islamic stdy

8/14/2019 Islamic Stdy

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Globalization: Challenges and Prospects for MuslimsWritten by Khurshid Ahmad

Abstract

[Globalization, though not a new phenomenon for the Muslim World, holds addedsignificance in view of the position it is assuming as a framework for the reordering ofthe world! "he speed, the spread and the scope of contemporary globalization, in thewake of revolutionary technological advancements, have turned the planet into a village!#elations between communities and nations are being redefined!

$nipolarism, abuse of power and military might, coupled with control over the world%s

resources and media, have given presentday globalization a &uroAmerican identity!"hey have led to gross asymmetries of political power, military strength and levels oftechnological and economic development in different parts and countries of the world!Globalization today can easily be termed as a race between the une'ual!

"he Muslim ummah, historically the best e(ample of a global community, needs toregroup to take up the challenges of our times! )t has an important role to play ininfluencing and shaping the future course of globalization! *utting our own homes inorder re'uires concerted efforts with a clear vision towards reform, capacity building andmultifaceted development of our societies! Aiming for success and embarking on highergrounds in the absence of proper realization, systematic preparation and concrete actions

would be futile! &ngaging the entire globe + especially the West + in a meaningfuldialogue can provide us the opening to deal with all the stumbling blocks effectively!either isolation and autarky nor emotional outbursts and thoughtless confrontation areanswers! + &ditor-

Introduction

&very age has its own fads and clich.s! )n contemporary times, /globalization% seems tohave become one0 at least a sizeable section of the intellectual and political community ofthe world surmises so! #eservations aside, the developments of the past two decades

suggest that globalization no longer seems to be a mere fad or clich.0 it is assuming theposition of a framework for a reordering of the world! As such, it is incumbent on theMuslim ummah in particular and the people of the third world in general to have a deeperunderstanding of what is going on! "hey must be able to sift the grain from the chaff0 toidentify those aspects of globalization that are useful, and as such desirable andacceptable, and those that are in1urious and need to be resisted, modified or adapted tosuit their conditions, needs and aspirations! "he claim of inevitability and universality has


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to be taken with a pinch of salt! 2owever, the response should be positive as well ascreative, since isolation and autarky are not the best options!

Globalization is not new! As far the Muslim ummah is concerned, its e(istence is basedon certain universal values, articles of faith, and principles, which provide the intellectual

and conceptual foundations for globalization! "he Muslims believe in Allah, the 3ord ofthe worlds and the 4reator of the heavens and the earth! "hey believe in all the *rophetsof Allah and the 5ur6an testifies that these *rophets and their followers belong to oneummah![7-

"he 5ur6an makes it very clear that though human beings have been made into tribes andnations + something natural and inevitable + this has been done for mutual identificationonly! All human beings, races and ethnic groups are e'ual and the only basis forsuperiority, greatness and leadership is moral e(cellence! "he 5ur%an says8 9: mankind;3o; We have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes that yemay know one another! 3o; the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in

conduct! 3o; Allah is Knower, Aware!o the conceptual framework of )slam and the Muslim $mmah, even by definition, has aglobal dimension! )n fact, it may rightly be claimed that )slam provides, par e(cellence,the intellectual and moral foundations for an appropriate and sustainable conceptualframework for globalization!

2istorically, the Muslim ummah is the best e(ample of a universal community! ?rom theflood in the age of *rophet uh @oah to our own times, the spread of this ummah is andhas been global! "oday, there are some BC independent Muslim states inhabited by overDEE million people, and over FEE million more Muslims are spread throughout the rest ofthe world! 4onse'uently, in every part of the world, there is Muslim presence + in mostcases, 'uite a significant one!

Globalization as a political, economic, cultural and technological process is not very new!"hroughout history, there have been waves of globalization, the critical vehicles for thisprocess being migration, trade and con'uest! What is indeed new in our times, however,is the spread, the scope, the speed, and finally, the structure that is going to imbue thecurrent trend towards global integration with liberalization, deregulation, privatizationand the hegemonistic contours of capitalism and American power! "hese factorscombined make the globalization of today, to a great e(tent, a uni'ue phenomenon! )t isin this conte(t that limitations of time and space are being annihilated and the entireworld is, willynilly, becoming one global city!

"he most significant aspects of the contemporary phase relate to revolutions intechnologies concerning transport and communication, particularly the processes ofinstant transfer of information! >wift global interactions and decisionmaking via newinformation systems are having farreaching effects on the whole matri( of worldwiderelations, including the movement of goods, services and financial flows! "hese represent


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developments with profound conse'uences, moral, ideological, economic, cultural andpolitical!

)n view of the dominant paradigm of power and civilization, America and &urope remainma1or players in the making of this new world order! American military power and its

outreach, political influence, economic strength, command over technology and almosttotal control over media, bordering on virtual thoughtcontrol, have given globalization adistinct &uroAmerican identity! )n the name of promotion of liberalization, privatization,market economy and modernization, the domination of Western norms, valuesystems oflife, socioeconomic institutions, and finally, political and economic interest is beingestablished over the length and breadth of the world! Along with the state players, threeother powerful actors are in the field, which are8

a "he multinational corporations,

b "he international G:s and

c "he media!

"ogether, they are playing a decisive role in bringing about what can be described as theemergence of a hyperimperialism, giving it the benign name8 6globalization!%

"here is nothing wrong with globalization per se0 however, when the crucial groundrealities that comprise the conte(t of globalization are ignored, serious problems arise! A1udicious and honest approach by the Muslim leadership towards addressing theserealities is a must for affording some relief to the world that is at the suffering end!

Globalization: Some Ground Realities

"he first and the foremost reality of the modern world to be recognized is the fact thatthere e(ist gross asymmetries of political power, military strength and levels oftechnological and economic development in different parts and countries of the world!?oreign rule is nothing new in history! 2owever, &uropean colonial rule, which heldsway over a part of the world for more than four centuries, has something uni'ue about it!?or the first time ever in human history, during this period, a largescale physical transferof resources took place from the colonies to the colonial overlords + the socalled mothercountries! 4onse'uently, the erstwhile global balance was destroyed and a new globalarrangement appeared which established the authority of the Western hemisphere andmarginalized all other regions, cultures and people! uring the twentieth century,although the colonization process apparently reversed, Western power gained furthergrounds because of selective and lopsided development strategies! As a result, today, onefinds a strong centerperiphery relationship that has been embedded into the globalsystem%s political, economic and technological spheres, and which is primarilyresponsible for producing serious deformities and ine'uities!


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3et us glance over certain anomalies! $p until the end of the eighteenth century, the percapita income of &urope, America, the Muslim World and the rest of the "hird Worldwas within a differential of 78 =0 in certain parts of the world, it was in favor of theMuslim World! ?rom the nineteenth century onwards, the trend changed until, at thedawn of the twentyfirst century, HC percent of the world%s gross domestic product @G*

is produced in == rich countries, while the rest of the world, consisting of some 7CEcountries and over fourfifths of mankind, tries to survive on the remaining 7I percent![I-)n 7HEE, &urope%s share in the world%s manufacturing output was hardly =H!7 percent0America6s, less than one percent0 while that of the rest of the world + the socalled "hirdWorld of today + was almost JC!C percent! otably, the share of the Muslim World wasroughly around FE percent of the world G*![F- "his sea change has totally distorted thebalance of power in the world and created a situation where liberalization andglobalization only accentuates the disparities!

"he distribution of wealth is grossly skewed, not only globally, but also within theregions and between persons! "here are gross ine'ualities of wealth and income within

the developed and underdeveloped world! ?orty billionaires alone, according to a 4survey in >eptember =EEI, owned $>DBB billion, which is more than the total wealth ofalmost IE percent of the "hird World countries, the abode of over 7!= billion people!While over a billion persons in the world live on less than one dollar a day, the &uropean$nion gives its citizens a subsidy of $>= per cow per day and this subsidy, in Lapan, is$>C!B per cow per day! &ven in the richest country of the world, the $>A, with a G*that is =J percent of the world G*, over 7= percent of people live below the povertyline![B-

Asymmetric economic wealth is both accompanied and accentuated by asymmetricalpolitical power and military strength! "he e(penditure of the $> alone on its warmachinery is e'ual to the combined defense e(penditure of all the other countries of theworld![J- $> forces are stationed in some FE countries of the world with an outreach toevery corner of the globe! "echnology has reached a state where a target anywhere in theworld can be struck from the $> Military 4ommand stationed in ?lorida! Most of thecountries of the world are dependent on the $> arms systems and supplies for theirdefense0 indeed, the $> accounts for FH percent of the world%s e(ports of arms anddefence systems![C-

)n a world like this, competition and liberalization shall mainly contribute to thedisadvantage of the poor and the underprivileged! Moreover, those who stand for tradeliberalization insist on liberation of the capital markets and flow of goods and servicesonly8 they do not believe in free movement of labor! "his is why liberalization hasbecome an instrument for the neocolonialism and a method for the virtual establishmentover the weak of the dominion of the powerful + particularly the country that todayboasts of hyperpower!

