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10. Hindi

10.0.1. Neutral Hindi pronunciation is presented in detail (whereas regionalvariants are given only for the /EE, OO/ae ao phonemes, which constitute the ma-jor peculiarity 10.2.). Our transliteration diverges from more traditionalone(s) and from English orthography as well, which neglects vowel duration. Itshows longvowels by doubling their graphemes (ii aa uu), as it does for conso-nants (pp nn), even when there is no opposition between short and long (ee oo),for coherence. On the contrary, the historical indication of diphthongization iskept, for the two vocalic phonemes mentioned at the beginning (ae ao), instead

of using a more complicated spelling (even if a little less inaccurate, perhaps, suchas ]We can still find and quite often, even if it is, rightly, losing ground a kind

of transliteration which shows the three short vowels, /i, a, u/ (I, , U), as i a uand the three corresponding long, /ii, aa, uu/ (ii, aa, uu), as i a ubut, at thesame time, it shows /ee, oo/ (ee, oo), just as e o (since there are no correspondingshort phonemes). en transcriptions are not added, in that kind of system, it

would be decidedly better to write e, o. However, we are left with the problem of/EE, OO/, which if transcriptions are still lacking could perhaps coincide more

with the last indications given above, if one chose to write them as , .

10.0.2. Nasalized vowels are marked with the tilde sign (i q ); however, inaccordance with the system of marking long vowels with a macron, awkwardly,the tilde should be put over the macron ( >

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330 a handbook of pronunciation

are, basically, of two kinds: those that indicate /a/ only when it is really pro-nounced, and those that show everya (or very many), as for instance in ('mt-lb)/'matlab/ matlab (or matalaba]. However, the actual phonetic situation may besomething in between, as can be seen in 10.3.1.1 as well.

Vowels

10.1.1. 10.1 shows Hindi vowels, which are ten: three short, (I, , U) /i, a, u/,and seven long. ese are actually diphthongs: five monotimbric, with narrowmovements, but nevertheless perceptible, (ii, ee, aa, oo, uu) /ii, ee, aa, oo, uu/, andtwo more evident ones (even if, generally, they are simply described as long Vthemselves), (, ) /EE, OO/ (because native speakers think they are monoph-thongs, including the variants given, and use them as such when learning foreign

languages).Let us see, for now, some examples of the three short V\ ('dIn) /'din/din ('pR)/'par/par ('kUl) /'kul/ kul the three corresponding diphthongs are: ('diin) /'diin/

diin ('paaR) /'paar/paar ('kuul) /'kuul/ kuul the other four diphthongs are: ('beeR)/'beer/ beer ('bR) /'bEEr/ baer ('booR) /'boor/ boor ('bR) /'bOOr/ baorWe willdeal again with the geographic variants of/EE, OO/ ( 10.2.) again, only here,('bR) /'bEEr/ baer ('bR) /'bOOr/ baor\ ('bR, 'bR) (east: Bihar, West Bengal),('bER, 'bOR) (west: Rajasthan), ('bER, 'bOR) (northwest: Panjab)

10.1. Hindi vowels.

10.1.2. Each Hindi vowel may be (distinctively) nasalized: (t'hI) /t'hi/ thi ('H,&H, H) /'h/hq (b'H) /b'h#/ bh (k'h_9) /k'h/ kh let us consider, forinstance ('Rg) /'rag/ ragvein ('RAg) /'rg/ rgcolor. Currently, words such as('Hs) /'hans/hans tend to be confused with ('HAs) /'hs/hsbut, in neutral pro-nunciation, they must be accurately distinguished, even if() has no full contact

with the alveolar ridge ( 10.2.1.1-2).enae ao are followed by/j, w/, they correspond to (I, U) /ai, au/: ('mIa)

/'maijaa/ maeyaa (tI'jaaR) /tai'jaar/ taeyaar ('HUja) /'hauwaa/haowaae sameshould hold for Sanscrit words withae ao (ai au); but, currently, these become/EE, OO/ ( 10.2.1.2).

Intra-lexemic sequences /eeh0, ooh0/ may be realized as short vowels: ('seeH-Ra,'seH-) /'seehraa/seehraa ('mooH-lt, 'moH-) /'moohlat/ moohlatwhen there is gram-memic derivation, no shortening occurs: ('leeH-j) /'leehja/ leehya ('mooH-na)

/ii/ ('ii, &i, i)

/i/ (I)

/uu/ ('uu, &u, u)

/u/ (U)

/oo/ ('oo, &o, o)

/OO/ (', &, )

/a/ (', &, 0, )/aa/ ('aa, &a, a)

/ee/ ('ee, &e, e)

/EE/ (', &, )

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10. hindi 331

/'moohnaa/ moohnaa Even in English loanwords we find (more or less evident)shortenings: ('pee) /'pee/pee=stomach, but ('pe;, 'pe, 'p) /'pee/pee=pet (ani-mal).e sequence /ah/, in front of a C or in front of short /a/, or at word boundary

(/ah0, aha, ah/), is realized as ('H, H) (which could be marked as /E/): (kH-'naa) /kah'naa/ kahnaa (pH'laa) /pah'laa/pahlaa (l'HR) /la'har/ lahar ('tH) /'tah/

tah In the other cases, /a/ remains (the following section) with the following re-alizations (, , , , x, ): (kx'Haa) /ka'haa/ kahaa (d'Hii) /da'hii/dahii in Sanscritloans we find /a/before /ha/ as well: (R'Hs-j, 'RHs) /ra'hasja/ rahasya (gx'Hn)/ga'han/gahan (m'Ht:j) /ma'hattwa/ mahattwa

10.2. Regional variants () and unstressed neutral taxophones of/a/ ().

10.1.3. In unstressed syllables, inherenta is pronounced only when it is neces-sary to give substance to a phono-syllable.us, it is often not pronounced at all,except in the case of consonant clusters which are not so easy to produce. Conse-quently, at the end of words (or word-internally, mainly after /h/), some un-checked phono-syllables are generally produced with a fading vocoid of the ()type ( 10.1). However, this timbre, although attenuated (in length as well),changes in accordance with the contoids preceding it (even in /0h/ sequences).erefore, as shown in 10.2., after labials ((m, p[h], b[H], , 6)) it has rounded

lips, (); after velars or uvulars ((k[h], g[H], , , r)), it moves back, (x) (besides, af-ter (j), we have ()); after /j/, it moves forwards, () (this phone also occurs in('H0, H0) /ah0/ahC and with /h/, near /ee, EE/, as well as an echo).

