History of History of political ideaspolitical ideas

1st lecture. Introduction. 1st lecture. Introduction. Ideas of Classical AntiquityIdeas of Classical Antiquity

Lecturer: Marosán, BenceLecturer: Marosán, Bence

“We stand today at a crossroads: One path leads to despair and utter hopelessness. The other leads to total extinction. Let us hope we have the wisdom to make the right choice.”

Woody Allen

Division of the semester Division of the semester 1st lecture: Introduction and Classical Antiquity.1st lecture: Introduction and Classical Antiquity. 2nd lecture: Political ideas of the Middle Ages. Church 2nd lecture: Political ideas of the Middle Ages. Church

and state in medieval Europe. The investiture and state in medieval Europe. The investiture controversy.controversy.

3rd lecture: Political ideas of early Modern Age. 3rd lecture: Political ideas of early Modern Age. Separation of Church and State. The Separation of Separation of Church and State. The Separation of powers, and the importance of institutions. Machiavelli, powers, and the importance of institutions. Machiavelli, Hobbes, Montesquieu.Hobbes, Montesquieu.

4th lecture: Political ideas of 19th century. Birth of 4th lecture: Political ideas of 19th century. Birth of modern streams of political thinking. Liberalism, modern streams of political thinking. Liberalism, conservativism and left-wing movements, (Marx and conservativism and left-wing movements, (Marx and Marxism).Marxism).

5th lecture: Political movements, thinkers and ideas in 5th lecture: Political movements, thinkers and ideas in the 20th century. Neoliberalism, Social democracy, the 20th century. Neoliberalism, Social democracy, Neomarxism, Neoconservativism.Neomarxism, Neoconservativism.

Main features of a Main features of a political theorypolitical theory

A political theory treats the principles, guide-lines, norms A political theory treats the principles, guide-lines, norms and values according to which (in the thinker’s opinion) and values according to which (in the thinker’s opinion) the society has to organize its institutions, functions, the society has to organize its institutions, functions, structures, hierarchy and its general way of working.structures, hierarchy and its general way of working.

The aim of a political theory is to find the best way of The aim of a political theory is to find the best way of running a society and a state. running a society and a state.

The political thinker in question has to argue for his or The political thinker in question has to argue for his or her ideas, so for his or her opinion according to which her ideas, so for his or her opinion according to which she/he finds some values to be the best for a society.she/he finds some values to be the best for a society.

She or he has to fix the most basic values according to She or he has to fix the most basic values according to which the society or the state has to organize itself, and which the society or the state has to organize itself, and its particular way of functioning. So: she or he has to say its particular way of functioning. So: she or he has to say what she/he thinks to be the most important in regard of what she/he thinks to be the most important in regard of a society: the preserving the traditional values of a nation a society: the preserving the traditional values of a nation (conservativism), guaranteeing the invulnerability of (conservativism), guaranteeing the invulnerability of sphere of personal, individual freedom (liberalism), social sphere of personal, individual freedom (liberalism), social justice and the defense of the rights of the needy (left-justice and the defense of the rights of the needy (left-wing movements, Social democracy).wing movements, Social democracy).

F. Fukuyama: F. Fukuyama: The end of history thesisThe end of history thesis

„„We may wittnessing the end of history as such: that is We may wittnessing the end of history as such: that is the tend point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the tend point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. ... Some conflicts the final form of human government. ... Some conflicts may happan in places in the Third World, but the may happan in places in the Third World, but the global conflict is over and not sust in Europe…The war global conflict is over and not sust in Europe…The war of ideas is at an end also. Believers in Marxist-Leninism of ideas is at an end also. Believers in Marxist-Leninism may still exist in places like Managua, Pyongyang, and may still exist in places like Managua, Pyongyang, and Cambridge, Massachusetts, but overall liberal Cambridge, Massachusetts, but overall liberal democracy has triumphed. The future will be devoted democracy has triumphed. The future will be devoted not to great exhilarating struggles over ideas but not to great exhilarating struggles over ideas but rather to resolving mundane economic and technical rather to resolving mundane economic and technical problems. It will all be rather boring.” problems. It will all be rather boring.”

F. FukuyamaF. Fukuyama

S. Huntington: S. Huntington: The clash of civilization thesisThe clash of civilization thesis

„„There are two important theme of the There are two important theme of the future: future:

First, the crucial impact of population First, the crucial impact of population growth on instability and balance of growth on instability and balance of power. power.

