behaviors that approach a desired goal behavior. In shaping each successive step that moves the individual closer to the desired response is reinforced.

For example, an employee takes 60 minutes to do a task that ideally should take only 30 minutes. Using the principle of shaping, the employee is initially reinforced if he finishes the task in 50 minutes. Later he is reinforced only if he finishes the task in 45 minutes, 40 minutes and so on until the employee learns to perform the task in the desired time.

The most important feature of shaping is teaching a chain of simple responses leading to the final response. In other words, the final response is learned because the steps leading to it are rewarded or reinforced. In shaping, the individual receives a reward for each small step towards the final goal rather than only for the final response.

In shaping, instead of waiting for the response to occur in its natural course, training begins by rewarding the learner for any step in the correct direction.

USING OPERANT CONDITIONING IN ORGANIZATIONS

In operant conditioning behavior depends on its consequences, hence it is possible to control a number of employee behaviors by manipulating their consequences.

Successful practice of operant conditioning in organizations involves three steps:

(1) Manager must first decide whether he wants to increase or decrease the probability of an employees particular behavior.(2) The manager must then decide on the type of consequence that will follow a particular behavior. Should it be a positive consequence or a negative consequence? Should they hold it or apply it?

(3) Finally the manager should select a reinforcement schedule. The manager must decide on the frequency with which the chosen consequence accompanies a desired behavior.

SOCIAL LEARNING / OBSERVATION LEARNING

(4) The social learning theory was developed by Albert Bandura. According to this theory people learn through observation and direct experience. Social learning is commonly referred to as observation learning or modeling.

(5) Although social learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning, unlike operant conditioning that treats employees like automated machines, the social learning theory recognizes the cognitive (mental) ability and skills of human beings. It treats employees as active participants who are capable of judgment and choice. It accepts that much of employee behavior is consciously chosen.

(6) Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in modeling. We are more likely to imitate those behaviors for which we are rewarded than those for which we are punished.

(7) Studies have found that we are more likely to imitate those models that are high in status, attractive, likeable and successful.

# LEARNINGADAPTING TO THE WORLD AROUND US

Some Stray Thoughts

The most important thing one can learn is to learn to learn.

Learning is not a task to be completed but a process to be continued.

Knowledge is that which is acquired by learning. Wisdom is knowing what to do with it.

# WHAT IS LEARNING?

Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through experience.

# HOW HUMAN BEINGS LEARN?

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Learning through environmental factors. OPERANT CONDITIONING - Learning through consequences of our behavior. SOCIAL LEARNING - Learning by watching those around us.

# CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Before conditioning

Bell ------------------------- No response

Food ------------------------- Salivation

During Conditioning

Bell + Food ---------------------- Salivation

After Conditioning

Bell ------------------------- Salivation

# OPERANT CONDITIONING

BRUCE SKINNER

LAWOF EFFECT

Behaviors that are followed by pleasant or favorable consequences are repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant or unfavorable consequences are not repeated.

# YOU GET WHAT YOU REWARD!

Organizations routinely reward employee behaviors that they are trying to discourage and fail to reward the behaviors they actually want. Here are a few examples of it:

It is a common practice for organizations to provide employees with paid sick leaves as a part of the employees fringe benefits program. Unfortunately sick leave programs reinforce the wrong behavior absence from work. It is not unusual for employees to use up all the sick leaves whether he is sick or not. Such organizations experience twice the level of absenteeism as compared to organizations that do not offer such sick leave benefits.

To avoid this, an American organization introduced a well-pay program that paid a bonus to employees who had no absence for a given period. It was found that this program resulted in substantial savings for the organization, reduced absenteeism, increased productivity and improved employee satisfaction.

Managements often stress the importance of teamwork and the need to build good teams. However, it actually rewards individual accomplishments, then wonders why employees compete against each other!

Senior executives speak loudly about the importance of managers adopting ethical practices but then give a big promotion to a manager who performed splendidly but whose ethical conduct is in doubt.

# Applying Operant Conditioning In Organizations

Observe Behavior

Decide whether behavior should be repeated or terminated

Decide on type of consequence

Select a reinforcement schedule.

# Types Of Consequences

Positive reinforcement

Favorable consequences that encourages repetition of a behavior

Negative Reinforcement

Behavior is accompanied by removal of an unfavorable consequence.