It is a good thing to manage to use these five vocoids (in their attenuated, ratherthan full, forms), since the coarticulatory logic is quite evident. However, a rathersatisfying result can be achieved, if we systematically use an attenuated () (whilea full ()would sound too pushy).

Let us see some examples (but it should be noted that, often, in various pub-lished texts, we find () for (), even if stressed): ('kN -h) /'kanh/ ka=h ('p~-C) /'panc/ pan ('kRm) /'karm/ karm (karma), ('bagx) /'baang/ baa;g(('ba) /'baa, 'baang/ is possible as well), ('muuRk-hx) /'muurkh/ muurkh (M'6-

) /an'waj[a]/anway(a) ('gM-j) /a'gamj[a]/agamy(a) ('n-j) /'anj[a]/any(a) (-'g-j) /a'gaNj[a]/agay(a) ('mooH&na) /'moohnaa/ moohnaa ('mHl) /'mahl/mahl ('meeH&tR, &meH'tR) /'meehtar/ meehtar

. Attenuated taxophones of/a/: (),((0)), (j, j), (()): (m, p[h],

b[H], , 6), ((x)): (k[h], g[H], , , r).

. Regional variants ofae ao /'EE, 'OO/: ('E,'O) west(Rajasthan); ('E, 'O) northwest(Panjab); (', ') east(Bihar, West Bengal).

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10.1.4. In unstressed syllables, the phonetic diphthongs are normally realizedas short monophthongs (or, in slow or more accurate pronunciation, as half--lengthened monophthongs): ('HIndi -di;) /'hindii/hindii (I'daaRa -Ra;) /i'daaraa/idaaraa ('jaad -d;) /'jaad/yaad (a'baa a;-) /Saa'baaS/aabaaAccordingto stress strength in sentences, for /EE, OO/, as inhae we have: ('H, &H, H) /hEE/.

Unfortunately, Hindi grammars persist in placing among the vowels the

grapho-syllable which in Sanscrit indicated /(/ () and traditionally is transliterat-ed , but today it only stands for /ri/ (RI) ( a /0/ sequence): ('RI) /S'ri/ri

Consonants

10.2.0. 10.3 shows Hindi consonants, including phono-stylemes for wordscoming from Sanscrit (corresponding to ; ) and Arabic, Persian, Turkish and

English (q f z,), and taxophones as well. 1.9-15, instead, show the orograms (gathered by articulation manners) of allthe contoids given in the chapters of this book even as secondary, occasional, orregional, variants for the 12 languages dealt with. is exposition makes neces-sary comparisons more direct.

10.3. Table of Hindi consonants.

Nasals

10.2.1.1. ere are two fundamental nasal phonemes, /m/ (m), and /n/ (m, n,N, ~, , ,), since theNC sequences are homorganic. Besides, (M) (()} occurs be-fore /w, F/; () (()) before /s/; (n) ((q)) before /j/; and () {()}before /h/ with

a rare //, which would give /h/ (and this would show the advantage of consider-ing sequences ofChbiphonemic, even for stops) or /ngh/ (gH, H). (It is worthobserving that (M, , ,n, ) are nasals with no full contact ( semi-nasals): semi--labial, semi-alveolar, semi-postalveo-palatal, semi-palatal, and semi-provelar, re-spectively, 9.9 ofHPh and () {()} as well, given in 10.2.1.2.)

m|(M) n|() (~|) ()(n) {(,)}{N|()} { }|( )p5b t5d 5 k5g {} {}

C5

s {z}{} 6

{} j|()

/w/(j)

{} (h) HR {r}l ($) ()

bilabial

de

ntal

alv

eolar

po

stal-

v

eolar

po

stalveo-

p

alatal

pa

latal

velar

pr

ovelar

velar

rounded

lar

yngeal

uv

ular

F

_

/c, G/ (C, ), /S/ (), /j/ (j, ), /F/ (), /w/ (6, j), /r/ (R), /#/ ()

(n)

(l)

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On the other hand, it is not necessary to use the specific symbols ((, n)):('mooH) /'mooh/ mooh ('smbl) /'sambal/sambal ('tiim ma'tae) /'tiin maa'taaee/tiin maataaqq (sM'jaad) /sam'waad/ samwaad ('nbH) /'nabh/ nabh ('kNh)/'kanh/ ka=h ('k~) /'kanG/ kan ('6) /'wanS/ wan ('n-j) /'anja/anya('pk) /'pank/pa;k (&I,x'laab) /ina'laab/ inqalaab ('sIH[x]) /'sih[a]/sinh(a)

In some words, we find /m, n/before heterosyllabic C\ (b'Ramda) /ba'raam-daa/ baramdaa (m'Ruud) /am'ruud/amruud ('gUmi) /'gumii/gum=ii ('CmCa)/'camcaa/ amaa ('Umka) /'Gumkaa/humkaa ('meenka) /'meenkaa/ meenkaa(indicated in writing by the segments m n instead of byanuswaar a diacriticsign).

10.2.1.2. Furthermore, in lofty Sanscrit words, also /N, / (N, ) occur, andhave specific graphemes, ;, but generally change into /n/. e more frequentgenuine realization of/N/ is (), a nasalized postalveolar flap, or even a nasalized

postalveolar approximant, (), so it is better to use the symbol of the diaphone,(), which incorporates these values, although it generally becomes /n/. Also (~)has a particular grapheme, n, even if it does not represent a phoneme (as was thecase instead in Sanscrit): ('bam) /'baam/ baam ('ban) /baan/ baan ('ba, 'baN,'ban) /'baaN/ baa (gx'ee, gx'Nee, gx'nee) /ga'NeeS/gaee ('gN-j, 'g-j)/a'gaNja/agaya ('6amI, -m, -m-, -nm, -mm, -mm) /'waamaj/ wa;-may ('ba[gx]) /'baang/ baa;g.