"his being the state of affairs, unless there are safeguards for the weak, globalization cansafely be termed as a race between the une'uals! )t will aggravate a process throughwhich, whatever economic and political wherewithal remains in the hands of the poorer


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blessing for mankind only if it is rooted in shared universal values and commitment to theprocesses and traditions of respect for plurality and acceptance of variety and differencesas authentic! "his calls for a very different psychological and moral approach! )t demandsan approach based on values and geared to achieving the common ideals of 1ustice andfairplay for all! "his is not possible in a climate of obsession with national interests,

regional concerns, unilateralism, cultural arrogance and imperialistic ambitions! ?reetrade is a virtue only if it is also fair trade! >o is the case with every other aspect ofinternational contact and cooperation! What one witnesses today, instead, is aglobalization without the change re'uired in the psychology and mindset of theleadership, and in the dynamics for the use of power at the global level! "he dominantparadigm is fundamentally flawed! 4hange within this paradigm cannot deliver! What isneeded is the change of the paradigm itself! Without a new moral and ideologicaldispensation, the dream of a 1ust global order will remain unfulfilled!

"his brings the discussion to the fourth important dimension! "he new paradigm that canensure healthy and fair globalization, and universal and shared prosperity, must be based

on the values of @a freedom with responsibility, @b individualism tempered with socialconcern and solidarity, @c competition with cooperation and compassion, @d efficiencyand profit motive with 1ustice and fair play, and @e power with rule of law andaccountability! "he incorporation of these prere'uisites warrants a ma1or paradigm shiftto a 1ust order from the dominant civilizational paradigm of the West, which remains onesided, despite the fact that this onesidedness is rooted in partial reality! "he West%s onesidedness stems from its emphasis on freedom, individualism, profit motive, competition,liberalization, efficiency and power, without incorporating within the model the othercoordinates of responsibility, solidarity, cooperation, compassion, 1ustice andaccountability!

3astly, the central issue8 whether the globalization shall take place in the conte(t of thesupremacy of one power + now actually a hyperpower + and one economic system,capitalism, or it shall take place in the framework of a pluralistic world where differentcultures, religions and socioeconomic systems could flourish without the overlordship ofone or a few powerful playersN ?ree movement, dialogue, competition and interaction atthe global level can lead to freedom, wellbeing and opportunity for all, only if this takesplace in a landscape of genuine diversity, plurality, respect for the rule of law andsupremacy of shared values! "his is not possible if only a few dominate while others areforced to follow and succumb!

Globalization: Blessing or Blarney

"he Western creeds of liberalism, colonialism, secularism, nationalism and capitalismhave proved to be parochial and regional as well as racial, classbased and cultureoriented! "hey have failed to prove their capacity to provide fair and e'uitableopportunities to all human beings! Lustice and compassion for all remain elusive andunattainable!


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While certain positive and innovative dimensions of these concepts and ideologies cannotbe denied, their limitations and negative contributions outnumber their positivecontributions and potentials! "he result is undeniable8 globalization within the frameworkof these concepts is creating, and is bound to create, ominous problems, and escalatingserious conflict situations for humanity in every part of the world! "he twentieth century

has been the bloodiest century in history! )t witnessed some two hundred wars includingtwo World Wars, resulting in the death of over 7EE million people and the destruction ofvast lands all over the world! More of the same cannot be anything but more fatal!

ew attitudes and new approaches are needed that are genuinely universal, and capableof providing freedom and opportunity to all and ensuring fairplay for all the people andthe countries of the world, irrespective of their faiths, cultures, politicoeconomicsystems, and positions on world affairs!

emocracy is a great virtue and an invaluable blessing for humanity, but it can onlyflourish globally if there is genuine scope for plurality, respect for the rights of all,

effective accountability of those who disregard the demands of law and establishednorms, and e'uality of opportunity for the weak and the strong alike! :therwise,democracy remains a form without substance and may degenerate into a sham and afarce!

"he media and free flow of information are ma1or building blocks for a free society8however, because of monopolistic overtones and maneuverings, they can become viciousinstruments of thoughtcontrol, mindmanipulation and intellectual colonization!

"echnology, likewise, is a blessing8 but it can also turn into a monster, a vehicle forsub1ugation and decimation of other peoples, morally, militarily, and culturally!

Globalization is a great opportunity, but the weaker players can become genuine playersand seize the opportunities it offers only if there is a new mindset and a fresh approachthat is universal and pluralistic, and is operationalized in the conte(t of a globalframework that establishes supremacy of law and ensures e'uality of opportunity to all!

Muslims! Preparedness for Globalization

"he Muslims, by and large, are not behaving as true representatives of )slam, individuallyor collectively! &conomically, the Muslim World is poor and dependent on the West!*olitically, it is divided like nine pins! 4ulturally, it seems to be in a melting pot! )n thefield of education, research and technological development, it is far behind the rest of theworld! According to a recent study, the total number of books published and translated inthe Arab world is barely e'ual to the number printed in one, rather less developed,country of &urope, >pain!

"he combined G* of all the BC Muslim countries of the world is less than five percentof the world G*, or to put it differently, less than the G* of one &uropean country,)taly + which itself ranks as the fifth or si(th economy in the world! "he bulk of Muslim


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financial resources are in the hands of and under the management of American and&uropean banks and investment and management houses! Muslim countries havedeveloped a consumer economy without a sustainable production base! espite all oftheir wealth and resources, almost all the Muslim countries are languishing under foreignand domestic debt, in a few cases, with menacing conse'uences!

Militarily, the Muslims are not only dependent on the West0 they are helplessly caught inits grip! espite all the e(penditure on defense, they have not been able to even face thethreat that has been hammering at the doors of the Arab and Muslim World for over BEyears in the form of the 9tiny,< yet armedtotheteeth entity of )srael!

"he state of political freedoms, the level of participation of the people in the economyand the polity, and the e'uitable sharing of wealth and power within Muslim societies isin very bad shape! And unless they set their houses in order, it is unrealistic to e(pect that)slam and the Muslim ummah can play their rightful role in the current phase ofglobalization!

"he above being the weaknesses of the ummah today, it should be stated that all is notbad news! "here are certain positive developments and there is definitely light beyond thetunnel for the Muslim World!

Globalization: the Role for Muslims

)t is critical, in this backdrop, to e(amine the role )slam and the Muslim $mmah can playin influencing and shaping the future course of globalization!

Globalization provides a very uni'ue opportunity to )slam and the Muslim $mmah! )slamwith its fundamental value of "awhid, :neness of God, and conse'uently of :neness ofmankind0 of supremacy of the moral over the material0 of integration of spiritual andmundane0 its overriding commitment to 1ustice, beneficence and compassion @aladl waalehsan for all0 and its insistence of shura consultation + as the process for decisionmaking at all levels, can provide a framework for genuine globalization that could be ablessing for mankind!

ut this can become a possibility only if the Muslim $mmah is prepared to take stock ofits present position and pursue a path that is truly representative of the )slamic ethos! "hepresent state of the Muslim $mmah is rather disenchanting!

"he Muslims can seize these opportunities only if, on the one hand, they seriously striveto overcome their weaknesses and drawbacks, and on the other, they open up ameaningful civilizational dialogue with the rest of the world, particularly with the West,as an ummah with a mission! As the 5ur6an says8

9"hus We have appointed you a middle nation, that ye may be witnesses againstmankind, and that the messenger may be a witness against you O


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)f the Muslims pursue this mission diligently and with perseverance, then the promise ofAllah @>W" is very clear8

9?aint not, nor grieve, for ye will overcome them if ye are @indeed believers!


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and respect for the rights of Allah @>W" and of the people @2u'u'ullah and 2u'u'ul)bad!

"hirdly:Muslims must realize that systematic preparation to face the challenge is asmuch a part of an )slamic strategy as unwavering confidence in our mission and

responsibility! Knowledge, character, moral sublimity, economic strength, politicalpower, military capability, technological prowess, and social cohesion are key elementsof this preparation! Without setting our own house in order and mobilizing all theresources at hand to prepare to play the rightful role in the world, nothing can beachieved!

?ourthly8 "he Muslim ummah have no option but to move towards greater cooperation,unity and collective selfreliance! #egional groupings, trade and financial arrangements,educational and technological alliances, and political coordinations are stepping stonesto a global order that is more balanced and 1ust, and that represents a fair state ofe'uilibrium between different nations, sociopolitical systems and civilizations! Muslim

unity could be an effective guarantee against decimation of Muslim countries and theeclipse of their civilizational identity in the face of the onslaught of unmanagedglobalization!

Muslims should not be merely at the receiving end0 they must plan and preparethemselves to play a positive role both to protect their identity and interests, and to makethe world a better place for all!

?inally8 Muslims must realize that emotional outbursts and thoughtless confrontation areno answers to the multidimensional challenges the ummah faces today! )n fact, as anummah with a mission, the right course of action for the Muslims is dialogue, contact,participation, and cooperation at the global level! "his must be an essential component oftheir strategy! "heir response to the global challenges must be proactive and positive0 thatis the only way, not only to survive, but also to make their own mark on history!