Punishment

Behavior is followed by undesirable consequences

Extinction

Withholding of significant positive consequences

# Schedules Of Reinforcement

Continuous versus Intermittent reinforcement

A plan for determining which responses are to be reinforced.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is provided after a fixed period of time.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a variety of time periods.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a certain number of correct responses.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a variable number of correct responses have been performed.

# SHAPING

Based on the idea that A little can go a long way.

Process of selectively reinforcing behaviors that approach a desired goal.

# SOCIAL LEARNING Learning through observation and direct experience.

Role of Models. (mentoring)

# MAKING OF AN EXPERT

Experts in virtually every area.

Common assumption - innate ability, a special talent, gifted lucky few.

Research has found this assumption wrong.

What is it that makes a person an expert?

Some things never go out of fashion

PRACTICE

Research shows that even the most gifted performers need a minimum of ten years (or 10,000 hours) of intense training before they win international competitions.

# MAKING OF AN EXPERT

Expert practice for at least 10 years and have spent an average of four hours per day in deliberate practice.

Deliberate practice When most people practice, they focus on the things they already know how to do. Deliberate practice is different.

It entails considerable, specific, and sustained efforts to do something you can't do well.

Research shows that it is only by working at what you can't do that you turn in to an expert.

"PRACTICE PUTS BRAINS IN YOUR MUSCLES

MOTIVATIONUNDERSTANDING THE WHY OF BEHAVIOR

WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivation in the industrial setting can be defined as the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals and to satisfy some individual need

Maximum a person is capable of,

Minimum a person can get away with,

Difference between the two is MOTIVATION

DIFFICULTIES IN STUDYING MOTIVATION

Motives vary from person to person

Motives change with time

Inferential

Wide variety of human behaviors

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

DRIVE THEORIES

NEED THEORIES

EQUITY THEORY

EXPECTANCY THEORY

GOAL SETTING THEORY

# DRIVE THEORIES

CONTRIBUTION OF David C. McClelland of Harvard University

3 IMPORTANT DRIVES

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

AFFILIATION MOTIVATION

POWER MOTIVATION

# ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

Achievement Motivation refers to the desire to meet standards of excellence, to accomplish difficult tasks and to do better than the others.

Characteristics Of High Achievers

Individual Achievement

Ability matches with occupation

Moderate risks

Feedback

High Expectations

Accomplishment

Total Involvement

Optimistic

# AFFILIATION MOTIVATION Affiliation motivation refers to the need to be with people and to have close personal relationships. It is the desire to be liked and accepted by others.

# POWER MOTIVATION Power Motivation is the strength of an individuals desire to be in charge, to be able to exercise control over others.

# NEED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory

Alderfers ERG Theory

Herzbergs 2-Factor Theory

# MASLOWS NEED HIERARCHY THEORY

Needs for actualization

Esteem needs

Love needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs

# CLAYTON ALDERFERS ERG THEORYSelf actualization GrowthEsteem Relatedness

Social - Relatedness

Safety Existence

Physiological - Existence

# HERZBERGS 2-FACTOR THEORY

Herzberg found that factors producing motivation were entirely separate and different from factors responsible for lack of motivation.

Herzberg labeled the factors that motivate or produce job satisfaction as Motivators.

Herzberg labeled the factors that are related to job dissatisfaction as Hygiene or maintenance factors

# HERZBERGS TWO FACTORS

MOTIVATORS(1)Authority & responsibility.

(2) Advancement opportunities.

(3) Recognition and appreciation.

(4) Work itself

(5) Achievement

HYGIENE(1) Company policy and administration.

(2) Supervision.

(3) Salary.

(4) Interpersonal

relations.

(5) Working

conditions

__________________________________

Satisfaction No

Satisfaction

_________________________________

Dissatisfaction No

Dissatisfaction

# EQUITY THEORY J. STACY ADAMS

The equity model states that people are motivated to obtain what they think is a fair reward/return for their efforts rather than get as much as they can.