Furthermore, we find the sequences /mh, nh/ (mH, nH), which (together with/lh/ (lH) and, possibly, /h/, 10.2.1.1) have no ocial devanagari graphemes,

but combinations. In fact, they did not occur in Sanscrit, contrary to aspiratedstops and stopstrictives, including /#h/ (H), which comes from /h/ (H): (kUm-'HaaR) /kum'haar/ kumhaar ('kanH) /'kaanh/ kaanh

Stops

10.2.2.1. ere are four diphonic pairs, /p, b t, d , k, g/ (p, b t, d , k,

g), in addition to the voiceless uvular phonostyleme // () (which, currently, be-comes /k/ (k)): (pI'taa) /pi'taa/pitaa ('b) /'ab/ab ('Raat) /'raat/ raat (n'dii) /na-'dii/ nadii ('hiik) /'hiik/ =iik ('pIN) /'pin/pi ('k9n) /'kOOn/ kaon ('gana)/'gaanaa/gaanaa ('k) /'kEE/ kae (') /'EE, 'kEE/ qae

10.2.2.2. e most remarkable peculiarity of stops is that the elements of di-phonic pairs may occur in sequences, with /h/, producing /ph, bh th, dh h, hkh, gh/ (ph, bH th, dH h, H kh, gH) (it is not rare to find that the aspirated

voiced ones are, actually, devoiced, (H, H, H, H), although a fully voiced pro-

nunciation is perfectly acceptable too). Generally, they are considered to be uni-tary phonemes: aspirated opposed to the corresponding non-aspirated. Nodoubt, this opinion derives from traditional writing as well, since particular graph-emes are in use.

We prefer to consider the aspirated sounds as phonemic (and phonetic) se-

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quences constituted by plain stops + /h/, which is realized as (h), after voiceless Cor as the normal (in Hindi) voiced laryngeal approximant, (H), after voiced C (allthe more so because they are realized as heterosyllabic, instead of tautosyllabic; thiscan be seen by the placement of stresses, which is more evident and logical with-in a word or a rhythm group): ('pl) /'pal/pal (p'hl) /p'hal/phal ('baala) /'baalaa/baalaa (b'Haala) /b'haalaa/ bhaalaa ('tl) /'tal/ tal (t'hl) /t'hal/ thal ('daa6a) /'daa-

waa/daawaa (d'Haa6a) /d'haawaa/dhaawaa ('ppa) /'appaa/ =appaa ('hppa)/'happaa/ =happaa ('iil) /'iil/ iil ('Hiil) /'hiil/ hiil ('kaal) /'kaal/ kaal(k'haal) /k'haal/ khaal (gI'Raa) /gi'raa/giraa (gHI'Raa) /ghi'raa/ghiraa

10.2.2.3. It is not unusual for /b, bh/ to be realized as (6, 6H). Besides, attenua-tions are also possible for /k/ (, , ), /kh/ (xh, x), /g/ (, y, ), /gh/ (H). Beforefront vowels (and before /j/), /k[h], g[h]/ are realized as prevelar, but no special sym-

bol (([], [])) is necessary. In final position, the stops may have inaudible reali-

zations: ('naak, 'naak) /'naak/ naak ('b, 'b) /'ab/ab this is contrary to what hap-pens to aspirated sequences, which do not simplify, even if the laryngeal elementmay be less evident, in this final position (for other C too), but it may not be miss-ing, because it is distinctive\ ('siikh, -kh) /'siikh/siikh ('nbH, -bH) /'nabh/ nabh(and: ('booH, -H) /'booGh/ booh ('baaH, -H) /'baa#h/ baah] Only within se-quences like /0h0/, may/h/be dropped ( 10.3.1.5). Also word-final /h/ may beattenuated (and even disappear completely): (b'jaaH, -aaH, -aa) /b'jaah/ byaah

Stopstrictives

10.2.3. We only find the postalveopalatal diphonic pair, /c, G/ (C, ) (with thecorresponding aspirated sequences, /ch, Gh/ (Ch, H), and the possibility of(H), as for the stops): (C'tUR) /ca'tur/ atur ('Raa) /'raaG/ raa ('Caal) /'caal/aal (C'haal) /c'haal/ haal ('aal) /'Gaal/aal ('Haal) /G'haal/haal In variouscontexts, there may be frequent attenuated realizations ( constrictives or approx-imants), even after a pause (or, instead, sharper ones, stops), for /c/ (, T), /ch/

(h, hTh), /G/ (, D), /Gh/ (H, H DH).

Constrictives

10.2.4. In actual fact, we find two voiceless constrictives: /s, S/ (s, ) (sometimes,the latter is realized as velarized postalveolar, (), ()with velarization) and the

voiced /w/ (6, j) (whose rounded semi-velar approximant variant, (j), mainly oc-curs after C after /uu, u/, and sometimes after a pause but, in actual fact, the

two types alternate quite freely): ('sR) /'sEEr/saer ('kooI) /'kooSiS/ kooi (&R6I-'6aaR) /rawi'waar/ rawiwaar ('nii6, 'nii, 'niiM) (with possible nasalization, nearnasalized V]\ /'niiw/ niiw (6'Rt) /w'rat/ wrat ('HUja) /'hauwaa/haowaa (s'jRg)/s'warg/swarg (6'H, |j-) /wa'h/ wah

In Sanscrit loans, we also find // () (which currently becomes /S/ (): ('bI, 'bI)


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/'bi/ bi; on the other hand, /s/becomes (), before //: ('k) /'kas/ ka=(shownin writing as well). In Persian, Arabic, and English loans, we find /F, z/ (, z) too(which currently become /ph, G/ (ph, )): ('iiR, ph-, -'kiiR) /Fa'iir, -'kiir/fa-qiir ('Ut, p'hUt) /'Fut/fut (ba'zaaR, ba'aaR) /baa'zaar/ baazaar