[7- al5ur%an =I8 B= *)4K"2A38 9And lo; "his your religion is one religion and ) amyour 3ord, so keep your duty unto Me!ilent "akeover8 Global 4apitalism and the eath of emocracy@3ondon8 William 2einemann, =EE70 Lohn Gray, ?alse awn8 "he elusions of Global4apitalism @3ondon8 Granta ooks, 7DDH0 William Greinder, :ne World, #eady or ot8"he Manic 3ogic of Global 4apitalism @ew Pork8 >unrise Q >chuster, 7DDC0 Wayner&llwood, "he oonsense Guide to Globalization @3ondon8 Rerso, =EE7!

[J- Antes #oddick, "ake it *ersonally8 2ow Globalization affects you and powerful waysto challenge it @3ondon8 2arper 4ollins, =EE70 2ertz @=EE7 cited in B0 Military&(penditure and Arms "ransfer @Washington, !4!8 Government *rinting :ffice, 7DDB!

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[H- al5ur%an =8 7FI + tr! *)4K"2A3!

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Islam and %emocracy: Some Conceptual and Contemporary %imensions

Written by Khurshid Ahmad


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As the twenty first century begins and humanity enters its third millennium, the world isawash with dazzling new claims and dis'uieting apprehensions! :n the one hand, thereare claims about the demise of 4ommunism, the end of the 4old War and the finalvictory of Western liberalism, political and economic, heralding the /end of history!% :n

the other, there is widespread hue and cry about religious resurgence and the e(plosion offundamentalisms the world over and apprehensions about a new era to be marked by a/clash of civilizations!% )t is time sober intellectuals, particularly those representing theMuslim $mmah, address themselves to the issues that are being debated in the academicworld as well in its corridors of powers, and try to rethink the strategy of )slam and theMuslim $mmah visSvis these challenges! >ome of the ma1or issues agitating humanitytoday and the direct concern of the $mmah, include8 Globalization, 3iberalization,emocratization, *rivatization, >ecularization, #eligious #esurgence and the spectre of)nternational "errorism! )n this paper, ) propose to e(amine some aspects of theemocratization debate!

"his paper argues that /democracy%, as it has developed in the conte(t of Westerncivilization and polity, is neither a monolithic concept nor a totally uncontested one! )t ismore appropriate to suggest that democracy remains a multifaced phenomenon, both atthe conceptual as well as the operational levels! )t is, therefore, intellectuallyunacceptable and culturally untenable to assume that a particular Western model ofdemocracy must be accepted as an ideal form of polity for the entirety of mankind,particularly for Muslims, who have their own distinct moral and ideological identity andhistoricocultural personality! Globalization may be the trend of the times, but it cannotbe allowed to become a rubric of neocolonialism!

Western democratic thought and e(perience, despite their richness and variety, are found,on deeper reflection and analysis, to be conceptually flawed and riddled with operationalcontradictions, deformities, and failures! W!! Gallie has rightly called it an /essentiallycontestable concept!% )ts simple /e(port% to the Muslim world, as also to other "hirdWorld countries, is not a realistic option! As such, efforts to indiscriminately promotethrough pressure, manipulation or outright imposition any form of Western seculardemocracy as an active goal of foreign policy of the $nited >tates and other Westernpowers is highly illadvised! "his author further submits that it is desirable to differentiatebetween the two ma1or dimensions of democracy, i!e! its philosophic roots8 the concept ofpopular sovereignty and conse'uent principle of legitimacy based e(clusively on popularsupport0 and its operational mechanisms ensuring people%s participation in governance inorder to discern the will of the people as to the choice of rulers as well of policies andprograms! )t is also the contention of this writer that within the conte(t of )slamic faith,culture, history and contemporary e(perience, there are clear lines of guidance whichsuggest a uni'ue and distinct political framework that can rightly be described as trulyparticipatory, both in substance and spirit and capable of establishing a political ordercommitted to the twin goals of adl @1ustice and shura @consultation, the real substance ofoperational democracy! More importantly, any effort to force secular democracy downthe throats of Muslims is possible only through despotic rule! #eal democratization,giving the people a chance to freely fashion their affairs according to their ideals and


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aspirations, cannot but lead to )slamization, as the two represent two sides of the samecoin!

"he )slamic political order is based on the concept of "awhid and seeks it flowering inthe form of popular vicegerency @Khilafa operating through a mechanism of >hura,

supported by the principles of e'uality of humankind, rule of law, protection of humanrights including those of minorities, accountability of rulers, transparency of politicalprocesses and an overriding concern for 1ustice in all its dimensions8 legal, political,social economic and international! "he >hari%ah provides the broad framework withinwhich the people under the umbrella of ivine Guidance participate in developing a civilsociety and its institutions, including all the organs of state! "he )slamic model also hasthe potential for establishing authentic sociopolitical pluralism! As such, it provides forthe healthy coe(istence of religions, ethnic and linguistic groups, cultures andcivilizations at national and global levels! "he system possesses vertical consistency aswell as horizontal harmony in a way that can ensure the establishment of peace and a 1ustsociopolitical order for all human beings in an era when the whole world is becoming a

global city!%emocracy: "he #estern Perspecti&e

"he word democracy entered the &nglish language in the si(teenth century from the?rench democratie! "he word is Greek in origin being derived from demokratie, the rootmeaning being demos @people and kratos @rule!

As far as Muslim literature is concerned, the term 1umhariyat was first used in the"urkish language in the eighteenth century and was derived from the Arabic word1amhur, meaning people or assembly or collection of people! "he term was used withreference to the ?rench #epublic!

emocracy, as such, refers to a form of government in which, in contradistinction toaristocracy, monarchy, dictatorship or authoritarian rule, the people are regarded as thereal source of power and point of reference in respect not only of the principles andmodes of governance, but also as the real source of values, principles, ideals and policies!)t is the people who are looked upon as sovereign, en1oying the right to rule and to whomthose in authority are accountable! "he term democracy indicates both a set of ideals andprinciples and a political system, a mechanism for governance and a politicolegalculture! "he real test of democracy is its principle of legitimacy, laying down that poweris legitimate only when it is derived from the authority of the people and is based on theirconsent! )n the post#enaissance era of &uropean history, the kings% divine right to rulewas challenged! "here was a popular rebellion against the monarchies of &urope and theiraristocratic regimes as well as against the authority of the church and its ecclesiasticalrule! )t was in this conte(t that the principle of sovereignty of the people was e(pounded,severing the relations of politics with religion and divine authority! /"he *eople% wereaffirmed as the source of political power and the real arbiter of their own fate! "hey werecrowned as the source of all values and authority0 their wellbeing and empowermentbecame the real goal of all political effort!


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"he philosophical roots of democracy lie in the concept of /popular sovereignty!% )tconsists, on the one hand, of denial of the e(istence or at least the relevance of eternalreligious guidance and absolute moral values in matters of political governance, and onthe other, the affirmation that the people, their popular will, be accepted as the real sourceof all authority and power! )n short, legal as well as political sovereignty was located in

the people, giving rise to a variety of forms and e(pressions of democratic polity8 direct,representative, functional, parliamentary, republican, federal, proletarian, etc! 9"hecentral principle that drove democratic demands along during the nineteenth century,oviet$nion and the nonWestern one! "his is not a prophecy of a clash of civilizations but awarning against facile universalism!hari%ah that has been revealed for hisguidance so as to be at peace with him or herself, with the universe and with his 3ord, the4reator! "his would bring peace, 1ustice, bliss and prosperity in this world and ensure realsalvation in the hereafter!All human beings are e'ual before the 3ord and sub1ect to the same 3aw that 2e hasordained! "he )slamic political system is based on the principle of the sovereignty ofAllah and the supremacy of the >hari%ah! "he legitimacy of the system comes from theloyalty and obedience to Allah and commitment to follow and establish the >hari%ah! "he5ur%an is very e(plicit on this point89Rerily 2is is the 4reation and 2is is the 3aw!overeign and 2is 3aw, i!e! the >hari%ah as the>upreme 3aw, and secondly, the governance of society by and in accordance with thewill of the people! "hose in authority must en1oy the confidence and support of theMuslims, the $mmah, the real repositories of Khilafa! )t is very clear from the verse'uoted above that the authority or assignment to rule over the earth has been promised tothe whole community of believers and not to any particular person, class, family orgroup! "he istikhlaf granted to the faithful is in the nature of a popular vicegerency +each and all have been given this assignment! "hat is why the mode of decisionmakingfor the $mmah has been described as shura, i!e! their affairs are conducted throughconsultation among themselves! All are e'ual as members of the society and the criteria


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for e(cellence and leadership is tied to their 'ualities of trustworthiness, competence andta'wa8 i!e! Godconsciousness, dutifulness and sense of accountability! "he 5ur%an saysthat8

9"he most honorable in the sight of Allah is the one who e(cels in piety and

heedfulness!hura @consultation and participation in


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decisionmaking is its way0 this is the process of decisionmaking at all levels, in respectof all its affairs, social, economic, political or otherwise! *ersons in authority must en1oythe trust and confidence of the people and be accountable before them! As such, politicalauthority and powermaking have to be devised on the basis of the supremacy of the>hari%ah and the consent and confidence of the people! Accountability is not only before