The second, lashes of civilizations are The second, lashes of civilizations are the greatest threats to world peace, and the greatest threats to world peace, and an international order based on an international order based on civilizations in the safeguard against civilizations in the safeguard against world war.world war.

Main features of a Main features of a political theorypolitical theory

A political theory treats the principles, guide-lines, norms A political theory treats the principles, guide-lines, norms and values according to which (in the thinker’s opinion) and values according to which (in the thinker’s opinion) the society has to organize its institutions, functions, the society has to organize its institutions, functions, structures, hierarchy and its general way of working.structures, hierarchy and its general way of working.

The aim of a political theory is to find the best way of The aim of a political theory is to find the best way of running a society and a state. running a society and a state.

The political thinker in question has to argue for his or The political thinker in question has to argue for his or her ideas, so for his or her opinion according to which her ideas, so for his or her opinion according to which she/he finds some values to be the best for a society.she/he finds some values to be the best for a society.

She or he has to fix the most basic values according to She or he has to fix the most basic values according to which the society or the state has to organize itself, and which the society or the state has to organize itself, and its particular way of functioning. So: she or he has to say its particular way of functioning. So: she or he has to say what she/he thinks to be the most important in regard of what she/he thinks to be the most important in regard of a society: the preserving the traditional values of a nation a society: the preserving the traditional values of a nation (conservativism), guaranteeing the invulnerability of (conservativism), guaranteeing the invulnerability of sphere of personal, individual freedom (liberalism), social sphere of personal, individual freedom (liberalism), social justice and the defense of the rights of the needy (left-justice and the defense of the rights of the needy (left-wing movements, Social democracy).wing movements, Social democracy).

Classical antiquity. The Classical antiquity. The sophistssophists

In the Greek In the Greek polispolis (state) there was an intensive political life, and (state) there was an intensive political life, and there was a comfortably complex and structured system of political there was a comfortably complex and structured system of political institutions which helped the emergence of political ideas and institutions which helped the emergence of political ideas and theories concerning these institutions and the essence of society theories concerning these institutions and the essence of society ((polispolis) as such. ) as such.

The ancient Greek society econimically was based upon slave-The ancient Greek society econimically was based upon slave-labour. The layer of matured, aristocratic, free, wealthy Greek labour. The layer of matured, aristocratic, free, wealthy Greek citizens had accordingly lot of free-time, and they had as an obvious citizens had accordingly lot of free-time, and they had as an obvious way of career the field of way of career the field of politicspolitics. .

In the fifth century BC, which was also called the period of „Greek In the fifth century BC, which was also called the period of „Greek Enlightenment”, many itinerant (or travelling) teachers, Enlightenment”, many itinerant (or travelling) teachers, philosophers treated the problem of society, social norms, ethics, philosophers treated the problem of society, social norms, ethics, and the question of politics in Greece. They mainly taught and the question of politics in Greece. They mainly taught techniques and practics of rhetorics and public political speeches techniques and practics of rhetorics and public political speeches which helped their students to convince their audience, and to which helped their students to convince their audience, and to make a career in the political life of the Greek polis of their age.make a career in the political life of the Greek polis of their age.

They were called: the Sophists („philosophers”, „wise”, „learnt”, They were called: the Sophists („philosophers”, „wise”, „learnt”, „professional” men). They usually came from the poorer layer, so „professional” men). They usually came from the poorer layer, so they taught the subjects and topics which were much in demand: they taught the subjects and topics which were much in demand: the tricks and master-strokes of political success.the tricks and master-strokes of political success.

Classical authors. Classical authors. Socrates.Socrates.

Socrates (470-399 BC) was a contemporaneous Socrates (470-399 BC) was a contemporaneous philosopher to the sophists. He did not accept money for philosopher to the sophists. He did not accept money for teaching, but was not entirely unpropertied, unlike the teaching, but was not entirely unpropertied, unlike the latter: he received a ground-rent from the latter: he received a ground-rent from the polispolis of Athens. of Athens.

He was one of the most influential philosophers ever lived. He was one of the most influential philosophers ever lived. He taught in speech, he didn’t wrote down anything, his He taught in speech, he didn’t wrote down anything, his students and followers preserved his ideas and thoughts.students and followers preserved his ideas and thoughts.

He had a very open, straightforward, critical and for a He had a very open, straightforward, critical and for a certain degree confrontative and provocative manner. For certain degree confrontative and provocative manner. For this reason he made many enemies and oponents of this reason he made many enemies and oponents of himself in the Athenian public life. himself in the Athenian public life.