Approximants

10.2.5. In this articulatory manner, there are two fundamental phonemes, /j,h/ (j, H, h); (the semi-palatal) () occurs between V in unstressed syllables: ('jee)/'jee/yee (dH'jan) /dh'jaan/dhyaan ('lIe, 'lie, 'lIe) /'lijee/ liyeeen in unstressedfinal position (with an inherenta] its sound is (-, -); when preceded byi itdrops, often closing /i/ {(I) = (i)}, except in careful pronunciation: (s'm, s'm)/sa'maj/samay (k', -, k'-) /k'aj/ kay ('Caa, 'Caa) /'caaj/ aay (k't-RI,

kt'RI, -I, -i, k-) /k'atrij/ katriyGenerally, the /h/ phoneme is (H)while (h) occurs with voiceless aspiratedconsonants. Near nasalized V /h/becomes nasalized: ('Haathi) /'haathii/haathii('gRH) /'garh/garh (&pH'laa) /pah'laa/pahlaa ('teeRH, te'RH) /'teerah/ teerah(HAs'naa) /hs'naa/hsnaa ('bH) /'bh/ bh (kx'H) /ka'h/ kahere are two further approximants, for Persian and Arabic loans, for which the

ocial uvular constrictives symbols are often used, /X, / (or, even less precisely,the velar ones, /x, /); they are uvular approximants (, ) (but, for the voiced one,more often, the uvular tap, (r), occurs). However, currently they become /k, g/ (k,

g): (d'l, d'kl) /da'Xal/daal ('aana, 'kaana) /'Xaanaa/ aanaa ((k'haana)/k'haanaa/ khaanaa] ('baar, 'baa, 'baag) /'baa/ baa(('baag) /'baag/ baag]

Trills

10.2.6. In this category, we have an alveolar tap, /r/ (R), and a postalveolarflap,/#/ (), which oppose distinctively (and sometimes the former may be stronger, a

true trill (r), or on the contrary weaker: an approximant (); often, the latter isweaker than normal: an approximant (), similar to British English (>), but withno lip rounding at all): (H'R) /ha'ra#/hara (l'kaa) /la#'kaa/ lakaaere is al-so the sequence /#h/ (H, H): (b'Haa, -'Haa) /ba#'haa/ bahaa ((b'aa, -'aa) /ba-'#aa/ baaa]

Laterals

10.2.7. ere is only one lateral phoneme, /l/ (l, $, ); besides, there is the se-quence /lh/ (lH): ('laat) /'laat/ laat (m'laal) /ma'laal/ malaal ('k C'loo) /'kal ca-'loo/ kal aloo ('k j'H 'aao) /'kal ja'h 'aaoo/ kal yah aaoo ('aa$a) /'aalaa/aalaa ('kuula) /'kuulaa/ kuulaa ('kuulHa) /'kuulhaa/ kuulhaa ('deelHi) /'deelhii/Deelhii

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Structures

10.3.0. We will consider here the relationships between segments, syllabic struc-ture, stress, and intonation. Most examples re-transliterated and transcribed are

based on recordings expressly made (taken from Shukla, 2000).A typical Hindi pronunciation shows a particular kind of paraphonic setting

with breathy voice @, or, less positively, with tense voice @.

Taxophonics

10.3.1.1. As for V which oppose as short and long, or rather (very) narrowdiphthongs (generally represented by geminating symbols, 10.1.1), gemina-tion is distinctive for C too: (p'taa) /pa'taa/pataa ('ptta, pt'taa) /'pattaa/pattaa(b'Caa) /ba'Caa/ baaa ('bCCa, bC'Caa) /'baccaa/ baaa (U'see) /u'see/ usee

('Usse, Us'see) /'ussee/ ussee is fact changes the syllabic structure, consequently,often even stress changes (although without phonemic relevance).We have already mentioned and demonstrated in our examples, that in

Hindi sequences of two or three C syllabify moving the last one to the beginningof the next syllable: ('st-j) /'satja/satya ('gd-Ha) /'gadhaa/gadhaa (bH'Rk) /abh-'rak/abhrak ('Uk-l) /'Sukla/ukla (kh'aa) /akh'#aa/akhaa. Obviously, in caseof isolated initial sequences, the syllabicity scale joins the elements in one syllable,although some slight dierence is maintained; however, if they are internal, theydivide into two syllables, including the preceding V\ ('Hiil) /G'hiil/hiil. e

geminates are (00)between V but (0:) + C even for /j, w, h, r, #, l/ (in this lastcontext, especially short stops and stopstrictives are often realized as (0:) + C thusneutralizing the dierence with geminates): ('bU:Ha) /'buhaa/ buhaa (6Id[:]-'aal, -l, -l) /wid'jaalaj/ widyaalay If the number ofC in the sequences ex-ceeds three, the last two move to the beginning of the second syllable: (st'jaaRth-pR&ka) /sat'jaarthprakaaS/ Satyaarthprakaa.

Another interesting phenomenon, that complicates the description and the ac-quisition of this language, concerns the epenthesis of a vowel; therefore, an attenu-

ated vocoid is inserted ( 10.1.3, although here we indicate it simply as an audi-ble oset, ($)), not only in complex consonant clusters, but also in not quick pro-nunciation at the end of words, even after a single consonant: ('gR$) /a'gar/agar('uupR$) /'uupar/ uupar (Cl$'naa) /cal'naa/ alnaa ('phuul$) /'phuul/phuul ('R$-

bt) /'Sarbat/arbat (bd$'maa) /bad'maaS/ badmaa (l$'kaa) /la#'kaa/ lakaa(khI$'kii) /khi#'kii/ khikii (bH'jaas$) /abh'jaas/abhyaas (s'm$) /sa'maj/samay(Rakh$'naa) /rakh'naa/ rakhnaa (Ug$'naa) /ug'naa/ ugnaa ('uugH$na;) /'uughnaa/ghnaa ('p$) /'pa#/pa ('pH$) /'pa#h/pah

10.3.1.2. Hindi phonotactics presents some peculiar consonant clusters, bothat the beginning and end of words. In fact, we may find, for instance: (m'RIg)/m'rig/ mrig (m'lan) /m'laan/ mlaan (n'jaa) /n'jaaj/ nyaay (nRI's) /nri'Sans/nrians (p'jaala) /p'jaalaa/pyaalaa (b'R) /b'raG/ bra (b'laak) /b'laak/ blaak(bH'Rm) /bh'ram/ bhram (tj'Raa) /twa'raa/ twaraa (t'Raas) /t'raas/ traas (d'juut)


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/d'juut/dyuut (dH'jni, -'nii) /dh'wani/dwani (dH'RU6) /dh'ruw/dhruw ('joo-Hi, jo'Hii) /'joo#hii/yoohii (C'jUt) /c'jut/ yut ('jooti) /G'jooti/yooti (k'jaa)/k'jaa/ kyaa (k'jaath) /k'waath/ kwaath (kh'jaab) /kh'waab/ khwaab (g'Ram)/g'raam/graam (g'lani) /g'laani/glaani (gH'Ra, -N, -n) /gh'raaN/ghraa.