God, it is also before the law and the people! Any political arrangement is possible aslong as these principles and values are fully respected! As )slam%s guidance is absolute,universal and eternal, it has been left to the $mmah to develop different forms,institutions and mechanisms suitable to different sociohistoric conditions! A variety offorms and arrangements are possible within this framework, some have been e(periencedin the past! ew e(periments and arrangements can be made today and tomorrow! "his isthe beauty and potential of )slam! "his has been the distinctive feature of the Muslimhistorical e(perience spread over fourteen centuries!"he Muslim &(perience

"he *rophet Muhammad @pbuh set a model not only in respect of his personal life and

intense spiritual relationship between humans and God, but he also established a societyand a state that has been the pacesetter for the Muslim politicohistorical e(perience! "hecovenant of alA'ba )) @bayat ala'ba althani and the covenant of Madina @Mitha'Madina constituted the cardinal foundations on which the society and state of Medinawas founded! "he )slamic political model, in the eyes of the $mmah, was e(emplifiedduring the period of the *rophet and the four #ightlyGuided 4aliphs @alKhulafa al#ashidun! >ome of the distinctive aspects of this model are as follows8"he #ule of 3aw and e'uality of all before the law, as discussed earlier!"he supremacy of the 5ur%an and >unnah, and resort to )1tihad in matters not covered bythese sources! )1tihad is informed and disciplined rational effort to find out solutions tonew 'uestions of law in the light of the general principles of the >hari%ah!

"he entire corpus of Muslim law, perhaps the greatest contribution of the Muslims tocivilization, has been developed through a rational, democratic and popular process, inwhich the learned and the concerned participate through debate, dialogue and discussion!"his was the voluntary acceptance of and submission to the law so developed by the$mmah that gave legitimacy to different schools of law! )t is one of the ma1or wonders ofhistory that law in the Muslim society was never derived from the will of the rulers, aswas the case in other contemporaneous societies and cultures! "he entire legal systemevolved outside the corridors of political power and, once established, the rulers were asmuch sub1ect to this law as were commoners! "his has worked as a great check onarbitrary power and has entrenched the true credentials of concept of participatorydemocracy in Muslim society! Lohn 3! &sponsito and Lohn :! Roll say in )slam andemocracy8 9)n the longstanding or /oriental despotism,% there is no sense of aseparation of powers of structures limiting the power of the ruler! 2owever, suchunlimited power was not available to leaders in classical Muslim societies and thissituation is visible both in )slamic law of political structures and in actual historicale(perience O )t was the consensus of those scholars and not the commands and rules ofthe 4aliphs, that provided the basis for formal )slamic law! o ruler was recognized asbeing above the law, and all rulers would be 1udged by that law!


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>hura was the mechanism for decisionmaking as much as for the selection of thepolitical leadership at all levels! "he first four 4aliphs were selected by the community,although the methods of selection and approval differed! "he common principle was theconsent and confidence of the community and accountability before them! &ven whenthis principle of the community%s choice was abandoned and heredity rule crept in, the

fiction of bay%a @people%s acceptance of the rulers continued! "he institutions or nasiha@advice, shura @consultation, ikhtilaf @disagreementTdifference of opinion, alamr bilmaruf @commanding right and virtue, alnahi an almunkar @forbidding wrong and vice,and hisba @public accountability and ombudsman ship continued to play important rolesat all times and in a variety of ways!#espect for human rights and contractual obligations in respect to the people in generaland to minorities and friendly states and communities in particular has been a perennialfeature of Muslim polity!"he separation of the 1udiciary from the e(ecutive and its total independence at all levelshas been another cardinal feature of the Muslim e(perience! "his is why rule of law andaccess to 1ustice for all remained inalienable aspects of Muslim society! "his, by and

large, protected Muslim lands from the tyranny of arbitrary rule! "his principle of theseparation of powers, established as it was during the period of the #ightlyGuided4aliphs, continued in later periods despite certain degeneration in the system! "hesupremacy of the constitution, i!e! )slam, remained an integral part of the Muslime(perience! &sposito and Roll record a certain aspect of it in the conte(t of :ttoman rule,that8 9"he $lama of the imperial system had the accepted right + which was not oftene(ercised because of political reasons + to invalidate any regulation issued by the >ultanif they 1udged it not to be in accord with )slamic 3aw! &ven more, the head of thehierarchy of the official $lama in the empire, the >haykhal)slam, could issue 1udgmentsdeposing the >ultan for violating the basic )slamic 3aw! Although this power wase(ercised infre'uently, it actually was e(ercised in the depositions of >ultans )brahim@7JFH, Mehmud )R @7JHC, Ahmed ))) @7CIE, and >elim ))) @7HEC! )n these formalactions, the historic check on the power of the ruler formed by the fact that the $lamawere the representatives of the /constitution,% that is the )slamic law, is fully reflected! )tshows the potential dimension of the separation of powers in the )slamic heritage!upreme 3awGiver and the>hari%ah is the law of the land! Within the framework of the >hari%ah, new problems arefaced and their solutions worked out! "his represents the cardinal difference between thetwo! As far as the principles of rule of law, protection of fundamental rights,independence of the 1udiciary, the rights of minorities and choice of policies and rulers inaccord with the wishes of the people are concerned, )slam ensures them within its ownframework! With respect to some of these matters, there e(ists vast common ground withWestern democracies and, as such, to that e(tent Muslims can learn from the e(perienceof the contemporary West, as others can learn from theirs! ut because of the basicdifferences as to the source and nature of law, the two systems are distinct and uni'ue!


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"he )slamic state is characterized by the supremacy of the >hari%ah, yet it is diametricallydifferent from theocracy, as it has been known in history + *aranoiac, abylonian,Lewish, 4hristian, 2indu, and uddhist! "he differences are very fundamental!

"heocracy stood for divine rule through an ecclesiastical class whose word became the

law, undisputed and indisputable! )n )slam, there is no priestly class! Allah is the>overeign! 2is Will is clearly available in the form of the 5ur%an and the >unnah! "he>hari%ah is a known 'uantity, available to all and not a divine secret known only to thepriesthood! )n )slam, there is no possibility of any group of people imposing theirpersonal will or preferences over others in the name of God! )t is through an open processof debate and discussion that the law is developed and implemented! All participate inthis process! *recisely, the differences are8"he >hari%ah, the epitome of ivine Will, is available intact, unpolluted and unpollutableby any change or interference!"here is no class of religious intermediaries or official spokesmen for God! *rophethoodhas come to an end! "he guidance has been perfected! ow it is the community, which

has to understand and implement the ivine Guidance in the light of changing humanscenarios!"he individual is the cornerstone of society, which ensures his freedom, rule of law andrespect for opposition and opponents! "he people and the press are free to discuss andresolve problems through >hura! "he entire )slamic fi'h has developed through a processin which the community and its representatives have participated in an open process! "he)slamic state and society are concerned with all the physical and worldly problems ofhumans and try to solve these problems in accordance with the principles of 1ustice andsocial wellbeing! "he entire domain of the secular world is the concern of )slam and theMuslims! Pet the )slamic and secular approaches are fundamentally different! "he*rophet @pbuh has said that the entire landscape of the world is my mos'ue! As such, the)slamic domain is e'ually concerned with all parts of the world! )t is neither of the &astnor of the West, but truly universal! >imilarly, it covers all matters of human e(istence,spiritual or worldly! "o that e(tent, )slam has no 'uarrel with secularism, which was areaction to those religious traditions, which neglected the secular world and confinedtheir interest to the spiritual realm alone! )slam also accepts principles of tolerance @9thereis no compulsion in religion< in the 5ur%an and pluralism and gives to all human beingsthe right to belief and profession! )t accepts the multiplicity of cultures and communitylifestyles! "his is part of the )slamic matri(! )slam is at war with secularism with respectto its claim to solve all human problems without reference to religion, ivine Guidanceand absolute moral values! "his is the very antithesis of the )slamic approach to life! :nthat count, the two represent two worlds apart!

Although communism and fascism are no longer dominant political ideologies, there arepeople who still subscribe to some variant or aspect of these ideologies! oth of them areproducts of certain historic and sociopolitical situations within the conte(t of Westerncivilization! 4entral to these had been the totalitarian character of the state! othrepresented different kinds of dictatorship and authoritarian rule, despite the faUade ofelections and parliaments! )n )slam, there is no place for arbitrary power! )slamestablishes the state as one of the organs of civil society and affirms the centrality of the


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individual, his rights and role in the making of political decisions! "he )slamic state is acreature of law and the rulers are as much accountable before the law as any other citizen!)n fact, the )slamic state does not confer upon its functionaries even those immunities,which are common in many Western democracies! 2uman rights in )slam are inviolable,as sacred covenants from Allah @>W"! "he individual is respected as the basic unit of

society and as moral being, finally accountable before Allah as an individual! &veryhuman being is a sacred entity and is morally responsible for all his choices and actions,here and hereafter! "he individual has to behave with a sense of social responsibility buthe is not a mere lifeless cog in the wheel of the state! As such, there is all the differencein the world between the )slamic political order and the dictatorial and authoritarianideologues of our time!