At the end of his life the Jury of Athens sentenced him to At the end of his life the Jury of Athens sentenced him to death, on the basis of the following charges: „death, on the basis of the following charges: „failing to failing to acknowledge the gods that the city acknowledgesacknowledge the gods that the city acknowledges, , introducing new deitiesintroducing new deities and corrupts the youth” – which and corrupts the youth” – which accusation was in fact false. He was executed.accusation was in fact false. He was executed.

The trial of Socrates, The trial of Socrates, (399BC)(399BC)

The assumed basis of the two charges: The assumed basis of the two charges: 1. „[F]1. „[F]ailing to acknowledge the gods that the city ailing to acknowledge the gods that the city

acknowledgesacknowledges, , introducing new deitiesintroducing new deities”. ”. Socrates in fact spoke often about his „daimon” (guiding and Socrates in fact spoke often about his „daimon” (guiding and

guarding spirit), who told him which is right and which is guarding spirit), who told him which is right and which is wrong.wrong.

Socrates taught that someone has to critically investigate the Socrates taught that someone has to critically investigate the traditions and the generally accepted norms before he or she traditions and the generally accepted norms before he or she accepts them. accepts them.

2. Socrates „ corrupts the youth”. Kritika! (egyszerűbb) – 2. Socrates „ corrupts the youth”. Kritika! (egyszerűbb) – daimon. A hagyomány kritikai megértése.daimon. A hagyomány kritikai megértése.

Socrates encouraged his students and followers to apply his Socrates encouraged his students and followers to apply his critical method themselves too, before they accept anything.critical method themselves too, before they accept anything.

We could interpret Socrates’ „daimon” as the voice of the We could interpret Socrates’ „daimon” as the voice of the conscience.conscience.

In fact Socrates demonstrated that these charges are In fact Socrates demonstrated that these charges are insupportable, notwithstanding he was condemned.insupportable, notwithstanding he was condemned.

Plato reported the details of trials of Socrates in three of Plato reported the details of trials of Socrates in three of his dialogues: Apology, Crito, Phaedo.his dialogues: Apology, Crito, Phaedo.

The ethical theory of The ethical theory of SocratesSocrates

He thought that the authentic personality could differentiate He thought that the authentic personality could differentiate between right and wrong – so he acts in a morally right way.between right and wrong – so he acts in a morally right way.

He supposed an internal relationship between virtue and He supposed an internal relationship between virtue and knowledge. For this reason the ethical conception of Socrates knowledge. For this reason the ethical conception of Socrates also called the „intellectualist interpretation of ethics”.also called the „intellectualist interpretation of ethics”.

He perceived the well-known contradiction: one could act in a He perceived the well-known contradiction: one could act in a wrong, or even evil way consciously. His solution:wrong, or even evil way consciously. His solution:

The real knowledge: is to know the most probable The real knowledge: is to know the most probable consequences of our actions. The ethically or morally right consequences of our actions. The ethically or morally right behavior leads the individual to the happiness. The wrong or behavior leads the individual to the happiness. The wrong or evil actions, behavior does not lead to happiness – so those, evil actions, behavior does not lead to happiness – so those, who act this way, do not really know their own real interests, who act this way, do not really know their own real interests, they only believe and pretend that they know it.they only believe and pretend that they know it.

Socrates’ ethics is called „eudaimonism”, so which has the Socrates’ ethics is called „eudaimonism”, so which has the happiness as its highest principle. Socrates thought that the happiness as its highest principle. Socrates thought that the morally rightmorally right is in the end identical with the is in the end identical with the happy lifehappy life..

Socrates thought that the morally right is identical with the Socrates thought that the morally right is identical with the happiness, and because everybody strives after happiness, if happiness, and because everybody strives after happiness, if someone knows which is really right, then he or she will someone knows which is really right, then he or she will certainly do that.certainly do that.

Crito. The contract theory Crito. The contract theory of politics at Socratesof politics at Socrates

Crito Crito is a dialogue written by Plato, which documented a is a dialogue written by Plato, which documented a conversation between Socrates and his student Crito.conversation between Socrates and his student Crito.

After the condemnation of Socrates, his followers bribed the After the condemnation of Socrates, his followers bribed the guards of the prison, and tried to flee their master, but he guards of the prison, and tried to flee their master, but he refused to flee on principle.refused to flee on principle.