More: ('jaal, kh'j-) /X'jaal/ yaal (H'Raas) /h'raas/hraas (m'an) /Sma'Saan/maaan ('Rant) /S'raant/raant ('lth) /S'lath/lath (s'kndH) /s'kandh/skandh(skhx'ln) /skha'lan/skhalan (s'tR) /s'tar/star (s'thl) /s'thal/sthal (s'mIt) /s'mit/

smit (s'nan) /s'naan/snaan (s'jaaH) /s'jaah/syaah (s'jRg) /s'warg/swarg (s'Ra)/s'rasaa/sra=aa (z'jaada) /z'jaadaa/zyaadaa (6jt'haa) /wjat'haa/ wyathaa (6'Rt)/w'rat/ wrat In words of Sanscrit origin, we find /k/ as well (but people current-ly change it into (k)): (k', k'N, k'n) /k'aN/ ka (k'iiR, k'-) /k'iir/ kiir

Furthermore, for initial sequences with /s0[0]/, current pronunciation prefixesan epenthetic vowel, generally(I, I) but (, ) is possible as well (and also (, ),

with the other variants seen, 10.1.3), before non-front vowels: (s'tRii, Is-, Is-)

/s'trii/strii (sp'huuRti, Is-,I

s-, s-,

s-, s-,

s-) /sp'huurti/sphuurti (s'nan, Is-,I

s-, s-,s-, s-, s-) /s'naan/snaan (also with /S/: ('look, I-, I-, -, -, -, -) /S'look/look]

10.3.1.3. As far as word-final position is concerned, we find consonant clusterssuch as: ('gUpt) /'gupt/gupt ('bd) /'Sabd/abd ('lUbdH) /'lubdh/ lubdh ('ps)/'aps/ =aps ('nbz) /'nabz/ nabz ('kUb) /'kubG/ kub ('mUt) /'muFt/ muft ('Uts)/'uts/ uts ('Rkt) /'rakt/ rakt ('dgdH) /'dagdh/dagdh ('ks) /'aks/aks ('mook, -k)/'mook/ mook ('st, -kht) /'saXt/sat ('s, -khs) /'SaXs/as ('b , -kh) /'baXS/ba ('CUst) /'cust/ ust (s'jsth) /s'wasth/ swasth ('k) /'kas/ ka= ('6aap)/'waaSp/ waap

In final position, geminates are possible as well, realized as long: ('gp:) /'gapp/gapp ('Cm:) /'camm/ amm ('CIt:) /'citt/ itt ('Rd:) /'radd/ radd ('n:) /'ann/ann('sR:, -r[:]) /'sarr/sarr (pRp'hUl:) /prap'hull/praphull (b'H:) /b'ha/ bha== (U':)/u'Ga/ ua ('UC:) /'ucc/ u (nI'l:) /ni'laGG/ nila ('dg:) /'dagg/daggsequences which include a laryngeal are also found: ('Ut:h) /'Gutth/utth ('jUd:H)/'juddh/yuddh ('sIk:h) /'sikkh/sikkh (s'jC:h) /s'wacch/swahnal consonant clusters, in morphological derivation, resyllabify in accordance

with the phonic structure of the Hindi language: ('paap) /'paap/paap ('paa-pi)/'paapii/paapii ('Rkt) /'rakt/ rakt ('Rk-tIm) /'raktim/ raktim

10.3.1.4. Short (I, , U) /i, a, u/, in final position, have the peculiarity of fading( 10.1.3), to a point in which they drop as well, as happens to /a/, ( , , , x, `), or strengthen, (i, u), simply as closer realizations of/i, u/, or actually be-coming /ii, uu/. In this case, stress shifts are also possible, according to the weightof the syllables constituting given words: ('R6i, R'6ii) /'rawi/ rawi ('tIthi, tIt'hii)/'tithi/ tithi ('Iu, I'uu) /'SiSu/iu ('6su, 6'suu) /'wasu/ wasu e change V=VVis not considered completely neutral, in spite of being very widespread indeed(with many supporters too).nally, as many examples have already shown, sequences of/'/ + /,, 0/

are realized as ('): ('Hani) /'haani/haani ('kam) /'kaam/ kaam (ak'Rant)/aak'raant/aakraant

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10.3.1.5. Dealing with consonants, we have already seen the assimilatory char-acteristics within words. e same holds in sentences, for words linked by mean-ing, especially if joined in rhythm groups, as in: ('tiim ma'tae) /'tiin maa'taaee/ ti-in maataaqq ('tiim p'piite) /'tiin pa'piitee/ tiin papiitee ('tiiN'aal) /'tiin 'aal/ ti-in aal ('tii kx'ml) /'tiin ka'mal/ tiin kamal ('tii 'gaa) /'tiin 'gaaj/ tiin gaay('tii~ 'Caa) /'tiin 'caaj/ tiin aaj ('tii~ 'aal) /'tiin 'Gaal/ tiinaal ('tiin'Raab) /'ti-

in Sa'raab/ tiin araab ('tiin 'jaaR) /'tiin 'jaar/ tiin yaar ('tiiM 'jR, -R) /'tiin 'war/tiin war ('tii, x'saai, - kx-) /'tiin a'saaii/ tiin qasaaii ('tii 'Haath) /'tiin 'haath/tiin haath

Besides, both within words and sentences, in not slow nor emphatic speech,for diphonic C voicing assimilation is regular, to the second element of a sequence(while a possible /h/ is lost): ('gbR, g'bR) /'akhbar/Akhbar (tz'biiH) /tas'biih/tasbiih ('CUb 'bho, 'CUb b'hoo) /'cup 'bEEhoo/ up bae=hoo ('Chb gx'jaa)/'cap ga'jaa/ hap gayaa ('saad 'bho, 'saad b'hoo) /'saath 'bEEhoo/saath bae-