Adams proposed that workers make social comparison between themselves and other people in two areas:

(1) Inputs

(2) Outcomes

# OUTCOMES OF COMPARISON

Over rewarded Inequity

Persons Output > Others Output

Persons input Others Input

GUILT

Under rewarded Inequity

Persons Output < Others Output

Persons input Others Input

ANGER

Equity

Persons Output = Others Output

Persons input Others Input

SATISFIED

# REDUCING INEQUITY

INTERNAL / EXTERNAL

PHYSICAL / PSYCHOLOGICAL

Combined Together We Get

Internal Physical

Internal Psychological

External Physical

External Psychological

# SOME ISSUES

The Question of Over-rewarded inequity

Thresholds of Inequity

# EXPECTANCY THEORY VIKTOR VROOM

The expectancy theory asserts that people are motivated to work when they expect that they will be able to achieve the things they want from their jobs.

Victor Vroom introduced three concepts or three beliefs that people have and which affect motivation:

(1) Valence

(2) Instrumentality

(3) Expectancy

# EXPECTANCY

Expectancy is the belief that ones effort will result in performance.

Expectancy is the

Effortperformance relationship.

Expectancy can range from 0 to 1.

Self-efficacy V/S Imposter Phenomenon

# INSTRUMENTALITY

Instrumentality is the individuals belief that his performance will be rewarded.

Instrumentality is the

PerformanceReward relationship.

Instrumentality can range from 0 to 1

# VALENCE

Valence is defined as the attractiveness of a goal or outcome. It is the perceived value of the reward to the person. Valence is the strength of a persons preference or desire for a particular reward.

The numerical value of valence may range from +1 to 1.

The expectancy theory states that motivation is a product of all the three factors - expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Hence:

Motivation (M) = Expectancy (E) ( Instrumentality (I) ( Valence (V).

# GOAL SETTING THEORY EDWIN LOCKE

Goals are a source of motivation because they indicate what has to be done and how much effort should be exerted.

Goal setting works as a motivational process because it creates a tension in the employee due to the difference between current and expected performance.

# CONDITIONS A GOAL MUST SATISY TO BE MOTIVATING

SPECIFIC GOALS

CHALLENGING GOALS

FEED BACK

OWNED GOALS

Participation

Psychological Contract

Supervisory Support

Rationale

# HOW TO CREATE JOBS THAT MOTIVATE? Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment

The Job Characteristics Model of Oldham and Hackman

a) Skill Variety

b) Task Identity

c) Task significance

d) Autonomy

e) Feedback

MPS = SV + TI + TS ( A ( F

3

# HOW TO CREATE JOBS THAT MOTIVATE?

Empowerment

Employee Ownership Plans

How They Have Made People Rich

100 shares of Infosys brought in 1992 at Rupees 9000 is worth today 12800000 approx. Diividend yield since 1994 Rs 92017.

Rs 10000 invested in Satyam Computers in 1994 is today worth Rs 10.2 lakhs. Diividend yield since 1994 Rs 27,920.

Rs 10000 invested in WIPRO in 1994 is today worth Rs 7.6 lakhs. Diividend yield since 1994 Rs 19,163.

# ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS

Managing Stress

IMPACT OF STRESS

80% of all modern diseases have their origins in stress. In the US, every year organizations lose close to $300 billion on account of employee stress. -- in terms of absenteeism, organizational medical expenses and lost productivity.

Every year American organizations lose about $32 billion due to accidents. Of these 3/4 or $24 billion is due to accidents caused by the employees inability to cope with stress.

In the UK, 40 million working days per year are lost directly from stress - related illness. Costs in absenteeism to British industry is estimated at 1.5 billion pounds per year.

DEFINITION

Stress may be defined as a state of psychological and/or physiological imbalance resulting from the disparity between situational demand and the individuals ability and/or motivation to meet those demands.

S = P > R Stress occurs when the pressure is greater than the resource# NATURE OF STRESS

STRESS IS INDIVIDUALISTIC

STRESS MAY NOT ALWAYS BE NEGATIVE

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS)

STRESS AND COGNITION

# Stress is Individualistic

Causes of stress varies from person to person

Ability to manage stress varies

# GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

Hans Seyle

Alarm Reaction

Resistance

Exhaustion

# EFFECTS OF STRESS

Psychological effects

Physiological Effects

Behavioral Effects

Trauma

Burn out

# PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS Colds & fever

Hypertension

Heart attacks

Ulcers

Arthritis

Paralysis

Impotency

Miscarriages

PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDERS # PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Anxiety

Tension

Boredom

Dissatisfaction

Depression

Moodiness

Loss of self esteem

Inability to concentrate on work

Inability to make decisions.# BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS

Overeating

Undereating

Loss of Sleep (Insomnia)

Excessive Desire to Sleep

Excessive Drinking (Alcoholism)

Drug Addiction

Excessive Smoking

Reckless Driving

Poor Interpersonal Relations

Aggression

Suicide

# EFFECTS OF TRAUMA

Outcome of Devastating and Catastrophic events

PTSD

# CHARACTERISTICS OF BURN OUT

Physical Exhaustion

Emotional Exhaustion

Depersonalization:

Reduced sense of personal accomplishment

# SOURCES / CAUSES OF STRESS

Extraorganizational Stressors.