)n view of this comparative analysis, we would like to conclude that the )slamic politicalsystem is uni'ue, despite some similarities with other political ideologies! )slam is anorganic whole and aims at establishing a society that is not confronted with the dilemma

of a /moral human in an immoral society% or of humans herded in an /animal farm!% )slamwants to ensure the simultaneous flowering of the spiritual and material potential of allhuman beings, enabling them to live in peace and 1ustice, serving the higher moral idealsof life, aiming at God%s good pleasure and eternal bliss! "he )slamic state is anideological, educational and consultative state providing a sociopolitical framework inwhich real democracy can flourish!)slamic #esurgence and emocratization8 "he 4ontemporary 4hallenge

"he contemporary Muslim world is faced with a uni'ue challenge! ?or the first time inhistory, Muslims have lost their hold over power and almost the entire Muslim world hasbeen under the yoke of colonial rulers! uring this long night of colonial dominationspread almost over two centuries, it also suffered intellectually, morally, economicallyand culturally! "he worst part of this ordeal related to the gradual disintegration of)slamic institutions, which had sustained the $mmah for some twelve centuries andenabled it to brace challenges from within and without! )t was under colonial rule that anumber of institutions were imposed upon Muslim lands through transplantation from theWest as a part of its socalled /civilizing mission% @/the White Man%s urden%, which infact represented the worst part of imperialism! 3aw, 1udiciary, economy, education,administration, language, literature, arts, and architecture, in short all elements of societyand culture were sub1ected to forced Westernization!

"his colonial rule also led to the production of a new type of leadership from within theMuslim society, the babu class, as described by historian Arnold "oynbee, a class ofpeople who had no roots in their own faith, culture and history, and who tried to developa new identity in the shadow of colonial rulers! "his class began to embody not only thevalues and precepts of the dominant powers, but also its interests, and acted and operatedin collaboration with local and e(ternal vested interests! While the mass movement forindependence from foreign forces of nationalism in the Muslim world had developed an)slamic identity, this class remained imbued in Western values and acted, consciously orinadvertently as agents of imperial powers! y and large, after independence, the reins of


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political power in most Muslim countries fell into the hands of the Westernizedleadership groomed during the colonial period, with continued linkages with the cultureand political designs of the West! )t is a tragic fact that not only were the politicalboundaries in the Muslim world carved by foreign rulers, but the new institutions and thenew leaderships were also products of this colonial age! "his is the phenomenon that lies

at the root of the current crisis and discontent in the Muslim world! )slamic resurgenceand popular participation in political decisionmaking are two aspects of the samephenomenon! "he effective sharing of power by the people and the reconstruction of thesociety and polity in the light of the )slamic ideals of the people are part and parcel of thisprocess! "his is possible only if there is trust, harmony, and cooperation among thepeople and the rulers! ut the rulers who inherited power from the colonial powers andthe people are not on the same ideological, moral or political wavelengths! "he rulerswant to change society and its institutions in accord with the concepts and values ofWesternization and its ideological icons + secularism, nationalism, capitalism, socialism,etc! "hey want to introduce laws, institutions and policies derived from Western models!"he people regard this as something against their faith, values and aspirations! "hat is

why despite independence, the system of government has per force and per designremained despotic and arbitrary, with some e(ceptions! "he lesson of history is veryclear8 secularization and Westernization of Muslim lands is not possible without arbitrarypower!

"here is no incompatibility between )slam and a truly democratic system based onpeople%s participation and powersharing! :n the contrary, democratization in the senseof freedom of the people, fundamental rights and people%s participation and )slamizationare natural corollaries! "he conflict is between people%s )slamic aspirations and thesecular and Westernizing ideals and policies of the ruling elite! )t is only through despoticpowers that non)slamic ideas and laws can be imposed on the Muslim people! All theincompatibility is between these two different visions and real democracy is the firstcasualty of the secular Westernizing bulldozer! American sociologist, ?ilmer >!4!orthrop has, with great perception, put his finger at the right spot! 2e says8 9) believethis is one of the reasons why such law @i!e! secular law usually has to be put in first by adictator! )t cannot come in as a mass movement because the masses are in the oldtradition!< V

Wilfred >mith also makes a very interesting observation in the conte(t of the *akistanisituation! 2e says8 9)nsofar as an &astern nation becomes truly democratic, that is,reflecting its own nature, to that e(tent it becomes unWestern )nsofar as *akistan isreally democratic, and not merely superficially so, to that e(tent it will be )slamic ratherthan Western!< >mith bluntly says that without )slam, democracy is a 9useless 1argonunworthy of emulation!< As such, democracy becomes 9an aspect of its )slamicness, apart of the definition of their )slamic state!ummer 7DDI, ==FD! >ee, also, the debate on this thesis, ?oreign Affairs, vol! C=, o! F,==J and o! B, 7HJDF! Also, 2untington%s book, "he 4lash of 4ivilizations and the#emaking of World :rder @ew Pork8 >imon and >huster, 7DDJ!

Gallie, W!! @7DJF! *hilosophy and the 2istorical $nderstanding! 3ondon8 4hatto Windus! 7BH

>ee! &ncyclopedia of )slam

Lay, #ichard! @7DDF! 9emocracy!< *olitical )deologies8 An )ntroduction! 3ondon8#outledge! 7=D

)nternational &ncyclopaedia of >ocial >ciences, "he Macmillan 4o!, vol! I, 77I77H!

4arothers, "homas! 9emocracy without )llusions!< ?oreign Affairs, Lan!T?eb! 7DDC, DE!

Macmpherson, 4! ! @7DJJ! "he #eal World of emocracy! :(ford8 4larendon *ress! 7!

4ar, &! 2! @7DB7! "he ew >ociety! 3ondon8 Macmillan! CJ! 9"o speak today of thedefence of democracy as if we are defending something which we know and hadpossessed for many decades or many centuries is selfdeception and sham O "hecriterion must be sought not in the survival of traditional institutions, but in the 'uestionwhere power resides and how it is e(ercised! )n this respect, democracy is a matter ofdegree! >ome countries today are more democratic than others! ut none is perhaps verydemocratic, if any high standard of democracy is applied!ome of the ma1or works consulted are8 avid 2elf,Models of emocracy @$!K! 7DHC0 Lohn Kean, emocracy and 4ivil >ociety @3ondon,7DDH0 #obert A! ahl, emocracy and its 4ritics @ew 2aven, 4", 7DHD0 avid 2eld,9emocracy, the ative >tate and the Global >ystem,< in avid 2eld @ed! *olitical"heory "oday @4ambridge $!K! 7DD70 #obert A! ahl, A *reface to emocratic "heory@4hicago, 7DJI0 Giovanni >artori, "he "heory of emocracy #evisited @4hattam, !L!


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orthop, ?ilmer >! 4! @7DBF! 4ollo'uium on )slamic 4ulture! *rinceton $niversity*ress! 7ED!

>mith, Wilfried 4! @7DBF! *akistan as an )slamic >tate! 3ahore8 Ashraf! BE

ibid, FB

&sposito and Roll, op!cit! =7

&ickelman, ale ?! and *iscatori, Lames! @7DDJ! Muslim *olitics! *rinceton $niversity*ress! 7JF

Islam in the #estWritten by Khurshid Ahmad, Xahid ukhari

Introduction

Many scholars classify the )slamic World into si( cultural zones8 the Arab world0 sub>aharan Africa0 the "urkish zone, including 4entral Asia and even central &urope0 the

*ersian Gulf0 >outh Asia0 and >outheast Asia or the Malay zone! )n the West, Muslimsare creating a new cultural zone of )slam! "here are three main actors in this zone8immigrant Muslims0 the second generation of the immigrants0 and indigenous Muslims,such as African Americans, and White or >panish Muslims! As these three types ofWestern Muslims interact with each other and with the larger nonMuslim society, a newcultural zone of )slam is emerging!

Although the basic tenets of )slam are the same throughout the world, their practicalmanifestation varies in different regions! "he basic tenet of the )slamic wedding, fore(ample, is consent of both parties and then a contract called nikah! 2owever, theceremony of a Muslim wedding in >outh Asia contains several traditions that have been

adopted from 2indu traditions, such as mehndi, mayoon and barat! 3ikewise, in othercultural zones, nikah is conducted through other different types of ceremonies! >ince the)slamic cultural zone in the West is a new phenomenon and the Muslim traditions in theWest have not fully evolved, several issues and debates are emerging there!eing a Minority

A key issue pertains to the relatively new situation of Muslims voluntarily leaving theirMuslim homelands to live as a minority in the West alongside a very large nonMuslim


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ma1ority! Muslims account for about I percent of the population in &urope, and about =percent in the $>, but the interesting phenomenon is that they are neither compelled to gothere nor are they being subdued! >econdly, the proportion of second generation andindigenous Muslims is also growing! >o, there are debates all over the West on, fore(ample, how to live in these countries as a significant minority, what the social

implications and responsibilities are, how to take part in the political process, whether thearmies of those countries may be 1oined, and how to interact with other nonMuslimgroups!