=hoo ('p 'tk) /'ab 'tak/ab tak ('Haad 'doo) /'haath 'doo/haath doo ('aakpR) /'aag-par/aak par ('eeg 'dIn) /'eek 'din/ eek din ('pki) /'Gabki/ab ki ('baa 'kaa, -k'k-) /'baa 'kaa/ baakaa

Stress

10.3.2.1. In Hindi, stress position is not distinctive; in fact, the same speaker,in dierent occasions, may stress dierent syllables of the same word. Furthermore,

these fluctuations also depend on the placing of words in sentences, on nearbywords, on orthological highlighting and emphasis. Still more important is the factthat stress is distributed among rhythm groups, usually moving back from the end,according to syllabic weights. is holds for isolated words as well, but always

with a certain flexibility. For instance, we normally have ('HIndi) /'hindii/hindiibut (HIn'dii&ke, -&ka) /hin'diikee, -kaa/hindii kee hindii kaa

On the other hand, given its non-distinctiveness, native speakers use stress assomething fluctuating (without fully realizing it), frequently alternating, for rhyth-

mic reasons, within rhythm groups. After all, it is the same thing for segmentalduration and for syllabic pitch, in languages where they are not distinctive: theymay change quite freely, without real problems. In Hindi intonemes (both for thethree marked and the unmarked one, or continuative), the terminal posttonic syl-lable, generally, bears a secondary stress, which complicates the (already unsettled)dierentiation and identification of stress strength on the dierent non-light sylla-

bles (but sometimes on the light ones too).

10.3.2.2. However, some rules may be formulated in order to produce a coher-

ent eect, if rigorously applied (even if they might be considered excessively pre-cise or even mechanical as regards current language).

Regardless of the C that may precede a V we define a light syllable one whichcontains a short V (I, , U) /i, a, u/ not followed by anyC (in the same syllable):(kI, ki) /ki/ ki (sU'mtI, -ti) /su'mati/sumatiwithin a word, the attenuated reali-

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zations of/a/ (, , x, , ) do not count ( 10.1.3), being usually more elusive,(, , x, , ), and are just a mere physical support, necessary to make a word pro-nounceable, but they may drop completely.

Furthermore, we have mid syllables constituted byVC ( a short Vand a C]or byVV\ ('bl) /'bal/ bal (k'jaa) /k'jaa/ kyaa ('HIndi) /'hindii/hindii ('jja) /'Saj-jaa/ayyaa including disyllabic syllables in counting morae, as (b'Haai) /b'haaii/

bhaaii (/aa/ + /ii/ = four morae).Besides, there areheavy syllables formed byVCC or VVC (more rarelyVVCC

as well): ('nt) /'ant/ant ('am) /'aam/aam ('aaRt) /'aart/aart ('6aap) /'waaSp/waap

10.3.2.3. Stress assignment, in isolated words, is done on the basis of the identi-fication of the heaviest syllable, as in: (U'paadHi) /u'paadhi/ upaadhi (U'pant)/u'paant/ upaant (&ad-jo'pant) /aadjoo'paant/aadyoopaant (kx'lii) /ka'lii/ kalii

(kx'man) /ka'maan/ kamaan ('kamna) /'kaamnaa/ kaamnaa (ko'aaRk, ko-'NaaRk, ko'naaRk) /koo'Naark/ kooaark ('andani) /'Xaandaanii/ aandaanii('jamIti) /G'jaamiti/yaamiti (&tabe'daaR) /taabee'daar/ taabeedaar (&tIgU'naa)/tigu'naa/ tigunaa (p&RIthji'Raa-Ra&so) /prithwii'raaGraasoo/prithwiiraaraasoo.

More: (bn'duugba&zi) /ban'duukbaazii/ banduukbaazii (mR'dagi) /mar-'daangii/ mardaangii ('mandHa&ta) /'maandhaataa/ maandhaataa (&st-jpR'kaa)/satjapra'kaaS/ Satyaprakaa (st'jaaRth-pR&ka) /sat'jaarthprakaaS/ Satyaarthprakaa(&sago'pag) /saangoo'paang/saangoopaang (sa'man) /saa'maan/saamaan ('Ha-ni) /'haani/haani

If a word has more than one non-light syllables of the same weight, there are twopossibilities: the stress preferably hits either the last syllable but one or the last buttwo (or even the very last, especially if constituted byVV as happens more often

within a sentence, with particles and postpositions): ('kUnt&la, &kUnt'laa) /Sa-'kuntalaa/akuntalaa (gx'eeRI&a, gx&e;RI'jaa) /ga'#eerijaa/gaeeriyaa (b'HaadU&Ri,

b&HadU'Rii) /ba'haadurii/ bahaadurii (&mHab'HaaRt) /mahaab'haarat/ mahaa-bhaarat (jUd'HIhIR, &jUdHI'hIR, --, -'-) /jud'hiir/ Yudhi=hir (s'HuulI&t, s&Hu-lI'jt) /sa'huulijat/sahuuliyat.

More examples: (a'iiR-jad, &aiR'jaad) /aa'Siirwaad/aaiirwaad ('xl&mnd, &-xl'mnd) /'almand/aqlmand (&ana'kani, a&naka'nii) /aanaa'kaanii/aanaakaanii

(dH'jni, -'nii) /dh'wani/ dhwani (pR'jRti, &pRjR'tii) /par'wartii/ parwartii('bRtn, bR'tn) /'bartan/ bartan ('bs-ta, bs'taa) /'bastaa/ bastaa (b'Haala, bHa-'laa) /b'haalaa/ bhaalaa (s'mIti) /sa'miti/samiti (sa'lana, &sala'naa) /saa'laanaa/

saalaanaa (s~'Caaln, &s~Ca'ln) /san'caalan/sanaalan (&HeRap'heeRi, He&Raphe-'Rii) /heeraap'heerii/heeraapheerii

10.3.2.4. e same stress pattern occurs in inflected and derived words as well:

(&bd-HI'k) /badhi'k/ badhik (&lg-HU'tR) /laghu'tar/ laghutar (&UCI'tm) /Su-ci'tam/uitam (ms'leega, &msle'gaa) /mas'leegaa/ masleegaa ('laap&ta;, &lap'taa)/'laapataa/ laapataa (&gxlI'jaaRa, gx&lIa'Raa) /gali'jaaraa/galiyaaraa (pa'glpn, &pa;-gl'pn) /paa'galpan/ paagalpan (sUn'dRta, &sUndR'taa) /sun'dartaa/sundartaa(bH'naapa, &bHna'paa, b&Hna'paa) /bah'naapaa/ bahnaapaa

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Among Hindi monosyllables, lexemes bear a stress, even in sentences, whilegrammemes ( postpositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries, enclitics) are unstressedor half-stressed: ('b) /'ab/ab ('km) /'kam/ kam ('kam) /'kaam/ kaam ('R) /'OOr/

aor ('dee) /'deeS/deebut (ka) /kaa/ kaa (H, H) /h/hq

10.3.2.5. Lexemic compounds, normally, have the following stress pattern (' )

/' / (since the second stress, which is generally more attenuated, may sometimesreach a degree of prominence which is relatively slightly more perceptible than asecondary stress): (R'sooigHr) /Ra'sooiighar/ rasooiighar ('deenIka[a]la) /'deeSni-kaalaa/deenikaalaa ('6Ijko[o]) /'wiSwakooS/ wiwakoo ('duuRdRi[i]) /'duur-darSii/duurdarii ('dI-la[a]) /'dilGalaa/dilalaa ('nImnlIkhIt) /'nimnlikhit/nimnlikhit ('CndRka[]nta) /'candrakaantaa/ andrakaantaa ('CndRka[]nta-sntti) /'candrakaantaasantati/ andrakaantaasantati.

More: (m'HaasbHa[a]) /ma'haasabhaa/ mahaasabhaa ('HIndumHa[a]sb-

Ha[a]) /'HIndumahaasabhaa/ mahaasabhaa ('tuu 'kRmHi[i]M j'jkti&H) /'tuu'karmhiin w'jaktihEE/ tuu karm-hiin wyakti hae ('tuu 'kRmHi[i]&H) /'tuu 'karm-hiinhEE/ tuu karm-hiin hae ('amja[]m) /'aamwaam/ aam-waam ('kan-ka[]n) /'kaankaan/ kaan-kaan ('kmka[a]) /'kaamkaaG/ kaam-kaa ('-sa6[]sa) /'EEsaawEEsaa/aesaa-waesaa

Complete reduplications always keep both stresses: ('laal 'laal) /'laal'laal/ laal--laal (d'HiiRe d'HiiRe) /d'hiireed'hiiree/dhiiree-dhiiree

10.3.2.6. ere is a dierence between compounds and collocations (which

have independent sentence ictuses): ('laalpg&i;) /'laalpag#ii/ laal-pagii police-man ( red-turban) and ('laal 'pg-i, 'laal pg'ii) /'laal 'pag#ii/ laal pagii redturban, ('kaala&pani) /'kaalaapaanii/ kaalaa-paanii penal colony ( black-wa-ter) and ('kaala 'pani) /'kaalaa 'paanii/ kaalaa paanii black water, ('miiha&te;l)/'miihaateel/ mii=ha-teelsesame-oil ( sweet-oil) and ('miiha 'teel) /'miihaa'teel/ mii=ha teelsweet oil, ('niil&ga;) /'niilgaaj/ niil-gaay (a species of) large an-telope (blue-cow) and ('niil 'gaa) /'niil 'gaaj/ niil gaay blue cow.

For contrast, there is emphasis on the marked element (and attenuation on the

second occurrence of the unmarked element): ('HIndu"mndIR22 'jaa &HIndugHR33)/'hinduu"mandir 'jaa 'hinduug"har./hinduu-mandir, yaa hinduu-ghar? ('tmp-Reem2 2 'jaa &a;tmgjan3 3) /'atmp"reem 'jaa 'atmg"jaan./atm-preem, yaa atm-gyaan

Intonation

10.3.4. 10.4 shows the preintonemes and intonemes of the neutral Hindi lan-guage. We will merely give some illustrative examples, to use for comparisons. Let

us observe that the posttonic syllables of the interrogative ((2 1)) and suspensive((2 2)) intonemes, which are in the higher parts of the mid and high bands (as will

be clear from 10.4), are generally accompanied by falsetto (for all kind of voic-es), which is marked with () after the intonemes, in phonotonetic transcriptions.In addition, paraphonically, there is a peculiar type ofIndian voice, with murur


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voice @ or, in the broadest accents (), with tense voice @:/./: (&mHIndi boltaaHu3 3) /m'hindii bool'taahuu./Mqhindii booltaa h./?/: (k'jaa6h pUs'tkpH R'Hii&H21) /k'jaawah pus'takpa#h ra'hiihEE?/ Kyaa

wah pustak pah rahii hae?//: (b'm l'dii l'dii bol'taa&Hu2 2 ap'meeRi 'baat n'Hii &smCtee33)

/Gab'm Gal'dii Gal'dii bool'taahuu aap'meerii 'baat na'hii samaGh'tee./ abmqaldii-aldii booltaa h, aap meerii baat nahiisamahtee.

10.4. Hindi preintonemes and intonemes.

Text

10.4.0. e storye North Wind and the Sun follows. According to the Pho-

netic method we start with the versions in Hindi pronunciation of (neutral Brit-ish) English (the written text is given in 2.5.2.0).e Hindi translation follows,in its neutral version.

At the end, as always, there is the version which gives the English pronuncia-tion of Hindi, by neutral British speakers, fluent in Hindi (after prolonged con-tact with native speakers, but with no help from the phonetic method), who haveadequately learned the relative prominences, but who substantially use segmentaland suprasegmental elements which are typical of neutral British English (for refer-

ence purposes, although, of course, a neutral accent is not so common). Obviously,the same principle is valid for the foreign pronunciations of English, given first.Speakers of American English could prepare their own version both of the Hin-

di pronunciation of English and of their pronunciation of Hindi, as an excellentexercise, by listening to native speakers, best of all after recording them. Of course,speakers ofother languages could do the same thing. e author would be happyto receive their transcriptions and recordings, both in case of help should theyneed it and to make their contribution known to others (possibly in our websiteon canIPA Natural Phonetics 0.12).