At the time of trial there was the festival of Apollo, during which At the time of trial there was the festival of Apollo, during which no public execution could take place. Socrates execution was no public execution could take place. Socrates execution was postponed for a month, but nevertheless he waited the act of postponed for a month, but nevertheless he waited the act of execution in his open prison cell, with bribed guards.execution in his open prison cell, with bribed guards.

He told to his student, Crito, why did he think necessary to He told to his student, Crito, why did he think necessary to accept the death to which the polis of Athens condemned him. accept the death to which the polis of Athens condemned him. In Socrates’ opinion there was an implicit contract between the In Socrates’ opinion there was an implicit contract between the citizen and the state, according to which the citizen gets citizen and the state, according to which the citizen gets benefits and defence from the polis, and in return for these benefits and defence from the polis, and in return for these advantages he accepts the rules, norms and whatever advantages he accepts the rules, norms and whatever commands and provisions he gets from the state, be these latter commands and provisions he gets from the state, be these latter advantegous or disadvantegous. advantegous or disadvantegous.

In Socrates’ view that would undermine the authority and In Socrates’ view that would undermine the authority and legimicay of every and any political community and state, if its legimicay of every and any political community and state, if its members only accept the benefits of state, but none of its members only accept the benefits of state, but none of its obligations, orders and commissions.obligations, orders and commissions.

PlatoPlato Student of Socrates, (424/423-348/347BC). Student of Socrates, (424/423-348/347BC). Aristocrat of the Athenian polis, who was wealthy enough to do Aristocrat of the Athenian polis, who was wealthy enough to do

not have any difficulty concerning the living. He despised the not have any difficulty concerning the living. He despised the sophists who – in contrast – had to demand money for teaching sophists who – in contrast – had to demand money for teaching and lecturing, because they were poor, and did not have a and lecturing, because they were poor, and did not have a stable source of income beside teaching.stable source of income beside teaching.

He created the Academy, an institution for lecturing and He created the Academy, an institution for lecturing and researching philosophy, mathematics and other sciences.researching philosophy, mathematics and other sciences.

„„No one shall enter, unless he knows geometry” – that was the No one shall enter, unless he knows geometry” – that was the inscription at the entrance of the Platonic Academy.inscription at the entrance of the Platonic Academy.

He had his idea about the perfect state, the perfect polis, He had his idea about the perfect state, the perfect polis, which he wrote down in his long book „The Republic” which he wrote down in his long book „The Republic” („Politeia”). He tried to convince Dionysus, tyrant of Syracuse („Politeia”). He tried to convince Dionysus, tyrant of Syracuse to realize his political ideas, but he wasn’t successfull. He had to realize his political ideas, but he wasn’t successfull. He had a quarrel with Dionysus, who sold Plato as a slave.a quarrel with Dionysus, who sold Plato as a slave.

The followers of Plato had to purchase him back for 300 silver The followers of Plato had to purchase him back for 300 silver talents, (report by Diogenes Laertius, 3rd century AD, „Lives talents, (report by Diogenes Laertius, 3rd century AD, „Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers”).and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers”).

Plato on knowledge and Plato on knowledge and sciencescience

The mother of philosophy is curiosity, and its essence The mother of philosophy is curiosity, and its essence is the research of truth.is the research of truth.

Behind the sensual phenomena of nature and society Behind the sensual phenomena of nature and society there is the unchangeable and eternal world of ideas. there is the unchangeable and eternal world of ideas. The The ideas ideas (idéa, morphé, eidos), the ideal conceptual (idéa, morphé, eidos), the ideal conceptual essences of things, cannot change but serve as basis essences of things, cannot change but serve as basis for every actual and possible change. for every actual and possible change.

The science could move with the method of The science could move with the method of conceptual thinking from mere opinion to the secure conceptual thinking from mere opinion to the secure knowledge.knowledge.

If our present, actual, visible society corresponds If our present, actual, visible society corresponds more adequately to the invisible, more adequately to the invisible, ideal societyideal society of of justice, then we have a securer, safer, happier and justice, then we have a securer, safer, happier and more persistent society.more persistent society.

Plato on justice.Plato on justice.„The Republic”„The Republic”

The concept of „politeia” is equal with the concept of The concept of „politeia” is equal with the concept of constitution and political order. Generally it is constitution and political order. Generally it is translated as „state”. The book begins with a translated as „state”. The book begins with a discussion about the concept of justice, with a debate discussion about the concept of justice, with a debate between Socrates and Thrasymachus, a sophist.between Socrates and Thrasymachus, a sophist.