"hese are some fundamental problems that the people and scholars have been discussing!>ome of the scholars are talking about developing a ?i'h Akliah @the ?i'h of Minorities,but another school of thought in the West argues that the Muslims should not live therewith the mindset of a minority because the message of )slam is universal, and because aminority mindset would mean that Muslims are always on the defensive, talking abouttheir particular rights, and thus in some ways marginalized from the mainstream! )t is truethat Muslims are numerically in minority, but they should be a very useful and productive

part of society and spread the message of )slam while living there!

>uch conceptual or theoretical issues pertaining to Muslims who choose to live in nonMuslim societies as a minority are creating a new environment, which is putting an end tothe older debates about ar al2arb @omain of War and ar al)slam @omain of)slam, and giving rise to new concepts, such as ar al>ulho @omain of 4oe(istance,ar alAmn @omain of *eace, ar alMu%ahidah @omain under 4ontract and ar ala%wah @omain of :pportunity to reach people, and, eventually, a new fi'h@Lurisprudence! "here are also debates on identity issues, such as whether Muslimsshould be called American Muslims or Muslim American!"he #ole of the Mos'ue

"he second characteristic of this emerging zone is the role of the mos'ue! )n the ma1orityof the Muslim countries, mos'ues are being used for prayers and 5ur%anic nazrah@recitation education! )n some countries, they are administered by the aw'af@endowments and in some, they have become very political and are used as avenues tolaunch protests against undemocratic regimes, deprivation and marginalization of thepublic!

2owever, in the West, and especially in the $>, the mos'ue is assuming the new role ofan )slamic 4enter! ue probably to insufficient space and social avenues, the Westernmos'ue is becoming a hub of all Muslim activities, such as prayers0 religious education0hal'as @gatherings of men, women, and youth0 youth and sports activities0 etc! Almost allma1or )slamic 4enters have basketball courts, picnic grounds, and arrangements forindoor sports activities for youth! >ometimes, a ma1or mos'ue primarily houses agymnasium and cafeteria, mainly to attract the youth, while the /musallah% or main prayerhalls comprise a secondary part of the construction! "he gymnasium may also be used forregular or ?riday prayers!


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Mos'ues in the West are also being used for political, social and economic activities! )t isnot unusual for church students or priests to visit the mos'ues at the time of ?ridayprayers! Muslims also invite local nonMuslim leaders, such as politicians, policeinspectors or superintendents of the local &ducation oard! After all ?riday prayers, thereare usually three types of announcements concerning wrong parking and the eti'uettes of

parking0 upcoming hal'as for adults, women or youth0 and the visit of some4ongressman, wouldbe 4ongressman or mayor who wishes to meet the Muslimcommunity!

Moreover, several ma1or )slamic centers have good dining halls and kitchens for socialactivities! Muslims usually like to rent these halls for weddings, engagements andbirthday gatherings! "he underlying idea is that the mos'ue should be very friendlytowards the youth, women and senior citizens! #ecently, in ew Lersey, a mos'ueinitiated a fiveyear e(pansion program with thirty million dollars! :ne of its plans is tobuild thirty senior citizens% homes to engage the large number of elderly Muslim peoplein the affairs of )slamic 4enters and mos'ues!

Women

Another dimension of this new cultural zone is the role of Muslim women! )n thesubcontinent, there are some fi'hi @Lurisprudential, traditional or social issues thatdiscourage the participation of women in &id or ?riday prayers! ut in the West, it isalmost impossible to imagine the absence of women in these prayers! )n some mos'ues,women even participate in fa1r @daybreak prayers along with the men of their families!"hey are also becoming part and parcel of the management of )slamic centers! Mos'ueswhere women are not encouraged to participate, probably due to limitations of space orcertain fi'hi instructions, are e(ceptions!

Almost CE percent of mos'ues in America have >unday and weekly schools and womenrun most of these educational activities! "hey are also becoming alimahs @scholars of)slam! "he )slamic >ociety of orth America @)>A elected a 4anadian convertedMuslim woman, r! )nget Mason, who is professor of )slamic >tudy in 2ertford>eminary, as its *resident in =EEJ! uring the last three years, the ational *resident ofthe Muslim >tudents Association @M>A, another )slamic organization in orth America,has been a woman!"he Pouth

"here are also issues related to the Muslim youth in the West! "he first generation ofimmigrants in these countries belongs to any of the si( cultural zones mentioned earlier!"hey tend to e(ercise the traditions and habits of their own cultural zones as pure )slamonto the second generation and sometimes onto indigenous Muslims as well! >ometimesthe indigenous Muslims, the AfricanAmericans or the White Americans would like towear Arabic dress or the >outh Asian shalwar and kamiz! "his leads to debates of whatthe )slamic traditional clothes are because a seemingly )slamic tradition in one culturalzone may not necessarily be considered )slamic in another! "his kind of debate is verycommon among youth in the West in almost every Muslim home, convention andcampus! ?or the second generation, the basic issue is about covering the satr @)slamic


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dress code and that the dress should not e(pose, so it holds that wearing baggy trousersand loose shirts should be considered as )slamic as shalwar kamiz or Arabic abayas!

"hen, there are debates about how to find Muslim spouses0 whether the parents shoulddecide or the young people themselves, or whether there should be a combination of both,

and whether an intending couple may talk to each other before theirmarriageTengagement!

Another issue for youth in the West concerns identity! ?or the first generation, it is easyto say that they are, for e(ample, AmericanMuslims of *akistani origin, but the issue ofidentity is obscure for the youth who are born in the West! >ome people in the West tendto see )slam as a foreign phenomenon and they associate it with everything foreign0however, for the second generation and indigenous Muslims, )slam is 'uite indigenous!)nvolvement in >ocial >ervices

After DT77, the participation of the Muslim community in the social service sector has

been growing, which is a new phenomenon! Muslims are organizing free health clinics,food drives, food for poor and other activities for the needy! "he other communities havedone a lot of work in this field! "he AmericanLewish community is running almost JEElocal social service organizations and they are collecting almost four billion dollars everyyear in grants for different social service activities from their own community, and thecity, county, state and federal governments! 4atholics have two main social sectororganizations! "heir collective budget is more than C billion dollars and J= percent of itcomes from the city, counties and state and federal government! Muslims are alsolearning about these practices!

Mos'ues are, again, playing a central role in social service activities! uring #amadan,iftar parties are held in mos'ues! efore the month of #amadan begins, there are noticesasking Muslims of the community to register their names if they are interested inproviding food for iftar on certain days! At times, there may be around 7,EEE+7,BEEpeople having iftar in a mos'ue!

Muslims in the $> have also started thinking about ways to provide food for homelesspeople! >o iftar dinner for the homeless is becoming a permanent feature during#amadan! :n the occasion of &id alAdha, Muslim communities in several $> citiescollect the sacrificial meat for the poor andTor donate it to foodbanks! "he media is alsoused to publicize such actions!*ostDT77 )ssues

A large number of first generation Muslim immigrants used to think about going back totheir homeland! 2owever, the myth of return has been shattered today because the secondgeneration of Muslim immigrants considers the West its own home! "here is a growingfeeling among Muslims in the West that their 4reatorwill ask them about what they didwhere they lived and how they presented )slam in their vicinity! Although Muslims arefacing 'uite harsh propaganda against )slam from the media, think tanks and churches,they are also getting new opportunities to present )slam! "hey are entering the


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mainstream media in the West, which was not the case before DT77 or CTC! "heir activitiesare now covered by local radio, 4, other television channels, the ew Pork "imes,Washington *ost and other ma1or newspapers!

Another issue facing the Muslims in the West is discrimination! efore DT77, the 'uestion

9What is )slamN< was as simple as the answer Y )slam is ?aith Y but the situation is'uite different now! Muslims have to be engaged in very serious debates because nonMuslims ask serious 'uestions and demand serious answers about the role of )slam in theaffairs of state!>tate and #eligion

"he issue of separation of 4hurch and >tate has different meanings in America and&urope! According to some scholars, separation of 4hurch and >tate means protecting thestate from religion in &urope, and protecting religion from the state in America! >ome)slamic scholars in the West are also debating the shape of the )slamic state in the conte(tof matters such as the role of nonMuslims in an )slamic state, the issue of a Muslim

leaving )slam and adopting another religion, the role of women, the act of women leadingprayers, and the permissibility of different means of entertainment, like music!

)n short, there is a healthy trend of sound intellectual debate on )slam in the West inwhich Muslim scholars are active! )t is hoped that these deliberations will lead to theemergence of a very solid and productive cultural zone of )slam in the West!

Concluding Remar's

"he most promising aspect of the developing Western region of )slam is that there isdebate and realization that challenges have to be responded to Y this is where the realhope lies for individuals, communities, and nations! "hose who respond to challengeschange the world, and those who refuse to take notice of challenges lapse into frustrationand desperation!