// (2 2 2)

/./ (2 3 3)/ / (2 2 2 2 2 2 2)

/?/ (2 ' 2 1)

/,/ (2 ' 2)

/ / ( 2 2 2 2 2 2 2)

/ / ( 2 2 2 2 2 2 2)

/ / ( 2 2 2 2 2 2 2)

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Hindi pronunciation (of English)

10.4.1. (dint '6IN2 nd'sn2 6IspuI 6IC6sdsRg3 3| 6n e'R6-&l2 kem 'l2 Rp Ine6m klok3 3| deg'Ri2\ ddi6n Hu sk'siI2 Im-mekI dI'R6&l2 ek hIsklok '2 2| &SU6iknsI IsRg&dndid33||

'dn2 dint '6IN2 6lu2 s'Ha2 sikU3 3| &6dimHi6'lu22| dimk 'los&li2 &I-dI'R6&l2\ ol HIsklok RUN&Im33| &N'las2\ dint '6IN2 ge6 p di-

m33|| 'dn2 disn n U33 6mli33| &NI'mi&li2\ dIR6lUk 3 3hIsklok3 3|| n'so2 dint '6IN2 6s6lI ukM's2| &ddisn3 3 6sdIRg3 3&6diu33||

&Iu'lIk21 d'o&Ri2| u6NuHiRI 'gen21|||)

Hindi text

10.4.2. Uttarii hawaa aor suurais baat parhagarahee thee ki ham doonmqqzyaadaa balwaan kaon hae. Itnee mqqgaram oogaa pahnee eek musaafir udhar

aa niklaa. Hawaa aor suuradoon is baat par razii hoo gayee ki doon mqqseeoo pahlee musaafir kaa oogaa utarwaa deegaa wahii zyaadaa balwaan samhaaaayeegaa.

Is par uttarii hawaa apnaa puuraa zoor lagaakar alnee lagii. Leekin wahaeseeaesee apnaa zoor bahaatii gayii waesee waesee musaafir apnee badan par oogee kooaor bhii zyaadaa kas kar lapee=taa gayaa. Ant mqqhawaa nee apnii kooi band kardii. Phir suurateezii kee saath niklaa aor musaafir nee turant apnaa oogaa utaardiyaa. Is liyee hawaa koo maannaa paaa ki un doon mqqsuurahii zyaadaa bal-waan hae.

Kyaa tumhqqyah kahaanii ahii lagii? Kyaa phir see sunaa?

10.4.3. (&UttRii H'6aa2 R suuR2 2| Is'baat2 &pRH'gR&Hethee22| ki'Hm'don&me2| zjaada bl'6an2| k9nH33|| It'nee&me2| gxRm Coogaa &pHnee2 2|'eek2 mUsaa&IR22| Ud'HR2\ aa nIklaa3 3|| H6aa22| R 'suu&R2| don22 Is'baat2

&pRRazii Hogxjee22|| kido&n mee&se22 &opHlee mU'saa&IR2| &kaCogaa3 3| UtR-6a degaa22|| 6'Hii2| zjaada bl'6an2 sm'Haa aegaa33||

Is&pR22| &UttRii H'6aa2 pnaa puuRa 'zooR2 lgaakR Clnee lgii3 3|| 'lee&kIn2|

'6H2 se '&se2 &pnazooR22\ bHaati gxjii22| 6se '6&se2\ mU'saa&IR2|pnee bdm 'pR2| Cooge 'koo2| R bHii zjaada 'ks&kR2| lpeeta gxjaa33||nt 'mee2| H6ane pni koo&I2 2| bnd kRdii33|| p'hIR2| 'suu&R2 tezii kesaathnIklaa3 3|| R mUsaaIR 'nee2| tURnt pna Cogaa3 3 UtaaR dIjaa33| IslI&e2 2| H-6aa komanna p'aa2| &kiUndon mee2 2| suuR 'Hii2 zjaada bl6anH33||

kjaa tUm'Hee2| jh kx'Ha&ni2 C:hii l'gii21| kjaa phIRsee sU'naa&u21|||)

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English pronunciation of Hindi

10.4.4. (&T5>I;i h'wA:2 5a 's>G32| s'bA;T2 &pA;G5gA: &>h'Th;I32| khIi5hm'Dn&mIn2| zi5A;D b'wA:n2| 'khan&ha33|| T'nImIn2| g5>m c'gA: &ph-'n;I32| 5Ik m'sA;f32| 'DA:2\ 5A: nk'lA:3 3|| h'wA:32| 5a 's>G2| 'Dnn32 s'bA;T2 &p-

>5zI;i &hg'j;I32|| khIi5Dnn 'mIn&sI32 &Gp5l;I m'sA;f2| &khc'gA:33| -5ThA;w DI'gA:32|| w'hI;i2| zi5A;D b'wA:n2 sm5GA: Ga'gA:33||'spA;32| &T5>I;i h'wA:2 p5nA: 'ph> 'z:2 l5gA;k c'n;I l'gI;i33|| 'lIkn2|

'wA:2 5GasI 'GasI2 &pn'z:32\ bA;5hA;Ti g'jI;i32| 5wasI 'wasI2\ m'sA;f2| p-5n;I b'Dm 'phA:2| 5chg 'kh;2| 5a 'bI;i zi'A;D 'khskA;2| l5phIT g'jA:33||5nT 'm;In2| h5wA;nI 'pni 'khSS32| 5b kA;'DI;i3 3|| 'ph;2| 's>G2 TI5zI;i kI'sA;Tnk'lA:33|| 5a m'sA;f 'n;I2| 5Th>nT 'pnA; c'gA:33 5ThA: di'A:33| s'lIiI32| h-

5wA: k'mA;n p'>A:2| &khIin5Dnn 'm;In32| 5s>G 'hI;i2 zi5A;D b'wA:n&hI3 3||5khjA: Tm'h;In2| 5jA: k'hA;ni2 5chI;i l'gI;i2 1| 5khjA: &ph's;I s'na;n21|||)

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