According to Thrasymachus justice is „obeying to the According to Thrasymachus justice is „obeying to the stronger”. Socrates is unsatisfied with this definition stronger”. Socrates is unsatisfied with this definition and he began systematically analyse the concept of and he began systematically analyse the concept of justice. He is of the opinion that one could justice. He is of the opinion that one could demonstrate the concept of justice on an entirely just demonstrate the concept of justice on an entirely just state. One could describe the idea of justice on the state. One could describe the idea of justice on the basis of the conception of an ideally just state.basis of the conception of an ideally just state.

One must therefore treat the theoretical problem that One must therefore treat the theoretical problem that how would the ideal state, an ideally just state work.how would the ideal state, an ideally just state work.

Plato’s theory of state Plato’s theory of state and ethicsand ethics

According to Plato the structure of state and soul is According to Plato the structure of state and soul is analogous: both of them have two structural elements. analogous: both of them have two structural elements. The three parts of soul: intellect, striving and longing soul-The three parts of soul: intellect, striving and longing soul-parts. The three parts of state: leaders (in ideal case: parts. The three parts of state: leaders (in ideal case: philosophers), guards and workers (handicraftsmen and philosophers), guards and workers (handicraftsmen and agricultural workers).agricultural workers).

The virtue of intellect and leaders is wisdom; the virtue of The virtue of intellect and leaders is wisdom; the virtue of striving soul-part and guards is courage; and the virtue of striving soul-part and guards is courage; and the virtue of longing-soul part and workers is temperance. The longing-soul part and workers is temperance. The harmony of these three virtues is justice.harmony of these three virtues is justice.

The best political form is The best political form is aristocracyaristocracy which is based upon which is based upon the rulership of the most eminent people of a community. the rulership of the most eminent people of a community. The second best when the rulership in a polis is owned by The second best when the rulership in a polis is owned by people striving after fame and glory – the people striving after fame and glory – the timocracytimocracy. The . The following political form when the dominance is owned and following political form when the dominance is owned and practiced by the people – practiced by the people – democracydemocracy. The worst form of . The worst form of dominance is dominance is tyrannytyranny – when one man’s caprice rules the – when one man’s caprice rules the community.community.

AristotleAristotle Student of Plato, (384-322BC).Student of Plato, (384-322BC). Though Plato wrote almost exclusively Though Plato wrote almost exclusively

dialogues, Aristotle wrote in the genre of dialogues, Aristotle wrote in the genre of scientific prose or treatise. scientific prose or treatise.

He founded his own school of science and He founded his own school of science and research, the „Peripatetic (research, the „Peripatetic (««walkingwalking»») ) school”, in the school”, in the LyceumLyceum of Athens, (an open of Athens, (an open public place in Athens). It was closed in public place in Athens). It was closed in 529AD.529AD.

He was the founding father of a number of He was the founding father of a number of sciences, such as grammatics, literary sciences, such as grammatics, literary theory, logics, biological classification, theory, logics, biological classification, rhetorics, political theory, etc.rhetorics, political theory, etc.

Possible political Possible political formations according to formations according to

AristotleAristotle The basis of classification is the concrete historical The basis of classification is the concrete historical

constitutions of Greek constitutions of Greek poleispoleis ( (polispolis plural). plural). The supreme executive power could be possessed by: The supreme executive power could be possessed by:

one man, a few men, a number of people (by a one man, a few men, a number of people (by a multitude).multitude).

The mode of using the power could be legal and just, The mode of using the power could be legal and just, illegal and unjust, and could be determined by illegal and unjust, and could be determined by individual or some collective interests. According to individual or some collective interests. According to this there could be three righteous and legal, and three this there could be three righteous and legal, and three bad and unjust basic types of political formations.bad and unjust basic types of political formations.

The good types of political formations: 1. monarchy The good types of political formations: 1. monarchy (reign of a righteous and law-abiding king), 2. (reign of a righteous and law-abiding king), 2. aristocracy (reign of virtouos and excellent citizens), 3. aristocracy (reign of virtouos and excellent citizens), 3. politeia (reign of a wide, law-abiding community of politeia (reign of a wide, law-abiding community of people).people).

Bad types: Tyranny, oligarchy and democracy.Bad types: Tyranny, oligarchy and democracy.