"he most fundamental issues Muslims in the West confront concern, firstly, the 'uestionof 9)slam as a faith< and 9)slam as a culture and a civilization,< and, secondly, e(isting asa minority!

"he first issue is not new! )ndeed, the distinction between )slam as a faith and )slam as aculture and civilization has been a very sensitive and important issue in the discourse on>unnah! As they struggle to follow his e(ample, Muslims have debated on what part ofthe >unnah of their *rophet @peace be upon him [pbuh-, especially his Aa%dah @habitsreflected the custom and traditions of his time, as opposed to the universal practicesmeant to be emulated by every Muslim while considering what the value impact of>unnah was!

"he fact is that values and culture are intermingled! 2owever, while values and customsmay be amalgamated in a culture, a dissection between the two is possible and, at times,necessary! "hroughout history, the advancement of )slamic culture and civilization, and


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the spread of )slam%s geographic and cultural diversity have compelled Muslims toconfront the 'uestion of institutional development under different cultural paradigms, anddecide, for e(ample, which customs have to be discarded and which may be assimilated,which institutions may be absorbed, and which modified or re1ected! )t is by engaging inthis highly creative e(ercise of applying values to given situations that Muslims have

evolved their fi'h! "he diversity within fi'h reflects the varying ground realities of thelocales where fi'h has developed, such as Madinah, aghdad and Kufa!

"he development of the third generation of Muslims in the West is, again, a veryimportant area to analyze! )n Lanuary =EEC, the $Kbased think tank *olicy &(changeproduced a survey on the thinking of the first, second and thirdgeneration Muslims inritain! According to this survey, about CF percent of 7J=Fyearolds @i!e! thirdgeneration Muslims preferred that Muslim women choose to wear a veil or hi1ab,compared to only =H percent of Muslims aged BB years and over @i!e! firstgenerationMuslims! When asked whether they should be ruled according to >hari%ah @)slamicreligious law in ritain or the e(isting ritish law, IC percent of 7J=Fyearolds said

they would prefer to live under >hari%ah, as opposed to only 7D percent of Muslims overthe age of BB!

"here are three issues that Muslims in the West in particular will have to debate andaddress! "he first concerns the nature of the statereligion relationship! "he American4onstitution tried, over two centuries ago, to settle this issue in favor of separation, but itvery much alive and 'uite heated today! "he theocratic model is out of the 'uestion butthe purely secular model is also dying away! >ecularism could have coe(isted with 7Dthcentury liberalism, wherein life was divided into selfsufficient and selfcontainedcompartments, but this approach is almost impossible in the present world! ow, the statehas a positive role to play in policy making, education and society, so neutrality is not anoption at all! )ndeed, it is irrelevant and those who are harping on about it are not doing1ustice to human society and polity! 2owever, there is a long range between the poles ofsecularism and theocracy in which many variations and articulations may be found!Muslim intellectuals, practitioners and politicians ultimately have to address this criticalcontemporary issue!

"he second issue is related to the relationship between the nationstate and the $mmah!)n this age of globalization, a lot of literature has been written on the concept of thenationstate and its demise! "herefore, when there is a discussion about )slam, )slamicculture, )slamic civilization and Muslim community, most people speak under theshadow of dying nationalism! A very important phenomenon in this regard is the rise ofthe masses and the grassroots revolution! )n the past, the masses were not obliged and hadno avenues of articulation, leverage and influence! )n contemporary globalization,however, while there is one root which is the rubric of hegemony of the powerful, there isanother wave of the feelings and aspirations of the people! "his is a new and emergingsuperpower and those who are interested in the issues of human rights, 1ustice andin1ustice, poverty and its eradication, duplicity, imperialism, and capitalism and itse(ploitation have a common agenda! )n 3ondon, the agitation against Americanaggression in )ra' was led by the Muslim Association of ritain and participated in by all


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groups from the left, right and center! )n this conte(t, the concept of $mmah is a greatblessing and a model for globalization!

"hirdly and lastly, in the present international scenario, interfaith dialogue is e(tremelyimportant! "he only thing we need to safeguard against is imposition! "he first important

Muslin4hristian dialogue took place in 7DB= in 3ebanon and its proceedings werepublished! "he )slamic 4ollo'uium in *rinceton in 7DBF and its followup in 7DBH in3ahore were very important movements in this direction! )t is neither a trap for hunting,nor a mere change of tactics0 it is, rather, a very important platform to perform debates atthe intellectual, practical, community, service level and even at the level of the politicaland economic agenda of the world!

Munira Mirza, Abi >enthilkumaran and Xein La%far, Lanuary =EEC, 3iving apart together,3ondon8 *olicy &(change @http8TTwww!policye(change!org!ukTimagesT libimagesT=FJ!pdf+ August 7H, =EEC!

Religion( State and SocietyWritten by Khurshid Ahmad, Mahmood Ahmad Ghazi

Khurshid Ahmad

"he )slamic approach to life and its problems is that while human life can be divided intodifferent spheres and in fields of activity, there is an integral unity influenced and shapedby values, beliefs, ideas and ideologies! Muslims do not want to hide under the rubric ofpseudoob1ectivity or scientism and claim that they are valuefree! "hey are not0 perhapsno human being can be! :ne might even say it is more scientific to know the values thatinfluence us and to transform the implicit into e(plicit because this helps everyone tounderstand + and to differ!

"o understand the )slamic approach, a few facts need to be borne in mind! ?irst, )slamclaims that it is not a new religion0 that divine revelation has come to all people since thefirst man, Adam @uhbp! "he source of this revelation has always been the same,

notwithstanding the differences, conflicts and contradictions that subse'uently arosebetween peoples! "hus, *rophet Muhammad @pbuh is not the founder of )slam, but thelast prophet in a long chain of prophets! Messengers of Allah have come to all parts of theworld, and Muslims have no reason to doubt that the land now called )ndia received itsshare of divine revelation!

)ndians today have every right to be fully attuned to the contemporary secular approachto life! evertheless, it would be beneficial for them to reflect on the ideas of at least two


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of their own writers and thinkers8 Mahatma Gandhi and former )ndian *resident #adhaKrishna! #adha Krishna%s work on the relationship between the state and religion, inparticular, is very important! 2e looks upon the issue both from a philosophic perspectiveand in the light of 2indu tradition!

Muslims believe that religion is not confined to the private, personal relationship betweenevery human being and God! God, to us, is the 4reator, the >ource of light, wisdom andvalue! )t seems absurd to us to say that God is God as long as we are in our homes ortemples or mos'ues, but that 2e ceases to have authority over us when we enter otherspheres of our life! )n the Muslim view, God%s guidance and the individual%s bond with2im should not be put aside in any realm, be it the home or place of worship, or thesociety at large and the state!

:f course, there are crucial issues in this approach8 what is #eligionN 2ow universal andrelevant it is todayN "he values + including the universally acknowledged values +principles and guidance that God has revealed represent, in a way, the substance of the

divine impact on humankind! &arlier divine revelations were not preserved, but that haschanged with )slam8 the revealed value framework has been preserved and protected, andis available for all human beings to approach and obtain guidance without anyintermediary! ow, if religious guidance is universal, as Muslims claim it is, it isimportant that the religious value framework should be capable of meeting the demandsof change! "his raises the 'uestion8 what is the value framework and how is it adaptableto changeN

"he )slamic approach is that faith, values and principles and some key institutions such asthe 5uran and sunnah provide the permanent framework! Within that framework, there isa lot of fle(ibility for change and e(perimentation! )slamic commands have been dividedinto five categories! :n the one end are fardh, the obligatory re'uirements, which arespecific and occupy a relatively small proportion of commands! :n the other end areharam @forbidden elements8 this is the bottomline that may not be crossed! etweenthese two ends are desirable elements of conduct @mustahab and undesirable elements@makruh! "he rest of human activity falls in the vast middle area of mubah @permissibleconduct, which may be regarded the domain of human freedom!

"he capacity to meet the demands of change is inbuilt in this system! #eligion does notseek to burden or tie down each and every aspect of the society and state! #ather, it givesMuslims a vision + a perspective for considering everything in life0 personal motivation,piety, Godconsciousness, truthfulness, and a spiritual dimension0 and a set of rules andguidance, which contain certain permanent elements, certain desirable ones, and a vastarea for e(perimentation! )slam does not bind people to any one particular modelreflecting any particular space and time condition0 rather, through this framework, itenables Muslims to respond effectively to changing challenges! "here is nothing veryrigid or infle(ible about the )slamic state and )slamic society0 of course, models do e(ist,but they serve as e(amples to learn from and emulate, and may be adapted to cope withnew situations!


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)t would be pertinent to discuss the twonation theory in this conte(t! "he 9two< in thename of this theory does not simply mean one plus one0 it represents the concept ofplurality! *luralism enabling people of different faiths, cultures, societies, systems andideologies to coe(ist is integrated in the )slamic vision! Muslims acknowledge thatparadigms other than the )slamic paradigm have a right to e(ist! "hose who belong to

these different paradigms have to coe(ist, interact, even learn from each other! "oleranceis a cornerstone of this approach8 there may be no compulsion in matters of faith andreligion, Muslims believe, and they re1ect the imposition of ideas and values of faith byforce!