Organizational Stressors

Group Stressors

Individual Stressors.

# EXTRAORGANIZATIONAL STRESSORS

(1) SOCIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL

CHANGES

(2) ECONOMIC SITUATION

(3) CIVIC AMENITIES

# ORGANIZATIONAL STRESSORS

(1) OCCUPATIONAL DEMANDS

(2) PERSONAL V/S ORGANISATIONAL LIFE

(3) CAREER CONCERN

(4) ROLE CONFLICT

(5) ROLE AMBIGUITY

(6) WORK OVERLOAD AND UNDERLOAD

(7) RESPONSIBILITY FOR OTHERS

(8) ORGANISATIONAL PROCESSES

(9) ORGANISATIONAL POLICIES

(10) WORKING CONDITIONS

# GROUP STRESSORS

(1) LACK OF COHESIVENESS

(2) LACK OF SOCIAL SUPPORT

(3) INTRAPERSONAL, INTERPERSONAL, AND INTERGROUP CONFLICT

# INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS

(1) OPTIMISM

(2) HARDINESS

(3) TYPE A PERSONALITY

(4) LIFE AND CAREER CHANGES

# COPING WITH STRESS

Personal strategies

Organizational strategies

# PERSONAL STRATEGIES

Physical Strategies

(Exercises, Balanced Diet, Regular Habits)

Psychological Strategies

Social Support

Foresight

Engaging Oneself in other Activities

Behavioral Self Control

Relaxation and Meditation

Cognitive Therapy

# ABC of REBT

A

C

A

B

C

# ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES

Create a Supportive Organizational Climate

Reduce Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity

Proper Selection, Placement and Training

Career Development and Planning

Enrich Job Design

Stress Management Programs

(Employee Assistant Programs)

Family Supportive Practices

(Day-care centers & on-site centers or sick children)

# WHAT IS PERCEPTION?

Two types of reality:

(1) Objective reality what truly exists in the world.

(2) Perceived reality is what individuals experience

The world runs on perceived reality.

Perception is the unique way in which each person sees, organizes and interprets things.

Perception is the reason why two people see the same object in two different ways.

# DETERMINANTS OF PERCEPTION

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVED

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVER

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SITUATION

# CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERECEIVED

SIZE

INTENSITY

CONTRAST

NOVELTY

MOTION

REPETITION

# CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERECEIVER

MOTIVES

INTERESTS

EXPECTATIONS

PERSONALITY

ATTITUDE

PAST EXPERIENCES

# PERSON PERCEPTION

PEOPLES BEHAVIOR CAN BE ATTRIBUTED TO TWO FACTORS

Internal (Personal) Factors

External (Situational) Factors

# CONSISTENCY

It is the extent to which a person acts in the same way when he is in the same situation

DISTINCTIVENESS

It is the extent to which the person behaves in the same manner in other situations.

CONSENSUS

It is the extent to which other people behave in the same manner as the person we are judging.

# Behavior is Attributed to Internal Factors

High Consistency

Low Distinctiveness

Low Consensus

# Behavior is Attributed to External Factors

High Consistency

High Distinctiveness

High Consensus

# Errors in Person Perception Self-serving bias

Fundamental-attribution error

# COMMON ERRORS IN PERCEPTION

Halo Effect

Selective Perception

Stereotypes

Projection

Contrast Effect

Expectancy Effect

# PERCEPTION AND ITS IMPACT ON ORGANIZATION

Performance Appraisal

Employment Interview

Corporate Image

# IMPROVING PERCEPTION

Be empathetic

Encourage communication

Consciously avoid perceptual errors

Good Impression management

Know yourself better

Compare your perception with others

Postpone impression formation.

PERSONALITY

How It Influences Behavior In Organizations

# WHAT IS PERSONALITY?

UNIQUE and relatively STABLE patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals.