"he twonation theory stands for plurality! "he approach it represents for Muslims couldarise in two different situations! Where Muslims comprise the ma1ority in a country, thetwonation theory demands that they use the opportunity to live according to their faithand values, while nonMuslims have an e'ual right to live according to their faith andtheir values! What is envisaged is a ma1orityminority relationship based not 1ust oncoe(istence but physical pro(imity, harmonious environment and e'ual opportunities for

progress and prosperity! )n the second situation, where Muslims are a minority, they havethe right to maintain their identity and should not be forced to dissolve this religion,value and culturebased identity into some overriding identity, for that would be a kindof fascism and imperialism! )n other words, different groups may coe(ist as long as theyare all allowed to thrive as parallel, not forcefully merged, streams! "he twonationtheory is thus relevant to the current global situation and reflects historical reality!

A special situation arose in the )ndian conte(t! Muslims in [pre*artition- )ndia perceived,correctly or incorrectly, that a situation had arisen where authentic coe(istence with thema1ority in )ndia was not possible! )t would appear that they tried their best to live inwithin )ndia, as a minority in a pluralistic society! 2owever, )ndia was becoming anationstate along the lines of the Western post&nlightenment concept of a nationstatebased on secularism and territorial nationalism8 in essence, this was a negation of thecountry%s plurality! )t is this conceptual flaw owing to which, in the entire history ofnationstates, problems have arisen wherever there were more than one nationalities in anationstate! "he dilemma was not an e(clusively )ndian phenomenon0 it is everywhereYin the history of &urope, in the reports of the 3eague of ations, and in the cultural,ethnic, linguistic strife of =Eth century &urope! At first, Muslims in )ndia tried to live bythe twonation theory within a pluralistic society! When this failed, they strove forpolitical sovereignty in areas where they were in ma1ority with a view to establishing asystem in which they would be free to pursue their faith and which, being more trulypluralistic, would accord to minorities an e'ual right to preserve their identities!

"he twonation theory accepts two of the three cornerstones of secularism! )t agrees withthe principle of tolerance for other religions and according the opportunity to coe(ist! )talso accepts the rule that this world is important and that religion does not meanabdication of the world! "hese two features are part of the twonation paradigm!2owever, the theory challenges the third assertion of secularism that religion has nothingto provide for guidance in matters of society and state0 that only human reason ande(perience should guide there! )n other words, it is the notion of irrelevance of religious


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values and faith that Muslims challenged! Genuine variety and multiplicity are deniedunder the garb of secularism! )ndeed, here secularism contradicts its own principle oftolerance for other faiths and communities!

"hus, the twonation theory is not a dirty word that was merely coined to create *akistan!

)t is a concept that has been there from time immemorial! )t is relevant to *akistan and)ndia, to &urope and to the rest of the world because it lays down the principle ofplurality of systems! )t denies the idea that one identity must prevail upon all otheridentities! ifferent identities can flourish together as different flowers grow in a garden,or as different colors glow in the rainbow, each band keeping its own identity, while therainbow holds a separate identity! "he twonation theory provides a very sound basis forfriendly, peaceful and harmonious relationships, both within a state and between states!

))Mahmood Ahmad Ghazi

)n order to fathom the nature of the message or the ideology of )slam as contained in the5ur%an and as understood by the Muslims, it needs to be understood that )slam is not a91ust a religion< like other religions or a dharma like other dharams! "he assumption thatit is makes it difficult for people to understand the Muslim point of view and position onmany issues! )n reality, )slam is a code of life that includes a legal system, a culture and acivilization, a society based on some social norms, moral principles and values! ifferentpeople emphasize different aspects of )slam, such as the legal, the spiritual and the social!"his is why the e(perts on )slam fall into different groups, such as the /ulema @scholars,the >ufis @spiritual guides, and the social reformers! 2owever, all of these groupsacknowledge and appreciate the integral significance of the other aspects of )slam!

$nlike many other religions and ideologies, )slam is not confined to any ethnic group,any geographical area, or any particular civilization! )t is a universal brotherhood! )t hasgone to every part of the globe, affecting and influencing cultures and civilizationseverywhere in different countries and continents! )ndeed, )slam has had an internationalrole from the very beginning! )ts divine book, the 5ur%an, is perhaps the only religiousbook in the religious literature available now that takes into cognizance followers ofdifferent religions and categorizes them differently with respect to their relations withMuslims!

When )slam deals with legal issues, it provides comprehensive guidance! )n terms of/meta1urisprudence,% it addresses metaconstitutional issues, i!e! the central issues thatmake up the Weltanschauungof )slam! ased on this, Muslim 1urists developed law and1urisprudence over the past fourteen hundred years and a comprehensive legal systemcame into e(istence! "hat legal system, which we call fi'h,is an integral part of )slam!>ome Western writers and scholars have opined that )slam is basically a laworientedreligion! "his is true insofar as high significance is accorded to law and legal issuesin the)slamic system! )mportantly, however, the law is not an end in itself! )slam does notcontent itself with statements and declarations about what is right or wrong0 it seeks totranslate these ideals into practice, and to integrate them in individual and collective


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human life! )n some spheres, law is a necessary means for achieving this purpose, and itis for this reason that it is an integral part of Muslim society!

"herefore, in )slamic terms, religiosity includes abiding by )slamic law0 in fact, suchabidance enhances the religiosity and spirituality of an individual! )n an )slamic system,

there is no concept of spiritual growth or religious e(cellence without full observance ofthe legal code as well! "his code is comprehensive and gives guidance to regulate manyaspects of human life, including international relationships and dealings!

)n the first century of the 2i1ra, the Muslim community spread from the Arabian*eninsula to places as far as eastern and southern &urope, Africa, and the )ndian>ubcontinent! Muslim settlements were visible in "hana, ombay and other southernprovinces of the >ubcontinent during the days of the >econd 4aliph! "his regional spreadcreated a need and a challenge for the Muslim community to develop a mechanism fordeveloping international dealings and relations, both at diplomatic and commercial levels,and in times of hostile and peaceful relations! Muslim scholars of the late first century

and early second century ah addressed themselves to the task of developing a law thatmay be called Muslim international law! More than a dozen books on this sub1ect werewritten by Muslim writers in that period! "hese books are e(tant, and some have alsobeen translated into &nglish, ?rench and other Western languages!

"hus, international relations and international dealings have been something central andintegral to )slamic society! "here was guidance from the very beginning, in the form of)slamic >hari%ah and )slamic law, to regulate the international role of the Muslimcommunity and keep it in conformity with the )slamic ideals of 1ustice! "here was acontinuous effort, even struggle, to bring Muslim society in particular and human societyin general as close as practical and possible to the re'uirements of morality andspirituality! "his constant endeavor is called 1ihad in )slamic terminology @3iterally, 1ihadmeans constant endeavor and struggle! "he purpose of this 1ihad has been summarizedand epitomized in the 5ur%an as the ideal of 1ustice! "he 5ur%an says that the ultimateob1ective of the entire divine scheme, the divine books, and messages and messengers isthe establishment of real 1ustice! Muslims, therefore, feel that all international dealingsand interaction should be based on a common ideal and endeavor in which all humanityshould participate with the ob1ective of realizing the goal of real 1ustice in human life, ase(plained in the 5ur%an and e(emplified by the *rophet of )slam!

)))5uestionandAnswer >ession

58 "he sub1ects discussed in the two lectures were really new for most of us! )n fact, thiswas the first lecture on )slam that ) have attended! My 'uestion is to r! Ghazi! >ir, yousaid that )slam recognizes other religions! ) want, out of curiosity, some specific answersthat what status you accord to 4hristians, Lews and particularly to 2indus who worshipidolsN


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A8 r! Ghazi8 )slamic law has categorized the religions outside the fold of )slam into fourma1or categories! And these categories have been mentioned directly in the 5ur%an,which is the divine book for the Muslims! ?irst, there is the category of 9*eople of theook!< "his is a term given by the 5ur%an to the followers of 4hristianity, Ludaism andsome other religions that were the offshoots of 4hristianity or Ludaism in the Middle

&ast! "hese have been accorded, to use modern parlance, the /Most ?avored ations%status, in the sense that a kind of interaction that is not allowed with others is allowedwith the followers of these religions!

"hen, there is a second category of those religions for which it is debatable, or notclaimed by the followers of those religions, or doubtful that the origin is ivine! "heterms used for this category by Muslim 1urists are 9>emi *eople of the ook< or 95uasi*eople of the ook!< #egarding relations with people in this category, there is a hadith ofthe *rophet of )slam telling Muslims to deal with and treat them the way they treat anddeal with the *eople of the ook, e(cept that intermarriages with their women are notallowed! "his status was given to the *arsis, and to the 2indus and the uddhists in the

>ubcontinent!

When )slam came to the >ubcontinent formally, which was towards the end of the

islamic stdy

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