The way in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.

# WHY KNOWLEDGE OF PERSONALITY IS IMPORTANT ?

Affects perception and behavior.

Personality Types affect human relations

Selection of the right man for the right job.

To develop balanced teams

Different temperaments for different times.

# DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

HEREDITY (NATURE)

ENVIRONMENT (NURTURE)

# HEREDITY

Heredity our biologically inherited characteristics

Those characteristics that we get from our parents.

Example, color of the skin, shape of the nose, color of the eyes are inherited from our parents. Even obesity is inherited.

Influence on intelligence, extroversion-introversion, temperament.

# ENVIRONMENT

PRENATAL ENVIRONMENT

POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENT (SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT)

Family

School

Peers

Culture

# PERSONALITY TRAITS THE BIG FIVE MODEL

O-PENNESS TO EXPERIENCE

C-ONSCIENTIOUSNESS

E-XTRAVERSION-INTROVERSION

A-GREEABLENESS

N-EUROTICISM (EMOTIONAL stability)# BIG FIVE

Openness to experience

The degree to which a person is curious, imaginative, artistic, playful and creative.

Conscientiousness:

The degree to which a person is dependable, organized, thorough, perseverant and honest.

Extraversion-Introversion:

The degree to which a person is social, outgoing, assertive, talkative and expressive.

Agreeableness

The degree to which a person is polite, trusting, good-natured, accepting, co-operative and forgiving.

Neuroticism (Emotional stability)

The degree to which a person is emotionally stable, secure, content and free from depression.

# PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS

SELF-ESTEEM.

LOCUS OF CONTROL

TYPE A PERSONALITY

MACHIAVELLIANISM

ASSERTIVENESS

# SELF-ESTEEM How individuals perceive themselves.

Respecting who you are, not what you are.

Low self-esteem managers:

Concerned more with pleasing others.

Less likely to take unpopular stands.

High self-esteem managers:

Perform better.

Persist longer in the face of adversity.

More satisfied with their work

# LOCUS OF CONTROL

The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events affecting them.

High internal locus of control (internals)

High external locus of control (externals)

# TYPE A PERSONALITY

More prone to stress.

More prone to cardiovascular problems.

Typical characteristics

a) Extremely busy

b) Cannot relax

c) Frustrated

d) Perfectionists

e) High standards.

# MACHIAVELLIANISM

Believe that it is appropriate to behave in any manner that will meet your needs.

Focus is on obtaining and using power to further their own ends, regardless of the impact on others.

Typical Characteristics a) Ruthless

b) Not team players

c) Flourish in a unstructured and ambiguous environments.

# ASSERTIVENESS

Assertiveness is the process of expressing feelings, asking for legitimate changes and giving and receiving honest feedback.

Characteristics of assertive individuals:

1. Not afraid to request the other person to change his/her offensive behavior.

2. Not uncomfortable saying No to unreasonable requests.

3. express their thoughts, feelings, and ask for what is rightfully theirs

4. Confident, gain self-respect and make others feel important.

In contrast

Aggressive people humiliate are demanding, rude, dominating and violate the rights of others to get their way.

Unassertive people get humiliated. seek sympathy, pity and have difficulty to say no. They have a very poor self-image.

Assertiveness is not a quality that people are born with.

POWER AND POLITICSPOWER

Power is the ability to influence other people and events.

It is described as the possibility of imposing ones will on the behavior of others.

TYPES/SOURCES OF POWER

Reward Power

Coercive Power

Legitimate Power

Expert Power

Personal Power

EFFECTS OF POWER

Resistance

Compliance

Commitment

POLITICS

Intentional behaviors that are designed to enhance/protect a persons influence and self-interest.

Politics are an integral and unavoidable part of organizational life.

Political activity is more at higher managerial levels

POLITICAL STRATEGIES

Social Exchange

Identification with higher authority

Selective service

Control of information

Alliances

Networking

Power and status symbols

Power plays

Impression management

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT The ability to protect ones self-image and deliberately influence others assessment of them.

Efforts by individuals to produce favorable first impressions on others.

Two commonly used techniques

1. Self Enhancement

a. Dressing and grooming well

b. Describing one in positive terms.

Others Enhancement

a. Flattery

b. Expressing agreement

c. Showing high levels of interest.

d. Asking for advice e. Nonverbal cues like smiling, eye contact, nodding etc .